1.
Royal Dutch Shell
–
Royal Dutch Shell plc, commonly known as Shell, is an Anglo-Dutch multinational oil and gas company headquartered in the Netherlands and incorporated in the United Kingdom. It is one of the six oil and gas supermajors and the fifth-largest company in the world measured by 2015/16 revenues. Shell was first in the 2013 Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds largest companies and it also has renewable energy activities in the form of biofuels and wind. Shell has operations in over 70 countries, produces around 3.7 million barrels of oil equivalent per day and has 44,000 service stations worldwide, as of 31 December 2014 Shell had total proved reserves of 13.7 billion barrels of oil equivalent. Shell Oil Company, its subsidiary in the United States, is one of its largest businesses. Shell holds 50% of Raízen, a joint venture with Cosan, which is the third-largest Brazil-based energy company by revenues, Shell was formed in 1907 through the amalgamation of the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company of the Netherlands and the Shell Transport and Trading Company of the United Kingdom. Shell first entered the industry in 1929. In 1970 Shell acquired the mining company Billiton, which it sold in 1994. In recent decades gas exploration and production has become an important part of Shells business. Shell acquired BG Group in 2016, making it the worlds largest producer of liquefied natural gas, Shell has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has secondary listings on Euronext Amsterdam and the New York Stock Exchange, as of January 2013, Shells largest shareholder was Capital Research Global Investors with 9. 85% ahead of BlackRock in second with 6. 89%. Shells logo, known as the pecten, is one of the most familiar commercial symbols in the world and it was a move largely driven by the need to compete globally with Standard Oil. The Shell Transport and Trading Company was a British company, founded in 1897 by Marcus Samuel, 1st Viscount Bearsted, and his brother Samuel Samuel. Their father had owned a company in Houndsditch, London. For various reasons, the new firm operated as a company, whereby the merging companies maintained their legal existence. The terms of the merger gave 60 percent ownership of the new group to the Dutch arm and 40 percent to the British, national patriotic sensibilities would not permit a full-scale merger or takeover of either of the two companies. The Dutch company, Koninklijke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschappij at The Hague, was in charge of production, the British Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company was based in London, to direct the transport and storage of the products. During the First World War, Shell was the supplier of fuel to the British Expeditionary Force
Royal Dutch Shell
–
Headquarters in
The Hague,
Netherlands
Royal Dutch Shell
–
Royal Dutch Shell plc
Royal Dutch Shell
–
Royal Dutch Petroleum dock in the
Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia)
Royal Dutch Shell
–
Shell benzine for Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, Antarctic Expedition 1915.
2.
Hiroshima
–
Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
Hiroshima
–
From top left: Hiroshima Castle, Baseball game of Hiroshima Toyo Carp in Hiroshima Municipal Baseball Stadium, Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome), Night view of Ebisu-cho, Shukkei-en (Asano Park)
Hiroshima
–
Hiroshima Castle
Hiroshima
–
Hiroshima Commercial Museum 1915
Hiroshima
–
Hiroshima after the bombing
3.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
–
The
Golden Hall and
five-storey pagoda of
Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world,
National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
–
Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the
Mongol invasions of Japan. The
Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
–
Samurai could
kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.
Edo period, 1798
4.
Petroleum
–
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
Petroleum
–
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near
Lubbock, Texas
Petroleum
–
An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
Petroleum
–
Natural petroleum spring in
Korňa, Slovakia
Petroleum
–
Oil derrick in
Okemah, Oklahoma, 1922
5.
Fuel
–
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
Fuel
–
Wood was one of the first fuels to be used by humans and is still the primary energy source in much of the world. [
citation needed]
Fuel
–
Coal is an important solid fuel.
Fuel
–
A
gasoline station.
Fuel
–
A 20-pound (9.1 kg) propane cylinder.
6.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
Internal combustion engine
–
Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines.: C –
crankshaft. E – exhaust
camshaft. I – inlet
camshaft. P –
piston. R –
connecting rod. S –
spark plug. V –
valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake. W –
cooling water jacket. gray structure –
engine block.
Internal combustion engine
–
Reciprocating engine as found inside a car
Internal combustion engine
–
Big Diesel generator used for backup power
Internal combustion engine
–
Combined cycle power plant
7.
Organic compound
–
An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially
Organic compound
–
Methane is one of the simplest organic compounds
8.
Fractional distillation
–
Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, heat source, such as a hot plate with a bath, and ideally with a magnetic stirrer. g. As an example consider the distillation of a mixture of water, ethanol boils at 78.4 °C while water boils at 100 °C. So, by heating the mixture, the most volatile component will concentrate to a degree in the vapor leaving the liquid. Some mixtures form azeotropes, where the mixture boils at a lower temperature than either component, in this example, a mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water boils at 78.2 °C, the mixture is more volatile than pure ethanol. For this reason, ethanol cannot be purified by direct fractional distillation of ethanol-water mixtures. The apparatus is assembled as in the diagram, the mixture is put into the round bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules, and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. The fractional distillation column is set up with the source at the bottom on the still pot. As the distance from the stillpot increases, a gradient is formed in the column, it is coolest at the top. As the mixed vapor ascends the temperature gradient, some of the vapor condenses and revaporizes along the temperature gradient, each time the vapor condenses and vaporizes, the composition of the more volatile component in the vapor increases. This distills the vapor along the length of the column, the vapor condenses on the glass platforms, known as trays, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, refluxing distillate. The hottest tray is at the bottom and the coolest is at the top, at steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, the process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This point can be recognized by the rise in temperature shown on the thermometer. The above explanation reflects the theoretical way fractionation works, normal laboratory fractionation columns will be simple glass tubes filled with a packing, often small glass helices of 4 to 7 mm diameter. Such a column can be calibrated by the distillation of a known mixture system to quantify the column in terms of number of theoretical trays, in laboratory distillation, several types of condensers are commonly found. The Liebig condenser is simply a tube within a water jacket
Fractional distillation
–
Typical industrial fractional distillation columns
Fractional distillation
–
Fractional distillation An
Erlenmeyer flask is used as a receiving flask. Here the distillation head and
fractionating column are combined in one piece.
9.
Oil refinery
–
Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, the crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products, an oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the tanks and are therefore hazardous. Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation, Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes, alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing, smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, the final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products uses a process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Oil refineries are large plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable, petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories, light distillates, middle distillates, heavy distillates and residuum. This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions as in the above drawing and these are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in a plant. Using the Claus process, hydrogen sulfide is afterwards transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry, the rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. Desalter unit washes out salt from the oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit
Oil refinery
–
Anacortes Refinery (
Tesoro), on the north end of March Point southeast of
Anacortes, Washington
Oil refinery
–
The oil refinery in
Haifa, Israel is capable of processing about 9 million tons (66 million barrels) of
crude oil a year. Its two
cooling towers are landmarks of the city's skyline.
Oil refinery
–
Fire-extinguishing operations after the Texas City refinery explosion.
Oil refinery
–
Refinery of
Slovnaft in
Bratislava.
10.
Octane rating
–
An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating. In broad terms, fuels with an octane rating are used in high performance gasoline engines that require higher compression ratios. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking. In a normal engine, the air-fuel mixture is triggered to burn rapidly by the spark plug. If it is compressed too much, it will self-ignite before the ignition system sparks and this causes much higher pressures than engine components are designed for, and can cause a knocking or pinging sound. Knocking can cause engine damage if severe. The most typically used engine management systems found in automobiles today have a sensor that monitors if knock is being produced by the fuel being used. In modern computer-controlled engines, the timing will be automatically altered by the engine management system to reduce the knock to an acceptable level. Octanes are a family of hydrocarbon that are components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C, one member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition. For example, gasoline with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane, a rating of 90 does not mean that the gasoline contains just iso-octane and heptane in these proportions but that it has the same detonation resistance properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than pure iso-octane, the definition has been extended to allow for octane numbers greater than 100, Octane ratings are not indicators of the energy content of fuels. They are only a measure of the tendency to burn in a controlled manner, rather than exploding in an uncontrolled manner. Where the octane number is raised by blending in ethanol, energy content per volume is reduced, Ethanol BTUs can be compared with gasoline BTUs in heat of combustion tables. It is possible for a fuel to have a Research Octane Number more than 100, Racing fuels, avgas, LPG and alcohol fuels such as methanol may have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher. Typical octane booster gasoline additives include MTBE, ETBE, isooctane and toluene, lead in the form of tetraethyllead was once a common additive, but its use for fuels for road vehicles has been progressively phased-out worldwide, beginning in the 1970s
Octane rating
–
A US gas station pump offering five different (R+M)/2 octane ratings
Octane rating
–
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (iso-octane) (upper) has an octane rating of 100 whereas
n-heptane has an octane rating of 0.
11.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
Ethanol
–
USP grade ethanol for laboratory use.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol pump station in
São Paulo, Brazil
Ethanol
–
A
Ford Taurus fueled by ethanol in
New York City
Ethanol
–
USPS truck running on
E85 in
Minnesota
12.
Alternative fuel
–
The main purpose of fuel is to store energy, which should be in a stable form and can be easily transported to the place of use. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels, the user employs this fuel to generate heat or perform mechanical work, such as powering an engine. It may also be used to generate electricity, which is used for heating, lighting. Biofuels are also considered a renewable source, although renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or a percentage is used to create alternative fuels. Biomass in the production industry is living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Algae-based biofuels have been promoted in the media as a panacea to crude oil-based transportation problems. Algae could yield more than 2000 gallons of fuel per acre per year of production, once these fats or oils are filtered from their hydrocarbons and then combined with alcohol like methanol, biodiesel is brought to life from this chemical reaction. These raw materials can either be mixed with diesel to make various proportions. Despite one’s mixture preference, biodiesel will release smaller number of pollutants than conventional diesel, even with regular diesel’s reduced quantity of sulfur from the ULSD invention, biodiesel exceeds those levels because it is sulfur-free. Methanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy, they are convenient fuels for storing and transporting energy and these alcohols can be used in internal combustion engines as alternative fuels. Ammonia can be used as fuel, benefits of ammonia include no need for oil, zero emissions, low cost, and distributed production reducing transport and related pollution. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in greenhouse gases. Germany has built a 250-kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts, audi has constructed a carbon neutral liquefied natural gas plant in Werlte, Germany. Other commercial developments are taking place in Columbia, South Carolina, Camarillo, California, the least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion, where it can be extracted for about US $7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also proposed to be economical. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton, carbon capture from ambient air is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration. Therefore, the price of wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative
Alternative fuel
–
Typical
Brazilian filling station with four alternative fuels for sale:
biodiesel (B3),
gasohol (E25), neat
ethanol (
E100), and
compressed natural gas (CNG).
Piracicaba,
São Paulo, Brazil.
Alternative fuel
–
Alternative fuel dispensers at a regular gasoline station in
Arlington, Virginia.
B20 biodiesel at the left and
E85 ethanol at the right.
Alternative fuel
–
Appropriate technology
13.
Smog
–
Smog is a type of air pollutant. The word smog was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog, its opacity. The word was then intended to refer to what was known as pea soup fog. This kind of air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, ozone. Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires, in certain other cities, such as Delhi, smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Mexico City, Tehran and it is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, shortened life or death. Coinage of the smog is generally attributed to Dr. Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, Fog. The following day the newspaper stated that Dr. Des Voeux did a service in coining a new word for the London fog. However, this is predated by a Los Angeles Times article of January 19,1893, coal fires, used to heat individual buildings or in a power-producing plant, can emit significant clouds of smoke that contributes to smog. Air pollution from this source has reported in England since the Middle Ages. London, in particular, was notorious up through the century for its coal-caused smogs. Traffic emissions – such as trucks, buses, and automobiles – also contribute. Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are an ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile compounds, sulfur dioxide. These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapors, ground level ozone, Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone. A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants react in the atmosphere, all of these harsh chemicals are usually highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog is therefore considered to be a problem of modern industrialization and it is present in all modern cities, but it is more common in cities with sunny, warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles. Because it travels with the wind, it can affect sparsely populated areas as well, the composition and chemical reactions involved in photochemical smog were not understood until the 1950s
Smog
–
Smog in
New York City as viewed from the
World Trade Center in 1978
Smog
–
Characteristic coloration for smog in
California in the beige cloud bank behind the
Golden Gate Bridge. The brown coloration is due to the NO x in the photochemical smog.
Smog
–
Highland Park
Optimist Club wearing smog-gas masks at banquet,
Los Angeles, circa 1954
Smog
–
During the autumn and winter months, some 500 million tons of
crop residue are burnt, and
winds blow from India's north and northwest towards east. This aerial view shows India's annual crop burning, resulting in smoke and air pollution over Delhi and adjoining areas.
14.
Climate change
–
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself
Climate change
–
Atmospheric sciences
Climate change
–
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 1925 to 2010
Climate change
–
A schematic of modern
thermohaline circulation. Tens of millions of years ago, continental-plate movement formed a land-free gap around Antarctica, allowing the formation of the
ACC, which keeps warm waters away from Antarctica.
Climate change
–
In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by
MSU NASA satellites, effects appear from
aerosols released by major volcanic eruptions (
El Chichón and
Pinatubo).
El Niño is a separate event, from ocean variability.
15.
Benzene
–
Benzene is an important organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms joined in a ring with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each, because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is a constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because of the cyclic continuous pi bond between the atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the second -annulene. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and it is used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced. Because benzene has a high number, it is an important component of gasoline. Because benzene is a carcinogen, most non-industrial applications have been limited. The word benzene derives historically from gum benzoin, a resin known to European pharmacists. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, and named flowers of benzoin, the hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired the name benzin, benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, in 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic acid and lime. He gave the compound the name benzin, in 1845, Charles Mansfield, working under August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from coal tar. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, gradually, the sense developed among chemists that a number of substances were chemically related to benzene, comprising a diverse chemical family. In 1855, Hofmann used the word aromatic to designate this family relationship, in 1997, benzene was detected in deep space. The empirical formula for benzene was known, but its highly polyunsaturated structure. In 1865, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé published a paper in French suggesting that the structure contained a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds, the next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject. Kekulés symmetrical ring could explain these facts, as well as benzenes 1,1 carbon-hydrogen ratio. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory and he said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail. This vision, he said, came to him years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds
Benzene
–
A bottle of benzene. The warnings show benzene is a toxic and flammable liquid.
Benzene
–
Geometry of molecule
16.
Carcinogen
–
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
Carcinogen
–
The
international pictogram for chemicals that are sensitising,
mutagenic, carcinogenic or
toxic to reproduction.
17.
Otto engine
–
The Otto engine was a large stationary single-cylinder internal combustion four-stroke engine designed by Nikolaus Otto. It was a machine, and only fired every other stroke due to the Otto cycle. Three types of combustion engines were designed by German inventors Nikolaus Otto. The models were a failed 1862 compression engine, an 1864 atmospheric engine, the engines were initially used for stationary installations, as Otto had no interest in transportation. Other makers such as Daimler perfected the Otto engine for transportation use, Nikolaus August Otto as a young man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860 Lenoir succeeded in creating a double-acting engine which ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 liter Lenoir engine was able to produce only 2 horsepower, in testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge. In 1862 Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and he tried to create an engine which would compress the fuel mixture prior to ignition, but failed, as that engine would run no more than a few minutes prior to its destruction. Many engineers were trying to solve the problem with no success. In 1864 Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company NA Otto, Otto and Cie succeeded in creating a successful atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design. Daimler was a gunsmith who had worked on the Lenoir engine previously. By 1876 Otto and Langen succeeded in creating the first internal combustion engine that compressed the fuel prior to combustion for far higher efficiency than any engine created to this time. The original Otto atmospheric engine running on Youtube The first version of the engine used a fluted column design which was the design of Eugen Langen. The atmospheric engine has its power stroke delivered upward using a rack, the expansion ratio of this engine was much more effective than that of the 1860 Lenoir engine and gave the engine its superior efficiency. The Lenoir engine was an engine that burned fuel without first trying to compress the fuel/mixture, the Otto/Langen atmospheric engine ran at 12% efficiency and produced.5 hp at 80 RPM. The first version used a frame to stabilize the rack and this was soon dispensed with as the design was simplified. Later engines dispensed with the cylinder as well
Otto engine
–
The 1860 Lenoir Engine
Otto engine
Otto engine
–
The Otto/Langen Atmospheric Engine of 1867.
Otto engine
–
A 1880s era American Otto Engine for Stationary Use
18.
Coal gas
–
Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. Town gas is a general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems, originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization. Facilities where the gas was produced were known as a manufactured gas plant or a gasworks. The production process is distinct, both physically and chemically, from used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, hygas, Dowson gas. Manufactured gas can be made by two processes, carbonization or gasification, carbonization refers to the devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char. Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas, the first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal. The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel, Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters, and blast furnaces, while gas works typically served urban areas. A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas, in the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot-forming hydrocarbons dissolved in it and these hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock and these coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into the coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes. Coal or coke oven gas typically had a value between 10 and 20 MJ/m³, with values around 20 MJ/m³ being typical. The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once produced gas almost exclusively for lighting shifted their efforts towards supplying gas primarily for heating and cooking, fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed in a gas producer, the reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide, this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO. Producer gas has a very low value of 3.7 to 5. The incandescent fuel bed would be blasted with air followed by steam
Coal gas
–
Seattle 's
Gas Works Park preserves most of the equipment for making coal gas, the only such plant surviving in the United States.
Coal gas
–
An illustration of typical
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Source: NASA
Coal gas
–
Mantles in their unused flat-packed form
Coal gas
–
Coke oven at
smokeless fuel plant, South
Wales
19.
John Cassell
–
He was also a well-known tea and coffee merchant and a general business entrepreneur. The family enjoyed a standard of living for the first 10 years until his father was disabled by a fall. The burden of providing for the fell on his mother who made a living through upholstery work. John received little education as a result and, from an age, was required to work as a factory hand, manufacturing tape. Cassell detested the work, which was both confining and monotonous, and felt oppressed by the social conditions around him. Seeking better prospects, he impressed a local carpenter with his skills and was offered an apprenticeship. Cassell strongly identified with the ideals of the movement and, having first honoured his indentures of apprenticeship, making good his lack of formal education, he had also sought self-improvement by teaching himself general knowledge, English literature and some French language. In October 1836, after 16 days of walking, he arrived in London with the princely sum of 3 pence in his pocket. That same evening, he spoke at a meeting at the New Jerusalem Schoolroom near Westminster Bridge Road. In April 1837, Cassell was enrolled as an agent of the National Temperance Society. In 1841, whilst on a tour of the eastern counties, he met a Lincolnshire woman, Mary Abbott. Mary inherited a sum of money from her father which enabled the couple to settle in St. Johns Wood, London and their home became a meeting place for writers, artists and reformers - people such as George Cruikshank, William and Mary Howitt, and Ellen Wood. In 1843, Cassell set himself up as a tea and coffee merchant in Coleman Street, the business was an immediate success, moving eventually to larger premises in 80 Fenchurch Street. His teas and coffees were extensively advertised in the press, and he bought a second-hand printing press to produce advertising leaflets for his wares and this led him to writing and publishing his own temperance tracts. In July 1848, he started publication of Standard of Freedom and it only lasted until 1851, becoming incorporated into the Weekly News and Chronicle. Its readers sent in hundreds of letters and articles for publication, and the magazine drew praise from such as Richard Cobden, politician and social reformer. In 1851, in order to expand the business, Cassell purchased William Cathrells printing plant in The Strand, London, bringing the printing of the Working Mans Friend in-house. In 1851, The Illustrated exhibitor, a periodical about The Great Exhibition, started publication, to great success
John Cassell
–
John Cassell
John Cassell
–
Scene in a London Gin Palace (engraving from the "Working Man's friend and family instructor", 25 Oct 1851)
John Cassell
–
La Belle Sauvage Inn
20.
The Times
–
The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
The Times
–
Front page of The Times from 4 December 1788
The Times
–
Roy Thomson
The Times
–
A wounded British officer reading The Times's report of the end of the
Crimean War, in
John Everett Millais ' painting
Peace Concluded.
The Times
–
John Walter, the founder of The Times
21.
Frederick Richard Simms
–
Frederick Richard Simms was a British mechanical engineer, businessman, prolific inventor and motor industry pioneer. Simms coined the words petrol and motorcar and he founded the Royal Automobile Club, and the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. Simms was born in Hamburg Germany of an old Warwickshire family and his Birmingham-born grandfather had established a trading company there to support the Newfoundland fishing fleet. He was educated in Germany and London and at the Polytechnischer Verein in Berlin after completing an apprenticeship with AG fur Automatischen Verkauf in Hamburg, in a 1907 trip to the Alps, Simms discovered a waterfall near the village of Holzgau, now called the Simmswasserfall. Simms may have spread his talents a little thinly to be able to show an outstanding achievement. His lasting significance is in his role as a catalyst and intermediary between Britain and Europe and to a lesser extent USA and he died in his 81st year, at Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, while living at Storth Oaks, Chislehurst, Kent. They were first used in motor launches but soon paved the way for the start-up of the British motor industry, there had been no purpose in Simms bringing a car with him because of the restrictions in Britain. This work was performed under Putney Bridge, where the launches were shown, following the signal success of Daimler-powered Peugeots and Panhards at the 1894 Paris-Rouen Trials, Simms decided to open a motor car factory. In June 1895, Simms and Evelyn Ellis bought in France, in early 1896, Lawsons British Motor Syndicate Limited, bought The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited. In early 1896, Simms was appointed a director of Stuttgarts Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft which later became Daimler-Benz and he remained consulting engineer to Lawsons The Daimler Motor Company Limited but, perhaps wisely, did not join its board of directors. This Emancipation Day drive is still commemorated by its annual replay, Simms founded the Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897. He also assisted with the foundation of what became the Royal Aero Club, Simms Motor War Car was the first armoured car ever built. It was designed and ordered in April 1899 and a prototype was built by Vickers. Due to various mishaps Vickers was unable to complete it until early 1902 after the end of the Boer War, in 1902 he founded, and was elected the first president of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. In conjunction with Robert Bosch he invented developed and patented the Simms-Bosch ignition magneto and it enabled engine designers to precisely time the ignition of fuel because it was tied to the rotation of the engine. Their initial low-tension system was not a success but they became the first to develop a practical high-tension magneto. In 1899 they established the jointly owned Compagnie des Magnetos Simms-Bosch, in 1907 Simms established the Simms Magneto Company Ltd to manufacture magnetos under licence from Robert Bosch but he was unable to compete with European prices and it closed in 1913. He had however contributed to Boschs business by his stimulus to their product development
Frederick Richard Simms
–
Frederick R Simms 1909
Frederick Richard Simms
–
The cascade of the Simmswasserfalls in the Allgäuer Alps
Frederick Richard Simms
–
Simms founded the Automobile Club of Great Britain (later the
RAC) in 1897.
Frederick Richard Simms
–
Simms in his 1902
Motor War Car.
22.
Gottlieb Daimler
–
Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler was an engineer, industrial designer and industrialist born in Schorndorf, in what is now Germany. He was a pioneer of internal-combustion engines and automobile development and he invented the high-speed liquid petroleum fueled engine. Daimler and his business partner Wilhelm Maybach were two inventors whose goal was to create small, high-speed engines to be mounted in any kind of locomotion device. This engine was called Daimlers Dream, Daimler called this engine the grandfather clock engine because of its resemblance to a large pendulum clock. In 1890, they converted their partnership into a stock company Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft and they sold their first automobile in 1892. Daimler fell ill and took a break from the business, upon his return he experienced difficulty with the other stockholders that led to his resignation in 1893. Maybach resigned at the time, and also returned. In 1900 Daimler died and Wilhelm Maybach quit DMG in 1907, Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler was the son of a baker named Johannes Däumler and his wife Frederika, from the town of Schorndorf near Stuttgart, Württemberg. By the age of 13, he had completed six years of studies in Lateinschule. After completing secondary school in 1848, Daimler had trained as a gunsmith under Master Gunsmith Hermann Raithel, in 1852 he ended the training with the trade examination. He graduated in 1852, passing the craft test with a pair of engraved double-barreled pistols, the same year, at eighteen, Daimler decided to take up mechanical engineering, abandoning gunsmithing, and left his hometown. Signing up at Stuttgarts School for Advanced Training in the Industrial Arts, Daimler was studious, even taking extra Sunday morning classes. Daimler performed well, and when Rollé und Schwilque began making railway locomotives in 1856, Daimler and he conceived small, cheap, simple engines for light industrial use, possibly inspired by the newly developed gas engines of that era. In 1861, he resigned from R&S, visiting Paris, then went on to England, working with the top engineering firms. He spent from autumn 1861 to summer 1863 in England, then regarded as the motherland of technology, at Beyer, Peacock and Company of Gorton, while in London, he visited the 1862 International Exhibition, where one of the exhibits was a steam carriage. These carriages did not evidently inspire him, however, for his wish was to produce machine tools, Daimler went to work for Maschinenfabrik Daniel Straub, Geislingen an der Steige, where he designed tools, mills, and turbines. In 1863, he joined the Bruderhaus Reutlingen, a Christian Socialist toolmaker, as inspector and later executive. While there, he met Wilhelm Maybach, then a 15-year-old orphan. Thanks to Daimlers organizational skills, the managed to show a profit
Gottlieb Daimler
–
Gottlieb Daimler
Gottlieb Daimler
–
Daimler's summer house (Cannstatt)
Gottlieb Daimler
–
The
Reitwagen (riding car), the world's first internal combustion motorcycle (1885)
23.
Avgas
–
Avgas, also known as aviation spirit in the UK, is an aviation fuel used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines to propel aircraft. Avgas is distinguished from mogas, which is the everyday gasoline used in motor vehicles, turbine and diesel engines are designed to use kerosene-based jet fuel. The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is essentially a mixture of various isooctanes, all grades of avgas that meet CAN 2-3, 25-M82 have a density of 6.01 lb/U. S. Gal at 15 °C, or 0.721 kg/l, density increases to 6.41 lb/US gallon, or 0.769 kg/l, at -40 °C, and decreases by about 0. 1% per 1 °C increase in temperature. Avgas has an coefficient of 18.355 pounds CO2 per U. S. gallon or about 3.05 units of weight CO2 produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas has a lower and more uniform vapor pressure than automotive gasoline so it remains in the state despite the reduced atmospheric pressure at high altitude. The high octane ratings are achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. As of 2013, numerous certificated reciprocating-engine aircraft require high-octane fuels, teledyne-Continental Motors states, Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead, the result can be remarkable, with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours. Lycoming has also provided a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with them, a number of their engines are not compatible with unleaded fuel according to their chart. Jet fuel is similar to kerosene and is used in turbine engines, confusion can be caused by the terms Avtur and AvJet being used for jet fuel. In Europe, environmental and cost considerations have led to increasing numbers of aircraft being fitted with fuel-efficient diesel engines run on jet fuel. Civilian aircraft use Jet-A, Jet-A1, or in cold climates Jet-B. There are other systems for military turbine and diesel fuel. The annual US usage of avgas was 186 million US gallons in 2008, from 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately 7.5 million US gallons each year. As of 2008, the consumers of avgas are in North America, Australia, Brazil. Care must be taken by small airplane pilots to select airports with avgas on flight planning, for example, US and Japanese recreational pilots ship and depot avgas before flying into Siberia
Avgas
–
An
American Aviation AA-1 Yankee being refueled with 100LL avgas.
Avgas
–
Taking a fuel sample from an under-wing drain using a GATS Jar fuel sampler. The blue dye indicates that this fuel is 100LL.
Avgas
–
An EAA Cessna 150 used for American STC certification of auto fuel
Avgas
–
Purdue University Cessna 150M Swift Fuel demonstrator
24.
Compressed natural gas
–
Compressed natural gas is a fuel which can be used in place of gasoline, Diesel fuel and propane/LPG. CNG combustion produces fewer undesirable gases than the mentioned above. It is safer than other fuels in the event of a spill, because natural gas is lighter than air, CNG may be found above oil deposits, or may be collected from landfills or wastewater treatment plants where it is known as biogas. CNG is made by compressing natural gas, to less than 1 percent of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure and it is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 MPa, usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes. Its use is increasing in South America, Europe and North America because of rising gasoline prices. In response to fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-tuks and pickup trucks, transit and school buses. The cost and placement of fuel tanks is the major barrier to wider/quicker adoption of CNG as a fuel. It is also why municipal government, public transportation vehicles were the most visible early adopters of it, in spite of these circumstances, the number of vehicles in the world using CNG has grown steadily. Now, as a result of the steady growth, the cost of such fuel storage tanks has been brought down to a much more acceptable level. Especially for the CNG Type 1 and Type 2 tanks, many countries are able to make reliable, cNGs volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42 percent that of liquefied natural gas, and 25 percent that of diesel fuel. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by 2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, Pakistan, Argentina, Brazil, with the Asia-Pacific region leading with 5.7 million NGVs, followed by Latin America with almost four million vehicles. In 2006, Fiat introduced the Siena Tetrafuel in the Brazilian market, equipped with a 1. 4L FIRE engine that runs on E100, E25, Ethanol, any existing gasoline vehicle can be converted to a dual-fuel vehicle. Authorized shops can do the retrofitting and involves installing a CNG cylinder, plumbing, a CNG injection system and the electronics. The cost of installing a CNG conversion kit can often reach $8,000 on passenger cars, CNG costs about 50% less than gasoline and emits up to 90% fewer emissions than gasoline. CNG locomotives are operated by several railroads, the Napa Valley Wine Train successfully retrofit a diesel locomotive to run on compressed natural gas before 2002. This converted locomotive was upgraded to utilize a computer controlled fuel system in May 2008. Ferrocarril Central Andino in Peru, has run a CNG locomotive on a line since 2005. Vítkovice machinery group in Czech republic starts to operate new CNG locomotive at 2014 and it s based on CKD chassis 714 fully restored by CZ Loko and fitted with CAT3412 engine reworked by MARAT engineering
Compressed natural gas
–
A CNG powered bus.
Neoplan AN440 A, operated by
ABQ RIDE in
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Compressed natural gas
–
Blue diamond symbol used on CNG-powered vehicles in North America
Compressed natural gas
–
CNG tanks atop a
BEST bus in Mumbai.
Compressed natural gas
–
CNG pumps at a Brazilian gasoline fueling station
25.
Liquefied natural gas
–
Liquefied natural gas is natural gas that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of gas in the gaseous state. It is odorless, colorless, toxic and non-corrosive, hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C. LNG achieves a reduction in volume than compressed natural gas so that the energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG or 60 percent that of diesel fuel. This makes LNG cost efficient to transport long distances where pipelines do not exist. Specially designed cryogenic sea vessels or cryogenic road tankers are used for its transport, LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets, where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas. It can be used in natural gas vehicles, although it is common to design vehicles to use compressed natural gas. Its relatively high cost of production and the need to store it in expensive cryogenic tanks have hindered widespread commercial use, despite these drawbacks, on energy basis LNG production is expected to hit 10% of the global crude production by 2020. The heating value depends on the source of gas that is used, the range of heating value can span +/-10 to 15 percent. A typical value of the heating value of LNG is approximately 50 MJ/kg or 21,500 BTU/lb. A typical value of the heating value of LNG is 45 MJ/kg or 19,350 BTU/lb. For the purpose of comparison of different fuels the heating value may be expressed in terms of energy per volume which is known as the energy density expressed in MJ/liter. The density of LNG is roughly 0.41 kg/liter to 0.5 kg/liter, depending on temperature, pressure, using the median value of 0.45 kg/liter, the typical energy density values are 22.5 MJ/liter or 20.3 MJ/liter. The energy density of LNG is approximately 2.4 times greater than that of CNG which makes it economical to transport natural gas by ship in the form of LNG. The energy density of LNG is comparable to propane and ethanol but is only 60 percent that of diesel and 70 percent that of gasoline, experiments on the properties of gases started early in the seventeenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century Robert Boyle had derived the relationship between the pressure and the volume of gases
Liquefied natural gas
–
LNG storage tank at
EG LNG
Liquefied natural gas
Liquefied natural gas
–
Tanker LNG Rivers, LNG capacity of 135,000 cubic metres
Liquefied natural gas
–
Types
26.
Liquefied petroleum gas
–
It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a fuel it is often referred to as autogas. Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are mostly propane, mostly butane and, most commonly, in the northern hemisphere winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States, mainly two grades of LPG are sold, commercial propane and HD-5 and these specifications are published by the Gas Processors Association and the American Society of Testing and Materials. Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications, propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, a powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The internationally recognized European Standard is EN589, in the United States, tetrahydrothiophene or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants, although neither is currently being utilized. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and it currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol. However, its energy density per unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil. As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature. LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, there are two main dangers from this. The first is an explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits. The second is due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration. It can serve as fuel for cooking, central heating and to water heating and is a particularly cost-effective, LPG is used for cooking in many countries for economic reasons, for convenience or because it is the preferred fuel source. According to the 2011 census of India,33.6 million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel in 2011, LPG is subsidised by the government in India
Liquefied petroleum gas
–
Two 45 kg (99 lb) LPG cylinders in New Zealand used for domestic supply.
Liquefied petroleum gas
–
LPG minibuses in Hong Kong
Liquefied petroleum gas
–
Cylinders with LP gas in
India
Liquefied petroleum gas
–
LPG filling connector on a car
27.
Deflagration
–
Deflagration is a term describing subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer, hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it. Most fires found in life, from flames to explosions, are deflagrations. Deflagration is different from detonation, which propagates supersonically through shock waves and this means that when a substance deflagrates, it burns extremely quickly instead of detonating. Black powder is an example of a substance deflagrates, when it is ignited. In engineering applications, deflagrations are easier to control than detonations, consequently, they are better suited when the goal is to move an object with the force of the expanding gas. Deflagration systems and products can also be used in mining, demolition, adding water to a burning hydrocarbon such as oil or wax produces a deflagration. The water boils rapidly and ejects the burning material as a spray of droplets. A deflagration then occurs as the fine mist of oil ignites and these are particularly common in chip pan fires, which are responsible for one in five household fires in Britain. The burning region is referred to as the flame or flame front. In equilibrium, thermal diffusion across the front is balanced by the heat supplied by burning. There are two characteristic timescales which are important here, the first is the thermal diffusion timescale τ d, which is approximately equal to τ d ≃ δ2 / κ, where κ is the thermal diffusivity. For a stationary moving deflagration front, these two timescales must be equal, the heat generated by burning is equal to the heat carried away by heat transfer. This makes it possible to calculate the characteristic width δ of the front, τ b = τ d. Now, the flame front propagates at a characteristic speed S l. This simplified model neglects the change of temperature and thus the burning rate across the deflagration front and this model also neglects the possible influence of turbulence. As a result, this gives only the laminar flame speed -- hence the designation S l. Damage to buildings, equipment and people can result from a large-scale, in free-air deflagrations, there is a continuous variation in deflagration effects relative to the maximum flame velocity. When flame velocities are low, the effect of a deflagration is to release heat, some authors use the term flash fire to describe these low-speed deflagrations
Deflagration
–
A log in a fireplace.
28.
Isomer
–
An isomer is a molecule with the same molecular formula as another molecule, but with a different chemical structure. That is, isomers contain the number of atoms of each element. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties, unless they also have the functional groups. There are two forms of isomerism, structural isomerism and stereoisomerism. In structural isomers, sometimes referred to as constitutional isomers, the atoms, Structural isomers have different IUPAC names and may or may not belong to the same functional group. For example, two position isomers would be 2-fluoropropane and 1-fluoropropane, illustrated on the side of the diagram above. In skeletal isomers the main chain is different between the two isomers. This type of isomerism is most identifiable in secondary and tertiary alcohol isomers, tautomers are structural isomers that spontaneously interconvert with each other, even when pure. They have different chemical properties and, as a consequence, distinct reactions characteristic to each form are observed, if the interconversion reaction is fast enough, tautomers cannot be isolated from each other. An example is when they differ by the position of a proton, such as in keto/enol tautomerism, there is, however, another isomer of C3H8O that has significantly different properties, methoxyethane. Unlike the isomers of propanol, methoxyethane has an oxygen connected to two carbons rather than to one carbon and one hydrogen. Methoxyethane is an ether, not an alcohol, because it lacks a hydroxyl group, propadiene and propyne are examples of isomers containing different bond types. Propadiene contains two double bonds, whereas propyne contains one triple bond, in stereoisomers the bond structure is the same, but the geometrical positioning of atoms and functional groups in space differs. This class includes enantiomers which are non-superposable mirror-images of each other, and diastereomers, enantiomers always contain chiral centers and diastereomers often do, but there are some diastereomers that neither are chiral nor contain chiral centers. Another type of isomer, conformational isomers, may be rotamers, diastereomers, for example, ortho- position-locked biphenyl systems have enantiomers. E/Z isomers, which have restricted rotation at a bond, are configurational isomers. They are classified as diastereomers, whether or not they contain any chiral centers, e/Z notation depicts absolute stereochemistry, which is an unambiguous descriptor based on CIP priorities. Cis–trans isomers are used to describe any molecules with restricted rotation in the molecule, for molecules with C=C double bonds, these descriptors describe relative stereochemistry only based on group bulkiness or principal carbon chain, and so can be ambiguous
Isomer
29.
Finland
–
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
Finland
–
Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
Finland
–
Flag
Finland
–
Now lying within Helsinki,
Suomenlinna is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
Finland
–
Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by
Eero Järnefelt
30.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
–
A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
31.
Norway
–
The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
Norway
–
The
helmet found at Gjermundbu near
Haugsbygd,
Buskerud, is the only
Viking Age helmet that has been found.
Norway
–
Flag
Norway
–
The
Gokstad ship at the
Viking Ship Museum in
Oslo, Norway
Norway
–
The
Battle of the Sound between an allied Dano-Norwegian–
Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy, 8 November 1658 (29 October
O.S.)
32.
Tesco
–
Tesco PLC is a British multinational grocery and general merchandise retailer with headquarters in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, England, United Kingdom. It is the third largest retailer in the world measured by profits and it has stores in 12 countries across Asia and Europe and is the grocery market leader in the UK, Ireland, Hungary, Malaysia and Thailand. Tesco was founded in 1919 by Jack Cohen as a group of market stalls and his business expanded rapidly, and by 1939 he had over 100 Tesco stores across the country. This broadening of its appeal was successful, and saw the chain grow from 500 stores in the mid-1990s to 2,500 stores fifteen years later, Tesco is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It had a capitalization of approximately £18.1 billion as of 22 April 2015. Jack Cohen, the son of Jewish migrants from Poland, founded Tesco in 1919 when he began to sell war-surplus groceries from a stall at Well Street Market, Hackney, the Tesco brand first appeared in 1924. The name came about after Jack Cohen bought a shipment of tea from Thomas Edward Stockwell and he made new labels using the initials of the suppliers name, and the first two letters of his surname, forming the word TESCO. Tesco was floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1947 as Tesco Stores Limited, the first self-service store opened in St Albans in 1956, and the first supermarket in Maldon in 1956. In 1961 Tesco Leicester made an appearance in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest store in Europe, during the 1950s and the 1960s Tesco grew organically, and also through acquisitions, until it owned more than 800 stores. The company purchased 70 Williamsons stores,200 Harrow Stores outlets,212 Irwins stores,97 Charles Phillips stores, Jack Cohens business motto was pile it high and sell it cheap, to which he added an internal motto of YCDBSOYA which he used to motivate his sales force. In May 1987, Tesco completed its takeover of the Hillards chain of 40 supermarkets in the North of England for £220 million. In 1994, the took over the supermarket chain William Low after fighting off Sainsburys for control of the Dundee-based firm. This paved the way for Tesco to expand its presence in Scotland, Tesco introduced a loyalty card, branded Clubcard in 1995, and later an Internet shopping service. Overseas operations were introduced the same year, Terry Leahy assumed the role of Chief Executive on 21 February 1997, the appointment having been announced on 21 November 1995. The deal was approved by the European Commission on 6 May 1997, in July 2001 Tesco became involved in internet grocery retailing in the USA when it obtained a 35% stake in GroceryWorks. In 2002 Tesco purchased 13 HIT hypermarkets in Poland and it also made a major move into the UK convenience store market with its purchase of T & S Stores, owner of 870 convenience stores in the One Stop, Dillons and Day & Nite chains in the UK. In June 2003 Tesco purchased the C Two-Network in Japan and it also acquired a majority stake in Turkish supermarket chain Kipa. In January 2004 Tesco acquired Adminstore, owner of 45 Cullens, Europa, in Thailand, Tesco Lotus was a joint venture of the Charoen Pokphand Group and Tesco, but facing criticism over the growth of hypermarkets CP Group sold its Tesco Lotus shares in 2003
Tesco
–
A branch of Tesco built inside the
Hoover Building in
Perivale, London (now a listed building)
Tesco
–
The first ever self-service Tesco store in
St Albans,
Hertfordshire. The store has since relocated.
Tesco
–
Potters Bar Tesco
Tesco
–
Tesco Express, Hilperton Road,
Trowbridge,
Wiltshire
33.
Johannesburg
–
Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa and is one of the 50 largest urban areas in the world. It is the capital of Gauteng, which is the wealthiest province in South Africa. While Johannesburg is not one of South Africas three capital cities, it is the seat of the Constitutional Court, the city is located in the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills and is the centre of large-scale gold and diamond trade. In 2011, the population of the city of Johannesburg was 4,434,827, in the same year, the population of Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Area was 7,860,781. Some view the surrounding the city of Johannesburg yet more broadly than the metropolitan area, adding Ekurhuleni, West Rand and Lenasia. The land area of the city is large in comparison with those of other major cities, resulting in a moderate population density of 2. The city was established in 1886 following the discovery of gold on what had been a farm, the city is commonly interpreted as the modern day El Dorado due to the extremely large gold deposit found along the Witwatersrand. The name is attributed to one or all of three men involved in the establishment of the city, in ten years, the population was 100,000 inhabitants. A separate city from the late 1970s until the 1990s, Soweto is now part of Johannesburg, Soweto, although eventually incorporated into Johannesburg, had been separated as a residential area for blacks, who were not permitted to live in Johannesburg proper. Lenasia is predominantly populated by English-speaking South Africans of Indian descent, controversy surrounds the origin of the name. There were quite a number of people with the name Johannes who were involved in the history of the city. Among them are the principal clerk attached to the office of the surveyor-general Johannes Rissik, Christiaan Johannes Joubert, another was Stephanus Johannes Paulus Paul Kruger, president of the South African Republic 1883-1900. Johannes Meyer, the first government official in the area is another possibility, precise records for the choice of name were lost. Rissik and Joubert were members of a delegation sent to England to attain mining rights for the area. Joubert had a park in the city named after him and Rissik Street is today a street where the historically important and dilapidated Post Office, since burnt out. The region surrounding Johannesburg was originally inhabited by San people, the Sotho–Tswana practised farming and extensively mined and smelted metals that were available in the area. The most prominent site within Johannesburg is Melville Koppies, which contains an iron smelting furnace, the main Witwatersrand gold reef was discovered in June 1884 on the farm Vogelstruisfontein by Jan Gerritse Bantjes that triggered the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the start of Johannesburg in 1886. The discovery of gold rapidly attracted people to the area, making necessary a name, Johannes Meyer, the first government official in the area is another possibility
Johannesburg
–
Clockwise, from top:
Johannesburg Art Gallery, the
Hillbrow skyline at night,
Nelson Mandela Square in
Sandton,
Johannesburg CBD looking east over the
M1 Freeway, the
University of the Witwatersrand 's East Campus and
Montecasino in
Fourways.
Johannesburg
–
The farm where gold was first discovered in 1886
Johannesburg
–
Pritchard Street c. 1940
Johannesburg
–
Street scene in Johannesburg in 1970
34.
Highveld
–
The highest part of the Highveld, around 2100 m, is its northeastern and only well-defined boundary, where the plateau escarpment separates it from the Mpumalanga Lowveld. The continuation of the Great Escarpment to the south separates the Highveld from KwaZulu-Natal, the south-eastern portion of the Great Escarpment rises to over 3000 m and forms the boundary between KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho. The latter mountainous region is, however, not generally referred to as Highveld, whose boundary at this point runs just inside the Lesotho-Free State border, the Highveld covers an area of almost 400,000 km2, or roughly 30% of South Africas land area. The Vaal River and its tributaries form the water drainage system of the Highveld. Tributaries of the Orange River drain the most southerly regions of the Highveld, the Highveld rainy season occurs in summer, with substantial afternoon thunderstorms being typical occurrences in November, December, and January. Cities located on the Highveld include Johannesburg, Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Vereeniging, Welkom, Carletonville, the diamond-mining city of Kimberley lies on the border of the Highveld and the southeastern Kalahari. About half of the gold produced in the world has been mined on the Highveld since 1880. The largest deposits are located in the Witwatersrand, which centres on Johannesburg, with deposits in the northern Free State near Welkom. The Highveld is also rich in diamonds, coal, vanadium. The peat base of the acts as a natural filter. The major grass species are Hyparrhenia hirta and Sporobolus pyramidalis and among these are other grasses, trees and shrubs never thrived due to the frequent fires that occurred in the dry season and the heavy grazing. The only endemic species is Bothas lark and the two endemic mammals - the Free State pygmy mouse and the rough-haired golden mole. As well as the python, other include the Nile crocodile, Nile monitor, rock monitor. Like so many areas of all over the world, the Highveld is excellent agricultural land. Witwatersrand basin Vredefort crater Transvaal Basin
Highveld
–
Highveld in winter in
Gauteng Province north of
Johannesburg.
Highveld
–
A map of South Africa showing the central plateau edged by the Great Escarpment and its relationship to the Highveld and
Lesotho Highlands: The portion of the
Great Escarpment shown in red is officially known as the
Drakensberg, although most South Africans think of the Drakensberg as only that portion of the escarpment which forms the border between
KwaZulu-Natal and
Lesotho. Here, the escarpment rises to its greatest height over 3000 m.
35.
Aircraft engine
–
An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
Aircraft engine
–
A
Rolls-Royce Merlin installed in a preserved
Avro York
Aircraft engine
–
Wright vertical 4-cylinder engine
Aircraft engine
–
Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder, inverted, in-line engine used in
Fairchild PT-19
Aircraft engine
–
A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 Engine
36.
Supercharger
–
A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
Supercharger
–
Roots type supercharger on
AMC V8 engine for
dragstrip racing
Supercharger
–
An
Eaton MP62 Roots-type supercharger is visible at the front of this
Ecotec LSJ engine in a 2006
Saturn Ion Red Line.
Supercharger
–
Lysholm screw rotors with complex shape of each rotor, which must run at high speed and with close tolerances. This makes this type of supercharger expensive. (This unit has been
blued to show close contact areas.)
Supercharger
–
Supercharger CDT vs. Ambient Temperature. Graph shows how a supercharger's CDT varies with air temperature and altitude (absolute pressure).
37.
Rolls-Royce Merlin
–
The Rolls-Royce Merlin is a British liquid-cooled V-12 piston aero engine of 27-litres capacity. Rolls-Royce designed the engine and first ran it in 1933 as a private venture, initially known as the PV-12, it was later called Merlin following the company convention of naming its piston aero engines after birds of prey. After several modifications, the first production variants of the PV-12 were completed in 1936, the first operational aircraft to enter service using the Merlin were the Fairey Battle, Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. A series of rapidly applied developments, brought about by wartime needs, markedly improved the engines performance, post-war, the Merlin was largely superseded by the Rolls-Royce Griffon for military use, with most Merlin variants being designed and built for airliners and military transport aircraft. Production ceased in 1950 after 160,000 engines had been delivered, Merlin engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and power many restored aircraft in private ownership worldwide. The PV-12 was first run on 15 October 1933 and first flew in a Hawker Hart biplane on 21 February 1935, the engine was originally designed to use the evaporative cooling system then in vogue. This proved unreliable and when supplies of ethylene glycol from the U. S. became available, the Hart was subsequently delivered to Rolls-Royce where, as a Merlin testbed, it completed over 100 hours of flying with the Merlin C and E engines. In 1935, the Air Ministry issued a specification, F10/35, fortunately, two designs had been developed, the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane, the latter designed in response to another specification, F36/34. Both were designed around the PV-12 instead of the Kestrel, and were the only contemporary British fighters to have been so developed, production contracts for both aircraft were placed in 1936, and development of the PV-12 was given top priority as well as government funding. Following the company convention of naming its piston engines after birds of prey, Rolls-Royce named the engine the Merlin after a small. Two more Rolls-Royce engines developed just prior to the war were added to the companys range and this was to be used in larger aircraft such as the Avro Manchester. Although the Peregrine appeared to be a design, it was never allowed to mature since Rolls-Royces priority was refining the Merlin. As a result, the Peregrine saw use in two aircraft, the Westland Whirlwind fighter and one of the Gloster F. 9/37 prototypes. The Vulture was fitted to the Avro Manchester bomber, but proved unreliable in service and the planned fighter using it – the Hawker Tornado – was cancelled as a result. With the Merlin itself soon pushing into the 1,500 hp range, the Griffon incorporated several design improvements and ultimately superseded the Merlin. Early production Merlins were also unreliable, Common problems were cylinder head cracking, coolant leaks, the prototype, developmental, and early production engine types were the, PV-12 The initial design using an evaporative cooling system. Two built, passed bench type testing in July 1934, generating 740 horsepower at 12, Merlin B Two built, ethylene glycol liquid cooling system introduced. Passed Type Testing February 1935, generating 950 horsepower at 11, Merlin C Development of Merlin B, crankcase and cylinder blocks became three separate castings with bolt-on cylinder heads
Rolls-Royce Merlin
–
Merlin
Rolls-Royce Merlin
–
Parallel valve Merlin cylinder head
Rolls-Royce Merlin
–
Merlin 55 ejector exhaust detail, Spitfire LF.VB, EP120
Rolls-Royce Merlin
–
Preserved Merlin 63 showing intercooler radiator, supercharger and carburettor
38.
Operation Overlord
–
The Western Allies of World War II launched the largest amphibious invasion in history when they assaulted Normandy, located on the northern coast of France, on 6 June 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful D-Day, Allied land forces came from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free French forces. The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks, the invasion began and during the evening the remaining elements of the airborne divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day sailed from bases along the south coast of England, Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast,749 U. S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted an operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date. There were several leaks prior to or on D-Day, through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked all detail. Double Cross agents, such as the Spaniard Juan Pujol, played an important role in convincing the German High Command that Normandy was at best a diversionary attack. After being told, Eisenhower reduced Miller to lieutenant colonel and sent him back to the U. S. where he retired, another such leak was General Charles de Gaulles radio message after D-Day. He, unlike all the leaders, stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied deceptions Fortitude North, in contrast, Gen. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion. A full moon occurred on 6 June, Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. The weather was fine during most of May, but deteriorated in early June, the Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night. It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the returned to their embarkation camps. The next full moon period would be nearly a month away, at a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhowers chief meteorologist forecast a brief improvement for 6 June. Commander of all forces for the invasion General Bernard Montgomery. Commander of the Allied Air Forces Air Chief Marshal Leigh Mallory was doubtful, on the strength of Staggs forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed. As a result, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, some troops stood down and many senior officers were away for the weekend
Operation Overlord
–
Into the Jaws of Death by
Robert F. Sargent. Assault craft land one of the first waves at
Omaha Beach. The
U.S. Coast Guard caption identifies the unit as Company E,
16th Infantry,
1st Infantry Division.
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord
–
U.S. soldiers march through Weymouth, Dorset en route to board landing ships for the invasion of France.
Operation Overlord
–
D-day assault routes into Normandy.
39.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
40.
Aniline
–
Aniline is an organic compound with the formula C6H5NH2. Consisting of a group attached to an amino group, aniline is the prototypical aromatic amine. Its main use is in the manufacture of precursors to polyurethane, like most volatile amines, it possesses the odour of rotten fish. It ignites readily, burning with a smoky flame characteristic of aromatic compounds, the amine is nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter, in aniline, the C-N and C-C distances are close to 1.39 Å, indicating the π-bonding between N and C. Industrial aniline production involves two steps, first, benzene is nitrated with a concentrated mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 50 to 60 °C to yield nitrobenzene. The nitrobenzene is then hydrogenated in the presence of metal catalysts, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline was first performed by Nikolay Zinin in 1842 using inorganic sulfide as a reductant. Aniline can alternatively be prepared from ammonia and phenol derived from the cumene process, many analogues of aniline are known where the phenyl group is further substituted. These include toluidines, xylidines, chloroanilines, aminobenzoic acids, nitroanilines and they often are prepared by nitration of the substituted aromatic compounds followed by reduction. For example, this approach is used to convert toluene into toluidines, the chemistry of aniline is rich because the compound has been cheaply available for many years. Below are some classes of its reactions, the oxidation of aniline has been heavily investigated, and can result in reactions localized at nitrogen or more commonly results in the formation of new C-N bonds. In alkaline solution, azobenzene results, whereas arsenic acid produces the violet-coloring matter violaniline, chromic acid converts it into quinone, whereas chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts, give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil, potassium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives 4-aminophenol and para-amino diphenylamine, oxidation with persulfate affords a variety of polyanilines compounds. These polymers exhibit rich redox and acid-base properties, like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly susceptible to electrophilic substitution reactions. Its high reactivity reflects that it is an enamine, which enhances the ability of the ring. For example, reaction of aniline with sulfuric acid at 180 °C produces sulfanilic acid, if bromine water is added to aniline, the bromine water is decolourised and a white precipitate of 2,4, 6-tribromophenylamine is formed. The largest scale industrial reaction of aniline involves its alkylation with formaldehyde, an idealized equation is shown,2 C6H5NH2 + CH2O → CH22 + H2O The resulting diamine is the precursor to 4, 4-MDI and related diisocyanates
Aniline
–
Cake of
indigo dye, which is prepared from aniline.
Aniline
41.
Fuel injection
–
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. All diesel engines use fuel injection by design, petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke. On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward, the functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the task of supplying fuel to the combustion process. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better, Fuel injection also dispenses with the need for a separate mechanical choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be adjusted as the engine warms up to normal temperature. Furthermore, on spark ignition engines, fuel injection has the advantage of being able to facilitate stratified combustion which have not been possible with carburetors, Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the power output. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as catalytic converters more effective, herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection, using a jerk pump to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch. Fuel injection was in commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Another early use of direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle, fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke and they are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene. Direct fuel injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB601, the BMW801, German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point fuel injection, due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines utilizing fuel injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei. Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic systems in Alfa Romeo 6C2500 with Ala spessa body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system, all diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the V8 engine configuration, Leon Levavasseur in 1902, the first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925
Fuel injection
–
Fuel rail connected to the injectors that are mounted just above the intake manifold on a four-cylinder engine.
Fuel injection
–
An Antoinette mechanically fuel-injected V8 aviation engine of 1909, mounted in a preserved Antoinette VII monoplane aircraft.
Fuel injection
–
A 1959
Corvette small-block 4.6 litre V8 with Rochester mechanical fuel injection
Fuel injection
–
Chevrolet Cosworth Vega engine showing Bendix electronic fuel injection (in orange).
42.
Vapor pressure
–
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquids evaporation rate and it relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid. A substance with a vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile. The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a surface is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases, the vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a pressure, and therefore higher temperature. More important at shallow depths, is the temperature required to start bubble formation. The surface tension of the wall lead to an overpressure in the very small initial bubbles. Thus, thermometer calibration should not rely on the temperature in boiling water, the vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial pressure. Vapor pressure is measured in the units of pressure. The International System of Units recognizes pressure as a unit with the dimension of force per area. One pascal is one newton per square meter, experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa. Most accurate results are obtained near the point of substances. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and this is often done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath. Very low vapor pressures of solids can be measured using the Knudsen effusion cell method, the Antoine equation is a mathematical expression of the relation between the vapor pressure and the temperature of pure liquid or solid substances
Vapor pressure
–
Graph of water vapor pressure versus temperature. At the normal boiling point of 100 °C, it equals the standard atmospheric pressure of 760
Torr or 101.325
kPa.
Vapor pressure
–
The picture shows the particle transition, as a result of their vapor pressure, from the liquid phase to the gas phase and converse.
43.
Mineral spirits
–
In western Europe about 60% of the total white spirit consumption is used in paints, lacquers and varnishes. White spirit is the most widely used solvent in the paint industry, White spirit is a mixture of aliphatic and alicyclic C7 to C12 hydrocarbons with a maximum content of 25% of C7 to C12 aromatic hydrocarbons. Three different types and three different grades of white spirit exist, the type refers to whether the solvent has been subjected to hydrodesulfurization alone, solvent extraction or hydrogenation. Each type comprises three different grades, low grade, regular grade, and high flash grade. The grade is determined by the oil used as the starting material. In addition there is type 0, which is defined as distillation fraction with no further treatment, dry cleaners began using the result of their work in 1928 and it soon became the predominant dry cleaning solvent in the United States, until the late 1950s. Turpentine substitute is not made to a standard and can have a wider range of components than products marketed as white spirit. The physical properties of the three types of spirit are, White Spirit is a petroleum distillate used as a paint thinner. In industry, mineral spirits are used for cleaning and degreasing machine tools and parts, mineral spirits are an inexpensive petroleum-based replacement for the vegetable-based turpentine. It is commonly used as a paint thinner for oil-based paint and cleaning brushes, mineral turpentine is chemically very different from turpentine, which mainly consists of pinene, and it has inferior solvent properties. Artists use mineral spirits as an alternative to turpentine since it is less flammable, because of interactions with pigments, artists require a higher grade of mineral spirits than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulfur. Mineral spirits have a characteristic unpleasant kerosene-like odor, chemical manufacturers have developed a low odor version of mineral turpentine which contains less of the highly volatile shorter hydrocarbons. In screen printing, mineral spirits are used to clean and unclog screens after printing with oil-based textile. They are also used to thin inks used in making monoprints, mineral spirits are often used inside liquid-filled compasses and gauges. Mineral spirits are used for re-gripping golf clubs. After the old grip is removed, the spirits are poured into the new grip. After the mineral spirits are poured on, the new underlying tape, after an hour of drying out, the new grip and club are ready to use. Although not normally marketed as a fuel, white spirit can be used as an alternative to kerosene in portable stoves and it cannot be used as an alternative to white gas, which is a much more volatile gasoline-like fuel
Mineral spirits
–
A 2-litre (4 imp pt) container of white spirit
Mineral spirits
–
Mineral turpentine
44.
Isopropyl alcohol
–
Isopropyl alcohol, also called isopropanol or dimethyl carbinol, is a compound with the chemical formula C3H8O or C3H7OH or CH3CHOHCH3. It is a colorless, flammable chemical compound with a strong odor, as a propyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, it is the simplest example of a secondary alcohol, where the alcohol carbon atom is attached to two other carbon atoms, sometimes shown as 2CHOH. It is an isomer of 1-propanol. It has a variety of industrial and household uses. Isopropyl alcohol is miscible in water, ethanol, ether, and it will dissolve ethyl cellulose, polyvinyl butyral, many oils, alkaloids, gums and natural resins. Unlike ethanol or methanol, isopropyl alcohol is not miscible with salt solutions, the process is colloquially called salting out, and causes concentrated isopropyl alcohol to separate into a distinct layer. Isopropyl alcohol forms an azeotrope with water, which gives a point of 80.37 °C. Water-isopropyl alcohol mixtures have depressed melting points and it has a slightly bitter taste, and is not safe to drink. Isopropyl alcohol becomes increasingly viscous with decreasing temperature will freeze at −89 °C, Isopropyl alcohol has a maximum absorbance at 205 nm in an ultraviolet-visible spectrum. Isopropyl alcohol can be oxidized to acetone, which is the corresponding ketone, Isopropyl alcohol may be converted to 2-bromopropane using phosphorus tribromide, or dehydrated to propene by heating with sulfuric acid. Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with metals such as potassium to form alkoxides that can be called isopropoxides. The reaction with aluminium is used to prepare the catalyst aluminium isopropoxide, in 1994,1.5 million tonnes of isopropyl alcohol was produced in the United States, Europe, and Japan. This compound is produced by combining water and propene in a hydration reaction. It is also produced by hydrogenating acetone, there are two routes for the hydration process, indirect hydration using the sulfuric acid process, and direct hydration. The former process, which can use low-quality propene, predominates in the USA while the latter process and these processes give predominantly isopropyl alcohol rather than 1-propanol because the addition of water or sulfuric acid to propene follows Markovnikovs rule. The indirect process reacts propene with sulfuric acid to form a mixture of sulfate esters, subsequent hydrolysis of these esters by steam produces isopropyl alcohol, which is distilled. Diisopropyl ether is a significant by-product of this process, it is recycled back to the process, direct hydration reacts propene and water, either in gas phase or in liquid phase, at high pressures in the presence of solid or supported acidic catalysts. Higher-purity propylene tends to be required for this type of process, both processes require that the isopropyl alcohol be separated from water and other by-products by distillation
Isopropyl alcohol
45.
Carburetor
–
A carburetor, or carburettor, or carburator, or carburetter is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine in the proper ratio for combustion. It is sometimes shortened to carb in North America or carby in Australia. To carburate or carburet is to blend the air and fuel or to equip with a carburetor for that purpose, carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent, aviation industries by fuel injection. They are still common on engines for lawn mowers, rototillers. The word carburetor comes from the French carbure meaning carbide, carburer means to combine with carbon. In fuel chemistry, the term has the specific meaning of increasing the carbon content of a fluid by mixing it with a volatile hydrocarbon. The first carburetor was invented by Samuel Morey in 1826, a carburetor was invented by an Italian, Luigi De Cristoforis, in 1876. Another carburetor was developed by Enrico Bernardi at the University of Padua in 1882, for his Motrice Pia, a carburetor was among the early patents by Karl Benz as he developed internal combustion engines and their components. Early carburetors were the surface type, in which air is charged with fuel by being passed over the surface of gasoline. In 1885, Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler developed a float carburetor for their engine based on the atomizer nozzle, hungarian engineers János Csonka and Donát Bánki patented a carburetor for a stationary engine in 1893. Frederick William Lanchester of Birmingham, England, experimented with the wick carburetor in cars, in 1896, Frederick and his brother built the first gasoline-driven car in England, a single cylinder 5 hp internal combustion engine with chain drive. Unhappy with the performance and power, they re-built the engine the next year into a horizontally opposed version using his new wick carburetor design. Carburetors were the method of fuel delivery for most US-made gasoline-fueled engines up until the late 1980s. 1991, Jeep Grand Wagoneer with the AMC360 cu in V8 engine, low-cost commercial vans and 4WDs in Australia continued with carburetors even into the 2000s, the last being the Mitsubishi Express van in 2003. Elsewhere, certain Lada cars used carburetors until 2006, many motorcycles still use carburetors for simplicitys sake, since a carburetor does not require an electrical system to function. EEC legislation required all vehicles sold and produced in countries to have a catalytic converter after December 1992. This legislation had been in the pipeline for some time, with cars becoming available with catalytic converters or fuel injection from around 1990. Fords first fuel-injected car was the Ford Capri RS2600 in 1970, general Motors launched its first fuel-injected car around the same time, when began to introduce fuel-injected engines to its Vauxhall Cavalier/Opel Ascona range
Carburetor
–
Bendix-Technico (Stromberg) 1-barrel downdraft carburetor model BXUV-3, with nomenclature
Carburetor
–
1979 Evinrude Type I marine sidedraft carburetor
Carburetor
–
A high performance 4-barrel carburetor
Carburetor
–
Holley "Visi-Flo" model #1904 carburetors from the 1950s, factory equipped with transparent glass bowls.
46.
Water
–
Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Water
–
Water in three states: liquid, solid (
ice), and gas (invisible
water vapor in the air).
Clouds are accumulations of water droplets,
condensed from vapor-saturated air.
Water
–
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.
Water
–
Snowflakes by
Wilson Bentley, 1902.
Water
–
Dew drops adhering to a
spider web.
47.
Megajoule
–
The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
Megajoule
–
Base units
48.
Engine tuning
–
Engine tuning is an adjustment, modification of the internal combustion engine, or modification to its control unit, otherwise known as its ECU. It is adjusted to yield performance, to increase an engines power output, economy. These goals may be exclusive, and an engine may be detuned with respect to output in exchange for better economy or longer engine life due to lessened stress on engine components. It has a history, almost as long as the development of the automobile in general, originating with the development of early racing cars. Tuning can describe a variety of adjustments and modifications, from the routine adjustment of the carburetor. At the other end of the scale, performance tuning of an engine can involve revisiting some of the decisions taken at quite an early stage in the development of the engine. On modern engines, equipped with electronic ignition and fuel injection, some or all of tasks are automated. A tune-up usually refers to the servicing of the engine to meet the manufacturers specifications. Tune-ups are needed periodically as according to the recommendations to ensure an automobile runs as expected. Modern automobiles now typically only a small number of tune-ups over the course of an approximate 250. Modern engines are equipped with a management system /Engine Control Unit which can be modified to different settings. This also allows for an engine to be used by several different brands. Performance tuning focuses on tuning an engine for motorsport, although many such automobiles never compete, in this context, the power output, torque, and responsiveness of the engine are of premium importance, but reliability and fuel efficiency are also relevant. In particular, the transmission, driveshaft and any other load-transmitting powertrain components may need to be modified in order to withstand the load from the increased power, in almost all cases, people are interested in increasing the power output of an engine. Many well tried and tested techniques have been devised to achieve this, in order to check the amount of the air/fuel mixture, air fuel ratio meters are often used. The weight of fuel will affect the overall performance of the automobile. This also means that the tuning of an engine should take place in the context of the development of the overall automobile. Using larger or multiple carburetors, to create a more controllable air/fuel mixture to burn, in modern engines, fuel injection is more often used, and may be modified in a similar manner
Engine tuning
–
Vintage engine testing equipment that can test
ignition timing, ignition dwell,
manifold vacuum and exhaust emissions
Engine tuning
–
'Igniscope' ignition tester, with display tube and outer case missing.
49.
Autogas
–
Autogas is the common name for liquefied petroleum gas when it is used as a fuel in internal combustion engines in vehicles as well as in stationary applications such as generators. It is a mixture of propane and butane, Autogas is widely used as a green fuel, as its use reduces CO2 exhaust emissions by around 15% compared to petrol. One litre of petrol produces 2.3 kg of CO2 when burnt and it has an octane rating that is between 90 and 110 and an energy content that is between 25.5 megajoules per litre and 28.7 megajoules per litre depending upon the actual fuel composition. Approximately half of all autogas-fueled passenger vehicles are in the five largest markets, Turkey, South Korea, Poland, Italy, in countries where petroleum spirits is called petrol rather than gasoline, it is common for autogas to be simply referred to as gas. This can be confusing for people from countries where petrol is called gasoline, in the United States, autogas is more commonly known under the name of its primary constituent, propane. In 2010 the Propane Education & Research Council adopted Propane Autogas to refer to LPG used in motor vehicles. In the UK LPG and autogas are used interchangeably, in Australia the common terms are LPG and gas. In Italy and France, GPL is used, in Spain the term GLP is used. The converted vehicles are commonly called LPG vehicles or LPG cars, toyota made a number of LPG-only engines in their 1970s M, R, and Y engine families. Since 2011, Holdens Commodore range has been offered as a dedicated LPG vehicle, petrol engined cars which have not been fitted with LPG/autogas systems by the manufacturers can usually accept third party systems to enable them to use either LPG or petrol. Vialle manufacture OEM LPG powered scooters and LPG powered mopeds that run equally well on LPG, Ford Australia have offered an LPG-only variant of their Falcon model since 2000. It is also available at petrol stations in several countries. The recent rises in oil-derived fuel prices has increased the difference. Since the 1980s, the Algerian government has pursued a policy to promote the use of autogas in Algeria, the two main incentives for the government to put this policy into action were to take advantage of the large LPG production and to reduce urban pollution. At the end of 2003, there were approximately 120,000 autogas-powered vehicles on the roads, supported by over 300 refuelling stations, the Algerian government fixes the prices of all automotive fuels. Autogas is priced in Algeria at 61% of the price of diesel, LPG is popular in Australia, because it is less than half the price of petrol in urban areas, and it is locally produced. The two major manufacturers, offer factory fitted autogas in some models of their locally made large cars. Mitsubishi Australia formerly manufactured factory-fitted autogas vehicles locally but ceased manufacturing in 2008, all factory autogas vehicles, with the exception of the E-Gas Ford Falcon model, are bi-fuel vehicles, meaning they have the capability to run on either petrol, autogas, or a combination
Autogas
–
A
Shell Autogas refuelling station.
Autogas
–
4.0 litre E-Gas
straight-six engine of a 2001
Ford AU Falcon.
Autogas
–
3.6 litre
Alloytec bi-fuel (petrol and LPG)
V6 engine of a 2006–2008
Holden VE Commodore.
Autogas
–
2008 Global Autogas Consumption graph.
50.
Atkinson cycle
–
The Atkinson-cycle engine is a type of internal combustion engine invented by James Atkinson in 1882. The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of power density, a modern variation of this approach is used in some modern automobile engines. Mazda Skyactiv models offering this capability include the Mazda 3 and MX-5, Atkinson produced three different designs that had a short compression stroke and a longer expansion stroke. The first Atkinson-cycle engine was named the Differential Engine, the second, and most well-known design, was called the Cycle Engine, which used an over-center arm to create four piston strokes in one revolution of the crankshaft. Atkinsons third and final engine was called the Utilite Engine and it operated much like any two-stroke engine, Atkinsons engines were produced by the British Gas Engine Company and also licensed to other overseas manufacturers. In 1888, Charon filed a French patent and displayed an engine at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, the Charon gas engine also used a similar cycle to Miller but without a supercharger. It is referred to as the Charon cycle Modern engine designers are realizing the potential fuel-efficiency improvements the Atkinson-type cycle can provide, the first implementation of the Atkinson cycle was in 1882, unlike later versions, it was arranged as an opposed piston engine, the Atkinson differential engine. Thus, in revolution, one piston provided a compression stroke and a power stroke, and then the other piston provided an exhaust stroke. The intake and compression strokes were significantly shorter than the expansion, the Cycle engines were produced and sold for several years by the British Engine Company. Atkinson also licensed production to other manufactures, sizes ranged from a few up to 100 horsepower. Atkinsons third design was named the Utilite Engine, Atkinson realized an improvement was needed to make his cycle more applicable to a high-speed engine. The final engine produced by the British Gas Engine company was the Utilite Engine, with this design, Atkinson was able to make a more conventional engine yet preserve the efficiency of having a short compression stroke and a long expansion stroke in a rather ingenious way. It operates much like a standard two-stroke except that the exhaust port is located at about the middle of the stroke, during the expansion stroke, a valve prevents pressure from escaping as the piston moves past the exhaust port. Once the valve is opened, it remains open as the piston heads back toward compression, letting fresh air charge the cylinder, a rich fuel/air mixture is injected by a small piston pump after the start of compression. This resulted in an engine with a short compression and longer expansion stroke. The Utilite Engines were tested and found to be more efficient than Atkinsons previous designs. Very few Utilite Engines were produced and none is known to survive, the British patent is from 1892, #2492. No US patent for the Utilite Engine is known, the effective compression ratio is reduced, but the expansion ratio is unchanged
Atkinson cycle
–
A small engine with Atkinson-style linkages between the piston and flywheel. Modern Atkinson cycle engines do away with this complex energy path.
Atkinson cycle
–
Atkinson Gas Engine as shown in US Patent 367496
Atkinson cycle
–
2004
Toyota Prius hybrid
Atkinson cycle
–
2010
Ford Fusion Hybrid (North America)
. doi:10.1155/2009/281876.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the 
