1.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
2.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
5.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
6.
Architectural style
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An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the subject of architectural history, at any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, one example is the Spanish missions in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur, for instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different, the Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately and it is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, as western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new technology and to national building standards. Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across great ranges in time and this type of art history is also known as formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were often applied to other areas of the visual arts, and then more widely still to music, literature. In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is possible by. While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity, the definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. An example of mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. in the country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles, a center of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were introduced in England, Germany. During the Mannerist Renaissance period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms
7.
Ottoman architecture
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Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. For almost 400 years Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques, overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Byzantine architecture synthesized with architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. The Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in their lands hence or since, today, one finds remnants of Ottoman architecture in certain parts of its former territories under decay. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 1300–1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period and this period witnessed three types of mosques, tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Hacı Özbek Mosque in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque, the domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one, among these are the Fatih Mosque, Mahmutpaşa Mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapı Palace. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths, during the classical period mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable, the master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1489/1490 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities, Mimar Sinans first important work was the Şehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Süleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568–74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect. The Rüstempaşa, Mihriman Sultan, Ibrahimpasa Mosques and the Şehzade, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Roxelana, most classical period design used the Byzantine architecture of the neighboring Balkans as its base, and from there, ethnic elements were added creating a different architectural style. During the reign of Ahmed III and under the impetus of his grand vizier İbrahim Paşa, due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by Seljuk Turks, examples of the creation of this art form can be witnessed in Divriği hospital and mosque a UNESCO world heritage site, Sivas Çifteminare, Konya İnce Minare museum and many more. It is often called the Seljuk Baroque portal, from here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs, the decorative elements of the European Baroque and Rococo influenced even the religious Ottoman architecture. On the other hand, Mellin, a French architect, was invited by a sister of Sultan Selim III to Istanbul and depicted the Bosphorus shores and the pleasure mansions placed next to the sea. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip Period, all eyes were turned to the West, however, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on. Beginning with this period, the class and the elites in the Ottoman Empire started to use the open
8.
Dome
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A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The precise definition has been a matter of controversy, there are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives, a lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome. Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental traditions that have developed over time. Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia, which may explain the forms spread and they are found in Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the Ancient world, as well as among a number of contemporary indigenous building traditions. They were popular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture, and there are examples from Western Europe in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance style spread from Italy in the Early modern period, advancements in mathematics, materials, and production techniques since that time resulted in new dome types. The domes of the world can be found over religious buildings, legislative chambers, sports stadiums. The English word dome ultimately derives from the Latin domus —which, up through the Renaissance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or House of God, the French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution, sometimes called false domes, corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet at the top. A false dome may also refer to a wooden dome, true domes are said to be those whose structure is in a state of compression, with constituent elements of wedge-shaped voussoirs, the joints of which align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear, as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers are also in compression from the surrounding earth, as with arches, the springing of a dome is the level from which the dome rises. The top of a dome is the crown, the inner side of a dome is called the intrados and the outer side is called the extrados. The haunch is the part of an arch that lies halfway between the base and the top. The word cupola is another word for dome, and is used for a small dome upon a roof or turret. Cupola has also used to describe the inner side of a dome. Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without windows that support a dome, a tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a domes oculus, supporting a cupola
9.
Minaret
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A minaret, from Arabic, منارة manāra, lit. lighthouse, also known as Goldaste, is a distinctive architectural structure akin to a tower and typically found adjacent to mosques. Generally a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown, usually either free-standing or taller than associated support structure, the basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery. Styles vary regionally and by period, minarets provide a visual focal point and are traditionally used for the Muslim call to prayer. The purpose of minarets in traditional Eastern region architecture is to serve as a system for a building in very hot climates. That buildings of middle eastern origins have such outstanding features is architecturally intentional, however in modern times, with the invention of the modern air conditioners, the purpose of minarets has changed to traditional symbol. The minaret would be equipped with a speaker that would call people to prayers in Muslim countries. In addition to providing a visual cue to a Muslim community, the call to prayer is issued five times each day, dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. In most modern mosques, the adhān is called from the musallah via microphone to a system on the minaret. Around 80 years after Muhammads death, the first known minarets appeared, minarets have been described as the gate from heaven and earth, and as the Arabic language letter aleph. The massive minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is the oldest standing minaret and its construction began during the first third of the 8th century and was completed in 836 CE. The imposing square-plan tower consists of three sections of decreasing size reaching 31.5 meters, considered as the prototype for minarets of the western Islamic world, it served as a model for many later minarets. The tallest minaret, at 210 metres is located at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, the tallest brick minaret is Qutub Minar located in Delhi, India. In some of the oldest mosques, such as the Great Mosque of Damascus, the basic form of minarets consists of three parts, a base, shaft, and a gallery. For the base, the ground is excavated until a foundation is reached. Gravel and other supporting materials may be used as a foundation, minarets may be conical, square, cylindrical, or polygonal. Stairs circle the shaft in a fashion, providing necessary structural support to the highly elongated shaft. The gallery is a balcony that encircles the upper sections from which the muezzin may give the call to prayer, styles and architecture can vary widely according to region and time period. Here are a few styles and the localities from which they derive, Tunisia Quadrangular, turkish 1,2,4 or 6 minarets related to the size of the mosque
10.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
11.
Mosque
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A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni jurisprudence for a place of worship to be considered a mosque, many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, in varying styles of architecture. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents, the mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat as well as a center for information, education, social welfare, and dispute settlement. The imam leads the congregation in prayer, the first mosque in the world is often considered to be the area around the Kaaba in Mecca now known as the Masjid al-Haram. Others regard the first mosque in history to be the Quba Mosque in present-day Medina since it was the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad went on to another mosque in Medina. Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Masjid al-Nabawi introduced some of the still common in todays mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab. The Masjid al-Nabawi was also constructed with a courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Mosques had been built in Iraq and North Africa by the end of the 7th century, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala is reportedly one of the oldest mosques in Iraq, although its present form – typical of Persian architecture – only goes back to the 11th century. The shrine, while operating as a mosque, remains one of the holiest sites for Shia Muslims, as it honors the death of the third Shia imam. The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As was reportedly the first mosque in Egypt, serving as a religious, like the Imam Husayn Shrine, though, nothing of its original structure remains. With the later Shia Fatimid Caliphate, mosques throughout Egypt evolved to include schools, hospitals and it was the first to incorporate a square minaret and includes naves akin to a basilica. Those features can also be found in Andalusian mosques, including the Grand Mosque of Cordoba, still, some elements of Visigothic architecture, like horseshoe arches, were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb. The first mosque in East Asia was reportedly established in the 8th century in Xian, however, the Great Mosque of Xian, whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Indeed, minarets were initially prohibited by the state, mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesias Austronesian neighbors—Malaysia, Brunei, Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during the 7th century, reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes, pointed arches, and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles
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Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Islam is the most widespread religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was introduced to the population in the 15th and 16th centuries as a result of the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia. The Bosniaks are predominantly Muslim by religion, for which reason they have also emphasized as Bosnian Muslims throughout their history. There is also a small Sufi community, located primarily in Central Bosnia, Muslims comprise the single largest religious community in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Minority groups of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina include Albanians, Roma people, Turks, Islam was first introduced to the Balkans on a large scale by the Ottomans in the mid-to-late 15th century who gained control of most of Bosnia in 1463, and seized Herzegovina in the 1480s. Over the next century, the Bosnians - composed of dualists, during the Ottoman era the name Bošnjanin was definitely transformed into the current Bošnjak, with the suffix -ak replacing the traditional -anin. By the early 1600s, approximately two thirds of the population of Bosnia were Muslim, Bosnia and Herzegovina remained a province in the Ottoman Empire and gained autonomy after the Bosnian uprising in 1831. After the 1878 Congress of Berlin it came under the control of Austria-Hungary. In 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed the region, Bosnia, along with Albania, were the only parts of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans where large numbers of people were converted to Islam, and remained there after independence. Within the Federation, distinct Muslim and Catholic majority areas remain, throughout Bosnia, mosques were systematically destroyed by Serb and Croat armed forces. Among the most important losses were two mosques in Banja Luka, Arnaudija and Ferhadija mosque, that were on the UNESCO register of world cultural monuments. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are eight Muftis located in municipalities across the country, Sarajevo, Bihać, Travnik, Tuzla, Goražde, Zenica, Mostar. The acting head of the Islamic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Husein Kavazović, in a 1998 public opinion poll,78. 3% of Bosniaks in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared themselves to be religious. Headscarves for women, or the hijab is worn only by a minority of Bosniak women, Bosnians who participate in or are children of ethnically mixed marriages between the Bosniak, Serb and Croat populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina are often irreligious. The State Constitution provides freedom of religion, and individuals generally enjoy this right in ethnically mixed areas or in areas where they were adherents of the majority religion. The governments census bureau today does not collect data on religious affiliation, Development Programs Human Development Report 2002 as quoted by the Bosnia and Herzegovina report. Historically, Bosnian Muslims has always practiced Islam which is influenced by Sufism. Since Bosnian War, however, some remnants of groups of fighters from Middle-east, fighting on the side of Bosnian Army, remained for some time
13.
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
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Not to be confused with Stalingrad. Stari Grad is a municipality in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and it is the oldest and most historically significant part of Sarajevo. At its heart is the Baščaršija, the old town market sector where the city was founded by the Ottoman general Isa-Beg Isaković in the 15th century, the municipality of Stari Grad is characterized by its many religious structures, and examples of unique Bosnian architecture. The population of Stari Grad is slightly above 50,000 and its population density of 742.5 inhabitants per km² also ranks it last among four. Stari Grad contains numerous hotels and tourist attractions including the Gazi Husrev-begs Mosque, Careva Džamija, the land had a home on it and, despite offering the owner money, he refused and continued to refuse even when told that he had to move. When the officials threatened him, he moved the house and rebuilt it, piece by piece, on the side of the Miljacka river. The Sarajevo spite house operates today as a restaurant is called Inat Kuća which means Spite House, Sarajevo Sarajevo Canton Stari Grad, Sarajevo website
14.
Gazi Husrev-beg
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Gazi Husrev-beg was a Bosniak Ottoman sanjak-bey of the Sanjak of Bosnia in 1521—1525, 1526—1534, and 1536—1541. He was born in Serres, Greece, to a Bosnian Muslim father Ferhad, and a Turkish mother Selçuka, in less than three years, he conquered the fortresses of Knin, Skradin and Ostrovica. He was appointed sanjak-bey of the Sanjak of Bosnia on 15 September 1521, becoming one of Sultan Suleiman Is most trusted men. A relentless campaign of conquest followed soon, the towns of Greben, Sokol, Jezero, Vinac, Vrbaški Grad, Livač, Kamatin, Bočac, Udbina, Vrana, Modruč. He founded, among the buildings he ordered to construct in the city, the vakuf of Sarajevo. Gazi Husrev-beg played a role to overcome the Christian army at the Battle of Mohács. His 10,000 Akıncıs and his cavalry, composed of Turks, Bosniaks and Crimean Tatars. According to the Ottoman military strategy, the Akıncıs circled the European knights while the Turkish infantry made a retreat after the first assault. Gazi Husrev-begs forces struggled against a power vacuum in Montenegro after the death of Ottoman ally, in 1541, during an uprising of Montenegro nobility, he set out to protect the Crnojevićs and the local populace. After fighting many battles to maintain order in the region, although victorious, he was killed while fighting Christian rebels in Mokro. Legend states that he was a big man, so his warriors were unable to carry him, the legend has it that this event gave Drobnjaci their name, although the name Drobnjaci is recorded earlier in history. However, its connection to Gazi Husrev-begs place of rest is unclear. His corpse was returned to Sarajevo, where it remains in a tomb in the courtyard of his mosque, yugoslav Encyclopedia, article Husrev Beg, vol. IV, Hazim Sabanovič, Zagreb 1960 GAMER, I,1 s, 99-111, The other Ottoman Serhat in Europe, Ottoman territorial expansion in Bosnia and Croatia in first half of 16th century, Dino Mujadžević
15.
Beg (title)
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Bey is a Turkish title for chieftain, traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups. The feminine equivalent title was Begum, the regions or provinces where beys ruled or which they administered were called beylik, roughly meaning khanate, emirate or principality in the first case, province or governorate in the second. Today, the word is used informally as a social title for men. Unlike mister however, it follows the name and is used generally with first names, the dialect variations bäk, bek, bey, biy, bi, and pig all derive from the Old Turkic form. The actual origin of the word is disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it was a loan-word. This Turkic word is considered a borrowing from an Iranian language. Two principal etymologies have been proposed by scholars,1, the Middle Persian title bag meaning lord and master. Peter Golden derives the word via Sogdian bġy from the same Iranian root, the Iranian bāy gave Turkish word bai, whence Mongol name Bayan. The Chinese title pö, meaning brother and feudal lord. What is certain is that the word has no connections to Turkish berk, strong, or Turkish bögü, the first three rulers of the Ottoman realm were titled Bey. The chief sovereign of the Ottoman Empire only came to be called sultan starting in 1383 when Murad I was granted this title by the caliph in Cairo. By 1336 it had annexed only the Beylik of Karasy, its neighbour on the coast of the Sea of Marmara. The latter were usually titled sanjakbey, beys were lower in rank than pashas and provincial governors, who governed most of the Ottoman vilayets, but higher than effendis. Eventually the chiefs of the former Ottoman capitals Bursa and Edirne in Turkish Thrace both were designated Bey, over time the title became somewhat devalued, as Bey was even used as a courtesy title for a pashas son. By the late 19th century, Bey had been reduced in the Ottoman Empire to an equivalent of the English-speaking address Sir. As with most Turkish titles, it follows the rather than precedes it as in western languages. When one speaks of Mr. Ahmet, the title has to be written with a capital, Bey may combine with efendi to give a common form of address, to which the possessive suffix -m is usually added, beyefendim, efendim. Beyefendi has its counterpart, hanımefendi, used alone, to address a woman without her first name
16.
Waqf
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The donated assets may be held by a charitable trust. The person making such dedication is known as waqif, a donor, in Ottoman Turkish law, and later under the British Mandate of Palestine, the waqf was defined as usufruct State land of which the State revenues are assured to pious foundations. In Sunni jurisprudence, waqf, also spelled wakf is synonymous with ḥabs, habs and similar terms are used mainly by Maliki jurists. In Twelver Shiism, ḥabs is a type of waqf. The person making the grant is called al-waqif while the endowed assests are called al-mawquf, the term waqf literally means confinement and prohibition or causing a thing to stop or stand still. Bahaeddin Yediyıldız defines the waqf as a system which comprises three elements, hayrat, akarat and waqf, there is no direct injunction of the Quran regarding Waqf, which is derived from a number of hadiths. One says, Ibn Umar reported, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab got land in Khaybar, so he came to the prophet Muhammad, the Prophet said, If you like, make the property inalienable and give the profit from it to charity. It goes on to say that Umar gave it away as alms and he gave it away for the poor, the relatives, the slaves, the jihad, the travelers and the guests. And it will not be held against him who administers it if he consumes some of its yield in a manner or feeds a friend who does not enrich himself by means of it. In another hadith, Muhammad said, When a man dies, Islamic law puts several legal conditions on the process of establishing a waqf. A waqf is a contract, therefore the founder must be of the capacity to enter into a contract, finally if a person is fatally ill, the waqf is subject to the same restrictions as a will in Islam. The property used to found a waqf must be objects of a valid contract, the object should not be illegal in Islam. Finally these objects should not already be in the public domain, thus, public property cannot be used to establish a waqf. The founder cannot also have pledged the property previously to someone else and these conditions are generally true for contracts in Islam. The property dedicated to waqf is generally immovable, such as estate, all movable goods can also form waqf, according to most Islamic jurists. The Hanafis, however, also allow most movable goods to be dedicated to a waqf with some restrictions, some jurists have argued that even gold and silver can be designated as waqf. The beneficiaries of the waqf can be persons and public utilities, the founder can specify which persons are eligible for benefit. Public utilities such as mosques, schools, bridges, graveyards, modern legislation divides the waqf as charitable causes, in which the beneficiaries are the public or the poor) and family waqf, in which the founder makes the beneficiaries his relatives
17.
Maktab
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Maktab or Maktabeh or Maktabkhaneh, also called a Kuttab “school” is an Arabic word meaning elementary schools. Though it was used for teaching children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic studies such as Qiraat. Until the 20th century, maktabs were the means of mass education in much of the Islamic world. Maktab refers to only elementary schools in Arabic, Maktab is used in Dari Persian in Afghanistan as an equivalent term to school, including both primary and secondary schools. Avicenna used the word maktab in the same sense, maktabs or kuttābs are an old-fashioned method of education in Egypt and Muslim majority countries, in which a sheikh teaches a group of students who sit in front of him on the ground. The curriculum includes Islam and Quranic Arabic, but focused mainly on memorising the Quran, with the development of modern schools, the number of kuttabs has declined. Kuttāb means writers, plural katatīb / katātīb, in common Modern Arabic usage, maktab means office while maktabah means library or study and kuttāb is a plural word meaning books. In the medieval Islamic world, a school was known as a maktab. Like madrasahs, a maktab was often attached to a mosque, in the 16th century, the Sunni Islamic jurist Ibn Hajar al-Haytami discussed Maktab schools. Ibn Sina described the curriculum of a school in some detail. Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a school from the age of 6. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the Quran, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics, and manual skills. Ibn Sina refers to the secondary stage of maktab schooling as the period of specialization. In medieval times, the Caliphate experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah institutions played a fundamental role in the relatively high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world. Madrasah, meant for higher education Maktab Anbar Maktab Encyclopædia Britannica
18.
Madrasa
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Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious. The word is variously transliterated madrasah, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, in the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. In countries like India, not all students in madrasas are Muslims, the word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S to learn, study, through the wazn مفعل, mafʻal, meaning a place where something is done. Therefore, madrasah literally means a place where learning and studying take place, for example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة, the Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning, the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. However, in English, the term usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir, sharīʻah, hadiths, mantiq, in the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, people of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study, a good number of the ḥuffāẓ are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes, an important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students, however, they study separately from the men, the term Islamic education means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same, because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. The first institute of education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher. After Hijrah the madrasa of Suffa was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque, ubada ibn as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students. In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Quran, The Hadith, faraiz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, there were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of nabuwwat to the first portion of the Umaiya caliphate and it was founded by Fāṭimah al-Fihrī, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihrī. This was later followed by the establishment of al-Azhar in 959 in Cairo, niẓām al-Mulk, who would later be murdered by the Assassins, created a system of state madaris in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century
19.
Turkish bath
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A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
20.
Mimar Sinan
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Koca Mimâr Sinân Âğâ was the chief Ottoman architect and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects and his apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Stari Most in Mostar, and help design the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire. The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and he rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of ağa. He remained in this post for almost fifty years and his masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha and he is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West. Michelangelo and his plans for St. Mimar Sinans works are among the most influential buildings in history, according to contemporary biographer, Mustafa Sâi Çelebi, Sinan was born in 1489 with the name Joseph. He was born either an Armenian, Cappadocian Greek, Albanian, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sinan had either Armenian or Greek origin. According to some scholars, this means that his family was Cappadocian Greek because the only Orthodox Christians of the region were Greeks, also, some of them have identified his father as a stonemason and carpenter by the name of Christos, a common Greek name. According to Herbert J. Muller though, he seems to have been an Armenian, lucy Der Manuelian of Tufts University suggests that he can be identified as an Armenian through a document in the imperial archives and other evidence. Several scholars have cited Sinans possible Albanian origin, Sinan grew up helping his father in his work, and by the time that he was conscripted would have had a good grounding in the practicalities of building work. There are three records in the library of Topkapı Palace, dictated by Sinan to his friend. In these manuscripts, Sinan divulges some details of his youth and his father is referred to as Abdülmennan, a title which was commonly used in the Ottoman period to define the non-Muslim father of a Muslim convert. In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system and he was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam. He was too old to be admitted to the imperial Enderun School in the Topkapı Palace but was sent instead to an auxiliary school, some records claim that he might have served the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha as a novice of the Ibrahim Pasha School. Possibly, he was given the Islamic name Sinan there and he initially learned carpentry and mathematics but through his intellectual qualities and ambitions, he soon assisted the leading architects and got his training as an architect. During the next six years, he trained to be a Janissary officer. He possibly joined Selim I in his last military campaign, Rhodes according to sources, but when the Sultan died. Two years later he witnessed the conquest of Belgrade, under the new sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, he was present, as a member of the Household Cavalry, at the Battle of Mohács
21.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
22.
Republic of Ragusa
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The Republic of Ragusa was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia that existed from 1358 to 1808. It reached its peak in the 15th and the 16th centuries, before being conquered by Napoleons French Empire. It had a population of about 30,000 people, out of whom 5,000 lived within the city walls and its motto was Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro, which translated from Latin means Liberty is not well sold for all the gold. Originally named Communitas Ragusina, in the 14th century it was renamed Respublica Ragusina, in Italian it is called Repubblica di Ragusa, in Croatian it is called Dubrovačka Republika. The Croatian name Dubrovnik is derived from the word dubrava, an oak grove, by a folk etymology. It came into use alongside Ragusa as early as the 14th century, the Latin, Italian and Dalmatian name Ragusa derives its name from Lausa, it was later altered in Rausium, Rhagusium or Ragusium or Rausia and finally into Ragusa. The official change of name from Ragusa to Dubrovnik came into effect under Austria-Hungary and it is known in historiography as the Republic of Ragusa. In the 15th century the Ragusan republic also acquired the islands of Korčula, Brač, however they had to be given up due to the resistance of local minor aristocrats sympathizing with Venice which was granting them some privileges. In the 16th century administrative units of the Republic were, the City of Ragusa, Lastovo and Mljet were semi-autonomous communities each having its own Statute. Some of the survivors moved 25 kilometres north to an island near the coast where they founded a new settlement. It has been claimed that a raid by the Slavs in 656 resulted in the total destruction of Epidaurum. Slavs, including Croats and Serbs, settled along the coast in the 7th century, the Slavs named their settlement Dubrovnik. The Romance and Slavs held each other antagonistically, though by the 12th century the two settlements had merged, the channel that divided the city was filled creating the present-day main street which became the city centre. Thus, Dubrovnik became the Croatian name for the united town, there are recent theories based on excavations that the city was established much earlier, at least in the 5th and possibly to the Ancient Greek period. An ideal combination would have a water source in the vicinity. Dubrovnik had both, being halfway between the Greek settlements of Budva and Korčula, which are 95 nautical miles apart, during its first centuries the city, known as Ragusium in Latin and Raousion in Greek, was under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The Saracens laid siege to the city in 866–67, it lasted for fifteen months and was raised due to the intervention of Byzantine Emperor Basil I, who sent a fleet under Niketas Ooryphas in relief. Ooryphas showing of the flag had swift results, as the Slavic tribes sent envoys to the Emperor, once more acknowledging his suzerainty
23.
Pendentive
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A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are segments of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom. In masonry the pendentives thus receive the weight of the dome, prior to the pendentives development, the device of corbelling or the use of the squinch in the corners of a room had been employed. Pendentives were commonly used in Orthodox, Renaissance, and Baroque churches, hagia Sophia Squinch Heinle, Erwin, Schlaich, Jörg, Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03062-6 Rasch, Jürgen, Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion, Architectura,15, pp. 117–139
24.
Muqarnas
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It is used for domes, and especially half-domes in entrances, iwans and apses, mostly in traditional Islamic and Persian architecture. Where some elements project downwards, the style may be called mocárabe, these are reminiscent of stalactites, Muqarnas developed around the middle of the 10th century in northeastern Iran and almost simultaneously — but apparently independently — in North Africa. Examples can be found across Morocco and by extension, the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, the Abbasid Palace in Baghdad, Iraq, and the mausoleum of Sultan Qaitbay, Cairo, Egypt. Large rectangular roofs in wood with muqarnas-style decoration adorn the 12th century Cappella Palatina in Palermo, Sicily, Muqarnas is also found in Armenian architecture. Muqarnas is typically applied to the undersides of domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches, arches, Muqarnas is a downward-facing shape, that is, a vertical line can be traced from the floor to any point on a muqarnas surface. It is also arranged in courses, as in a corbelled vault. The edges of surfaces can all be traced on a single plan view, architects can thus plan out muqarnas geometrically. Muqarnas does not have a significant structural role, Muqarnas need not be carved into the structural blocks of a corbelled vault, it can be hung from a structural roof as a purely decorative surface. Muqarnas may be made of brick, stone, stucco, or wood, the individual cells may be called alveoles. Some modern muqarnas elements have been designed, if not built, with upwards-facing cells, Architecture of Iran Islamic architecture Islamic geometric patterns Mathematics and art Ottoman architecture Muqarnas, A Three-dimensional Decoration of Islam Architecture. Contains a database of over a thousand plans of extant muqarnas, indexed by location and geometry
25.
Mihrab
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Mihrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla, that is, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a mihrab appears is thus the qibla wall, Mihrabs should not be confused with the minbar, which is the raised platform from which an Imam addresses the congregation. The word is derived from the verb ḥariba, so miḥrāb would mean battlefield or place of fight. Some scholars have suggested that the word is from the Ethiopian mekʷerab, the word mihrab originally had a non-religious meaning and simply denoted a special room in a house, a throne room in a palace, for example. The Fath al-Bari, on the authority of others, suggests the mihrab is the most honorable location of kings and the master of locations, the front and the most honorable. The Mosques in Islam, in addition to Arabic sources, cites Theodor Nöldeke, the term was subsequently used by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to denote his own private prayer room. The room additionally provided access to the adjacent mosque, and the Prophet would enter the mosque through this room. This original meaning of mihrab – i. e. as a room in the house – continues to be preserved in some forms of Judaism where mihrabs are rooms used for private worship. In the Quran, the word refers to a sanctuary/place of worship. The sign was however just a sign on the wall, eventually, the niche came to be universally understood to identify the qibla wall, and so came to be adopted as a feature in other mosques. A sign was no longer necessary, the Quranic passage that refers to a mihrab – then he came forth to his people from the sanctuary/place of worship – is inscribed on or over some mihrabs. Today, Mihrabs vary in size, are usually ornately decorated, in exceptional cases, the mihrab does not follow the qibla direction. One example is the Mezquita of Córdoba, Spain that points south instead of southeast, among the proposed explanations, there is the localization of the ancient Roman cardo street besides the old temple the Mezquita was built upon. Another is the Masjid al-Qiblatayn, or the Mosque of the Two Qiblas and this is where the Prophet Muhammad received the command to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca, thus has two prayer niches. In the 21st Century the mosque was renovated, and the old prayer niche facing Jerusalem was removed, and the one facing Mecca was left
26.
Minbar
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A minbar is a pulpit in the mosque where the imam stands to deliver sermons or in the Hussainia where the speaker sits and lectures the congregation. The word is a derivative of the Arabic root n-b-r, the Arabic plural is manābir, the minbar, the decoration of which some believe to be part of the sunnah, is usually shaped like a small tower with a pointed roof and stairs leading up to it. In contrast, the prophet Muhammed used only a platform three steps. There may be a seat at the top, in contrast to most Christian pulpits, the steps up to the minbar are usually in a straight line on the same axis as the seat, as seen in those illustrated here. They also take the preacher higher above the congregation than is typical in churches, the minbar is located to the right of the mihrab, the niche that indicates the direction of prayer. The minbar is also a symbol of authority, in some mosques there is a platform opposite the minbar where the assistant of the Imam, the muezzin, stands during prayer. The muezzin recites the answers to the prayers of the Imam where applicable, the oldest Islamic pulpit in the world to be preserved intact is the minbar of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Dating from the 9th century, it is a staircase made of carved and sculptured teak wood. Composed of an assembly of three hundred finely sculpted parts, this minbar is considered to be a jewel of Islamic wooden art. Reconstructing a Jewel of Islamic Art
27.
Portico
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A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was used in Ancient Greece and has influenced many cultures. Some noteworthy examples of porticos are the East Portico of the United States Capitol, the portico adorning the Pantheon in Rome, porticos are sometimes topped with pediments. Bologna, Italy, is famous for its porticos, in total, there are over 45 km of arcades, some 38 in the city center. The longest portico in the world, about 3.5 km, in Bologna, Italy, porticos stretch for 18 km. Palladio was a pioneer of using temple-fronts for secular buildings, in the UK, the temple-front applied to The Vyne, Hampshire was the first portico applied to an English country house. A pronaos is the area of the portico of a Greek or Roman temple. Roman temples commonly had an open pronaos, usually with only columns and no walls, the word pronaos is Greek for before a temple. In Latin, a pronaos is also referred to as an anticum or prodomus, the different variants of porticos are named by the number of columns they have. The style suffix comes from the Greek στῦλος, column, the tetrastyle has four columns, it was commonly employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans for small structures such as public buildings and amphiprostyles. Roman provincial capitals also manifested tetrastyle construction, such as the Capitoline Temple in Volubilis, the North Portico of the White House is perhaps the most notable four-columned portico in the United States. Hexastyle buildings had six columns and were the standard façade in canonical Greek Doric architecture between the archaic period 600–550 BC up to the Age of Pericles 450–430 BC. With the colonization by the Greeks of Southern Italy, hexastyle was adopted by the Etruscans, Roman taste favoured narrow pseudoperipteral and amphiprostyle buildings with tall columns, raised on podiums for the added pomp and grandeur conferred by considerable height. The Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, is the best-preserved Roman hexastyle temple surviving from antiquity, octastyle buildings had eight columns, they were considerably rarer than the hexastyle ones in the classical Greek architectural canon. The best-known octastyle buildings surviving from antiquity are the Parthenon in Athens, built during the Age of Pericles, and the Pantheon in Rome. The destroyed Temple of Divus Augustus in Rome, the centre of the Augustan cult, is shown on Roman coins of the 2nd century AD as having built in octastyle. The decastyle has ten columns, as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, the temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian in Rome about 130 A. D. was decastyle, the only known example in Roman architecture. Classical architecture List of classical architecture terms Hypostyle Loggia Stoa Greek architecture, Encyclopædia Britannica,1968 Stierlin, Greece, From Mycenae to the Parthenon, TASCHEN,2004, Editor-in-chief Angelika Taschen, Cologne, ISBN 3-8228-1225-0 Stierlin, Henri
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Siege of Sarajevo
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The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. The siege lasted three times longer than the Battle of Stalingrad and more than a longer than the Siege of Leningrad. From there they assaulted the city with artillery, tanks and small arms, from 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian government defence forces inside the city, numbering some 70,000 troops, were poorly equipped. A total of 13,952 people were killed during the siege, the ARBiH suffered 6,137 fatalities, while Bosnian Serb military casualties numbered 2,241 soldiers killed. The 1991 census indicates that before the siege the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980, there are estimates that prior to the siege the population in the city proper was 435,000. The estimates of the number of living in Sarajevo after the siege ranged from between 300,000 and 380,000. After the war, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted two Serb officials for numerous counts of crimes against humanity committed during the siege, stanislav Galić and Dragomir Milošević were sentenced to life imprisonment and 29 years imprisonment respectively. One of the 11 indictments against Radovan Karadžić, the president of the Republika Srpska, is for the siege. When Yugoslavias longtime leader Marshal Tito died in 1980 this policy of containment underwent a dramatic reversal, nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s after violence erupted in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of a Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to federalisation, croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or to seek independence and this Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became the Republika Srpska in August 1992. A declaration of Bosnian sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 and this referendum was boycotted by the vast majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the referendum was 63. 4% and 99. 7% of voters voted for independence. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and these minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March, on Bosanski Brod on 24 and 30 March 1992 on Bijeljina. On 1 March 1992, an Orthodox wedding in downtown Sarajevo was attacked, nikola Gardović, the grooms father, was killed. It continued through the run-up to Bosnia and Herzegovinas recognition as an independent state, on 5 April, ethnic Serb policemen attacked police stations and then an Interior Ministry training school. The attack killed two officers and one civilian, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared a state of emergency the following day
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Islamic architecture
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Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Persian, Roman, Byzantine, further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are, the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, from these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Symbolic views of scholars on Islamic architecture have consistently been criticized by historians for lacking historical evidence. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture and it is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style, the Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, the horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The Great Mosque of Damascus, built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital, other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir demonstrated the despotic, the Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and it is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque, the Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a structural feature of Islamic architecture. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques, the distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture, also originating with the Byzantines and Persians, have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century
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Islamic art
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Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onward by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of an article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, pottery. Islamic art is not at all restricted to art, but includes all the art of the rich. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible. Mistakes in repetitions may be introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the private form of miniatures. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in some interpretations of Islamic law. There are also depictions of Muhammad, Islams chief prophet. Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on pieces in many media from many periods. Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation, Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures are sometimes referred to as quranic art. Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in relief, complex carved calligraphy also decorates buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority of coins only showed lettering, the tughra or monogram of an Ottoman sultan was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Quranic verses, or other texts. The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, always used for Quranic verses, Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry, calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists. The tradition of the Persian miniature has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey, portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized, album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex
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History of Sarajevo
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This article is about the history of Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of the History of Sarajevo series, and includes articles for each of the discussed periods of time. The present day site of Sarajevo has a long and rich history dating back to the Stone Age, There were no people in the region in the Paleolithic era, although the remains of ancient animals have been found, including those of the ancient bear species, Ursus spelaeus. Excavation for the period has never been very comprehensive, and if the Sarajevo area was indeed inhabited during the Paleolithic era, during the neolithic era, the Sarajevo region was home to the Butmir Culture. Specifically, these found themselves in Butmir, a satellite neighborhood of Ilidža. The area is rich in flint, essential for making tools and weapons, the Butmir culture is most famous for its ceramics. Unique and artistic, it is one of the reasons why the Butmir people are identified as a unique culture today. The finds were so sensational when they were made in the late 19th century, today, all excavated material can be found in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Butmir Culture disappeared around 2400 BC, probably conquered by the next prominent inhabitants of Sarajevo and they lived primarily in the West Balkans, mostly around the river Miljacka and Sarajevo valley. The most prominent of these was Debelo Brdo in today’s Old Town, numerous Illyrian forts also existed in other parts of the city, as well as at the base of Trebević mountain. The Illyrians in the Sarajevo region belonged to the tribe Daesitates and their last revolt occurred in 9 AD, and was crushed by the emperor Tiberius, marking the start of Roman rule in the region. During Roman rule, Sarajevo was part of the province of Dalmatia, a major Roman road ran through the Miljacka river valley connecting the rich coastal cities of Dalmatia and the Adriatic coast with Pannonia to the North. The importance of the road can be seen by the numerous Roman artifacts found in the heart of Sarajevo itself over the years, on the left bank of the Miljacka there were once found Roman bricks and an inscription indicating a construction yard and, nearby, a bathhouse. The biggest known settlement in the region was known as ‘’Aquae S. ’’ on top of present-day Ilidža, the Slavs came to Bosnia in the 7th century, but details of their movement and settlement through the country remain a mystery. Some Slavic artifacts remain from the time however, and it is certain that they settled in the Sarajevo valley. Katera, one of the two original Bosnian towns that were mentioned by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in De Administrando Imperio, was found to the southeast of Sarajevo. By the time of the Ottoman occupation there was little settlement left in the region, the first mentions of Bosnia describe a small region, which was basically the Bosna river valley, stretching from modern-day Zenica to Sarajevo. In the 12th century, when Bosnia became a vassal of Hungary, the area of present-day Sarajevo was part of the Bosnian province of Vrhbosna, near the traditional center of the kingdom
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Sarajevo in Austria-Hungary
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In late summer 1878, the city of Sarajevo, along with the rest of Bosnia Vilayet, was occupied by Austria-Hungary. This lasted until 1908 when the territory was annexed and turned into a condominium. The uprising lasted more than two years before the Ottomans, aided by the local Muslim population, managed to put it down. The Ottoman reaction to the Bulgarian insurrection was swift and brutal, another Great Power, the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, closely followed the events of the 1875 Serb peasant rebellion in Bosnia. In the document, known as the Andrássy Note, the foreign minister outlined his vision for Bosnia as a territory governed and administered by Austria-Hungary, after obtaining general assent from the UK and France, the document became official basis for negotiations. Simultaneous with their defeats in the Russo-Turkish War, the Ottoman rule in the Bosnia Vilayet was rapidly weakening as well. By the spring of 1878, the Ottoman Army in the vilayet was in such a state of disarray that many troops simply deserted after essentially being left to their own means. As a consequence, a three thousand armed deserters were roaming the countryside in small bands, frequently terrorizing peasants. With no organized force implementing the law, groups of outlaws operated with impunity in many rural areas, all of the events of the so-called Eastern Crisis from 1875 until 1878, echoed resoundingly among the population of Sarajevo. By late winter 1878 it became clear that circumstances for the weakening of the Ottoman grip might finally be in place, the Treaty of San Stefano — imposed on 3 March 1878 by the victorious Russia upon the defeated Ottomans — confirmed that line of thinking. Muslim population of the Bosnia Vilayet welcomed the greater autonomy thus rekindling their autonomy aspirations. However, international reaction to the Russian-initiated treaty was mostly negative, the United Kingdom soon decided to support Austria-Hungarys aspirations in Bosnia. On the other end of the spectrum, in addition to Bosnian Muslims. Bosnian Muslim reaction to the prospect of Austro-Hungarian rule was divided along social lines and this economic class divide among the Bosnian Muslims on the Austro-Hungarian issue was clearly evident around Sarajevo during spring 1878. Although the petition reportedly included some five hundred signatures, most Muslim landowners refused to sign it, the petitioners demand to eliminate all Christians would thus have removed Konstan from office and secured the Muslim Mazhars post had the San Stefano agreement been implemented. The new petition, formally submitted to governor Mazhar on 2 June 1878, was seen as a win for the leading Muslim landowners who managed to purge it of its anti-Christian and anti-reform provisions. Its only two points were now a demand that a popular assembly rule the land and an appeal to all groups to unite in opposition to Austro-Hungarian occupation. The new body, called the Peoples Assembly, met for the first on 5 June with a membership consisting of thirty individuals from the Muslim landowning elite
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1984 Winter Olympics
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The 1984 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIV Olympic Winter Games, was a winter multi-sport event which took place from 8–19 February 1984 in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Yugoslavia. Other candidate cities were Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden and it was the first Winter Olympics held in a Communist state. It was also the second Olympics overall, as well as the second consecutive Olympics, to be held in a Communist nation after the 1980 Summer Olympics were held in Moscow, All of these have been in China. During the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, numerous newspapers drew attention to the venues of the Sarajevo Olympic games from 30 years prior. The host city for the XIV Winter Olympics was announced on 18 May 1978 during an 80th session of the International Olympic Committee in Athens, Sarajevo was selected over Sapporo, Japan by a margin of three votes. Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was part of the united Yugoslavia at the time, the torch relay for the 1984 Sarajevo Olympic games started in Olympia and then proceeded by airplane to Dubrovnik. The total distance of the relay through Yugoslavia was 5,289 kilometres. There were two main routes – one in the west and the other in the east, the final torchbearer, from a total of 1600, was figure skater Sanda Dubravčić, who received the torch from skier runner Ivo Čarman. Today one of the two original torches is in Slovenia in a collection in Žalec, Slovenia. The Olympic flag was raised upside down during the ceremony by mistake. First Games under the presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch, the 20 kilometre race was added to womens Nordic skiing. Skier Jure Franko won Yugoslavias first Winter Olympic medal, a silver in the giant slalom, marja-Liisa Hämäläinen won all three individual cross-country races for women. Gaétan Boucher and Karin Enke each won two medals in speed skating, while East German women won all but three out of the twelve medals in the sport. Austria, usually a formidable winter sports nation, won one bronze medal. Biathlete Eirik Kvalfoss earned a complete set of medals, twin brothers Phil and Steve Mahre took first and second place in the slalom. Torvill and Dean of Great Britain earned across-the-board perfect scores for artistic impression in the free dance ice dancing competition, the gold medals for Figure Skating were split among four nations. Disabled skiing was a sport for the first time. Bill Johnson became the first American to win an Olympic downhill event, lamine Guèye of Senegal was the first Black African skier to compete in the Winter Olympics
34.
Centar, Sarajevo
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Centar is a municipality of central Sarajevo in Bosnia. It is located between the parts of the city under Stari Grad, and the newer more modern parts of the city under the municipalities Novi Grad. The Centar municipality, according to the government website, is the administrative, business, commercial, cultural, educational, although some of these may be disputed, Centar is certainly the most important part of Sarajevo, housing most major branches of the city and national governments. The municipality of Centar occupies 3,313 hectrates of land, the amount of private and state owned land is nearly equal, with 1600 and 1713 hectrates respectively. Centar is also home to many Olympic complexes such as Dvorana Mirza Delibašić and sports venues Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium, the Siege of Sarajevo had a tremendous effect on Centar. Prior to the aggression, Centar municipality had 79.000 citizens,7,000 citizens of the municipality were killed by the aggressors during the war, as major battles took place on its grounds. There was also a presence of land mines in the area. Since the end of the war, the municipality has received 12 major awards, indicating its current well-being, census, Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine - Bilten no.234, Sarajevo 1991. The official web site of Centar municipality Sarajevo
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Novi Grad, Sarajevo
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Not to be confused with Novi Grad, another municipality. Novi Grad is the westernmost of the four municipalities that make up the city of Sarajevo, Sarajevo Canton in Bosnia, during the 1970s, Sarajevo was undergoing a rapid economic and cultural development, with great expansion focused on population and industry. Novi Grad was a result of this period of heavy growth. By the time the Novi Grad municipality was recognized, it had some 60,000 citizens. According to the 1991 census, the municipality of Novi Grad had 136,746 citizens, four years of Bosnian War brought that number down tremendously. Some sections of Novi Grad were among the first to be occupied by the aggressors, of the municipalitys 33,517 residential buildings, 92% were damaged during the Siege of Sarajevo. Novi Grad has since made a fantastic recovery, although many bullet holes and mortar shell impacts are visible throughout the municipality, it is overall healthy and functioning. As the most modern part of Sarajevo, Novi Grad is also ground to many new developments, in 2005, 86% of population of the municipality were ethnic Bosniaks
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Novo Sarajevo
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Novo Sarajevo is a municipality in Sarajevo, and Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the middle of the Sarajevo field, predominantly on the bank of the Miljacka. Prior to the siege, Novo Sarajevo had some 47.6 km², following the Siege of Sarajevo, 75% of the lesser populated urban area was transferred to the Republika Srpska, leaving Novo Sarajevo municipality with 11.43 km². As a result, Novo Sarajevo has the highest number of people per km² and these two municipalities combine for 60. 9% of the Sarajevo Canton GDP, even though they account for merely 3. 5% of the total area of Sarajevo Canton, and 27% of its population
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