1.
Sarajevo
–
Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
Sarajevo
Sarajevo
Sarajevo
–
From top, left to right: Sarajevo panorama,
Emperor's Mosque,
Sarajevo Cathedral,
Orthodox Cathedral,
Sarajevo Library,
Latin Bridge, and
Sebilj.
Sarajevo
2.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Mogorjelo, ancient Roman suburban Villa Rustica from the 4th century, near
Čapljina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Flag
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in
Sarajevo dating from 1531
Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Bosniak resistance against the
Austro-Hungarian military intervention in 1878
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
List of religions and spiritual traditions
–
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, beliefs and world views that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes to moral values. While religion is hard to define, one model of religion, used in religious studies courses, was proposed by Clifford Geertz. A critique of Geertzs model by Talal Asad categorized religion as an anthropological category, many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws, or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos, according to some estimates, there are roughly 4,200 religions in the world. The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system, Certain religions also have a sacred language often used in liturgical services. Religious beliefs have also used to explain parapsychological phenomena such as out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences and reincarnation. A group of monotheistic traditions sometimes grouped with one another for comparative purposes, oriental Orthodox Churches, Includes the Armenian Apostolic, Coptic, Syrian Orthodox, Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, as well as a portion of the St. Thomas Christians in India. Greek Old Calendarists Russian Old Believers Bezpopovtsy Popovtsy Spiritual Christianity Doukhobor Molokan Certain Christian groups are difficult to classify as Eastern or Western, irenaeus wrote polemics against them from the standpoint of the then-unified Catholic Church. They are definitely of ancient Israelite origin, but their status as Jews is disputed, falasha or Beta Israel Noahidism Noahidism is a monotheistic ideology based on the Seven Laws of Noah, and on their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism. According to Jewish law, non-Jews are not obligated to convert to Judaism and they derive from African traditional religions, especially of West and Central Africa, showing similarities to the Yoruba religion in particular. co. uk section on major world religions
List of religions and spiritual traditions
–
Religious symbols in clock-wise order:
Judaism,
Christianity,
Islam,
Bahá'í Faith,
Hinduism,
Taoism,
Buddhism,
Sikhism,
Slavic neopaganism,
Celtic polytheism,
Heathenism (German paganism),
Semitic neopaganism,
Wicca,
Kemetism (Egyptian paganism),
Hellenism,
Italo-Roman neopaganism.
5.
Islam
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islam
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islam
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islam
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
Islam
–
An
angel presenting
Muhammad and his companions with a miniature city. In the
Topkapi Palace Library,
Istanbul.
6.
Architect
–
An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
Architect
–
Filippo Brunelleschi is revered to be one of the most inventive and gifted architects in history.
Architect
–
An architect at work, 1893.
Architect
–
Architect
Rem Koolhaas inspecting a model of the
Seattle Central Library
7.
Architectural style
–
An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the subject of architectural history, at any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, one example is the Spanish missions in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur, for instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different, the Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately and it is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, as western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new technology and to national building standards. Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across great ranges in time and this type of art history is also known as formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were often applied to other areas of the visual arts, and then more widely still to music, literature. In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is possible by. While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity, the definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. An example of mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. in the country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles, a center of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were introduced in England, Germany. During the Mannerist Renaissance period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms
Architectural style
–
The Architect's Dream by Thomas Cole (1840) shows a vision of buildings in the historical styles of the Western tradition, from Ancient Egypt through to Classical Revival
Architectural style
–
The rhyolitic
tuff portal of the "church house" at
Colditz Castle,
Saxony, designed by Andreas Walther II (1584), is an example of the exuberance of "Antwerp Mannerism".
Architectural style
–
Town Hall of
Zamość by
Bernardo Morando.
8.
Ottoman Architecture
–
Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. For almost 400 years Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques, overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Byzantine architecture synthesized with architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. The Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in their lands hence or since, today, one finds remnants of Ottoman architecture in certain parts of its former territories under decay. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 1300–1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period and this period witnessed three types of mosques, tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Hacı Özbek Mosque in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque, the domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one, among these are the Fatih Mosque, Mahmutpaşa Mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapı Palace. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths, during the classical period mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable, the master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1489/1490 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities, Mimar Sinans first important work was the Şehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Süleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568–74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect. The Rüstempaşa, Mihriman Sultan, Ibrahimpasa Mosques and the Şehzade, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Roxelana, most classical period design used the Byzantine architecture of the neighboring Balkans as its base, and from there, ethnic elements were added creating a different architectural style. During the reign of Ahmed III and under the impetus of his grand vizier İbrahim Paşa, due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by Seljuk Turks, examples of the creation of this art form can be witnessed in Divriği hospital and mosque a UNESCO world heritage site, Sivas Çifteminare, Konya İnce Minare museum and many more. It is often called the Seljuk Baroque portal, from here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs, the decorative elements of the European Baroque and Rococo influenced even the religious Ottoman architecture. On the other hand, Mellin, a French architect, was invited by a sister of Sultan Selim III to Istanbul and depicted the Bosphorus shores and the pleasure mansions placed next to the sea. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip Period, all eyes were turned to the West, however, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on. Beginning with this period, the class and the elites in the Ottoman Empire started to use the open
Ottoman Architecture
–
Blue Mosque in Istanbul, a World Heritage Site and example of the classical style period of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.
Ottoman Architecture
–
Traditional Ottoman house in
Safranbolu
Ottoman Architecture
–
Traditional Macedonian
Ottoman -style house in
Ohrid,
Macedonia
Ottoman Architecture
–
Early
Ottoman period house in
Cumalıkızık
9.
Minaret
–
A minaret, from Arabic, منارة manāra, lit. lighthouse, also known as Goldaste, is a distinctive architectural structure akin to a tower and typically found adjacent to mosques. Generally a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown, usually either free-standing or taller than associated support structure, the basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery. Styles vary regionally and by period, minarets provide a visual focal point and are traditionally used for the Muslim call to prayer. The purpose of minarets in traditional Eastern region architecture is to serve as a system for a building in very hot climates. That buildings of middle eastern origins have such outstanding features is architecturally intentional, however in modern times, with the invention of the modern air conditioners, the purpose of minarets has changed to traditional symbol. The minaret would be equipped with a speaker that would call people to prayers in Muslim countries. In addition to providing a visual cue to a Muslim community, the call to prayer is issued five times each day, dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. In most modern mosques, the adhān is called from the musallah via microphone to a system on the minaret. Around 80 years after Muhammads death, the first known minarets appeared, minarets have been described as the gate from heaven and earth, and as the Arabic language letter aleph. The massive minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is the oldest standing minaret and its construction began during the first third of the 8th century and was completed in 836 CE. The imposing square-plan tower consists of three sections of decreasing size reaching 31.5 meters, considered as the prototype for minarets of the western Islamic world, it served as a model for many later minarets. The tallest minaret, at 210 metres is located at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, the tallest brick minaret is Qutub Minar located in Delhi, India. In some of the oldest mosques, such as the Great Mosque of Damascus, the basic form of minarets consists of three parts, a base, shaft, and a gallery. For the base, the ground is excavated until a foundation is reached. Gravel and other supporting materials may be used as a foundation, minarets may be conical, square, cylindrical, or polygonal. Stairs circle the shaft in a fashion, providing necessary structural support to the highly elongated shaft. The gallery is a balcony that encircles the upper sections from which the muezzin may give the call to prayer, styles and architecture can vary widely according to region and time period. Here are a few styles and the localities from which they derive, Tunisia Quadrangular, turkish 1,2,4 or 6 minarets related to the size of the mosque
Minaret
–
The oldest standing minaret is in
Tunisia 's
Great Mosque of Kairouan.
Minaret
–
Minaret (malwiya) of the
Great Mosque of Samarra
Minaret
–
Square three-tiered minaret (the oldest in existence) of the
Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of
Kairouan),
Tunisia
10.
Bosnian language
–
Bosnian /ˈbɒzniən/ is the standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian mainly used by Bosniaks. Bosnian uses both Latin and Cyrillic alphabet, with Latin in everyday use and it is notable among the varieties of Serbo-Croatian for a number of Arabic, Ottoman Turkish and Persian loanwords, largely due to the languages interaction with those cultures through Islamic ties. Bosnian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, more specifically on Eastern Herzegovinian, which is also the basis of Croatian, Serbian, vernacular literature written in Bosnian with the Arebica script was relatively thin and sparse. The main authors were the polymath, politician and poet Safvet-beg Bašagić, the modern Bosnian standard took shape in the 1990s and 2000s. The name Bosnian language is an issue for some Croats and Serbs. Bosniak linguists however insist that the legitimate name is Bosnian language. The controversy arises because the name Bosnian may seem to imply that it is the language of all Bosnians, while Bosnian Croats, the language is called Bosnian language in the 1995 Dayton Accords and is concluded by observers to have received legitimacy and international recognition at the time. The International Organization for Standardization, United States Board on Geographic Names, most English-speaking language encyclopaedias register the language solely as Bosnian language. The Library of Congress registered the language as Bosnian and gave it an ISO-number, the Slavic language institutes in English-speaking countries offer courses in Bosnian or Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian language, not in Bosniak language. The same thing in German-speaking countries, where the language is taught under the name Bosnisch, not Bosniakisch with very few exceptions. The Croatian state institutions, such as the Central Bureau of Statistics, the majority of Serbian linguists hold that the term Bosniak language is the only one appropriate, which was agreed as early as 1990. The original text of the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was agreed in Vienna, the constitution of Republika Srpska, the Serb-dominated entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina, did not recognize any language or ethnic group other than Serbian. Bosniaks were mostly expelled from the controlled by the Serbs from 1992. The Bosnian Serbs refused to make reference to the Bosnian language in their constitution, serbia includes the Bosnian language as an elective subject in primary schools. The differences between the Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian literary standards are minimal, although Bosnian employs more Turkish, Persian, and Arabic loanwords—commonly called orientalisms—it is very similar to both Serbian and Croatian in its written and spoken form. Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, a Grammar, With Sociolinguistic Commentary, festschrift für Clemens-Peter Herbermann zum 60. Bosnisch, Kroatisch, Serbisch – Wie spricht man eigentlich in Bosnien-Herzegowina, die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse, Teil 1. Archived from the original on 30 March 2013, jezička/e politika/e u Bosni i Hercegovini i njemačkom govornom području, zbornik radova predstavljenih na istoimenoj konferenciji održanoj 22
Bosnian language
–
School book of Latin and Bosnian, 1827
Bosnian language
–
Bosnian Grammar, 1890
Bosnian language
–
Old Bosnian alphabets:
bosančica (up) and
arebica (down), compared with contemporary
latinica
Bosnian language
–
Nauk krstjanski za narod slovinski, by
Matija Divković, the first Bosnian printed book. Published in Venice, 1611
11.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
–
Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
12.
Mosque
–
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni jurisprudence for a place of worship to be considered a mosque, many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, in varying styles of architecture. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents, the mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat as well as a center for information, education, social welfare, and dispute settlement. The imam leads the congregation in prayer, the first mosque in the world is often considered to be the area around the Kaaba in Mecca now known as the Masjid al-Haram. Others regard the first mosque in history to be the Quba Mosque in present-day Medina since it was the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad went on to another mosque in Medina. Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Masjid al-Nabawi introduced some of the still common in todays mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab. The Masjid al-Nabawi was also constructed with a courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Mosques had been built in Iraq and North Africa by the end of the 7th century, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala is reportedly one of the oldest mosques in Iraq, although its present form – typical of Persian architecture – only goes back to the 11th century. The shrine, while operating as a mosque, remains one of the holiest sites for Shia Muslims, as it honors the death of the third Shia imam. The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As was reportedly the first mosque in Egypt, serving as a religious, like the Imam Husayn Shrine, though, nothing of its original structure remains. With the later Shia Fatimid Caliphate, mosques throughout Egypt evolved to include schools, hospitals and it was the first to incorporate a square minaret and includes naves akin to a basilica. Those features can also be found in Andalusian mosques, including the Grand Mosque of Cordoba, still, some elements of Visigothic architecture, like horseshoe arches, were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb. The first mosque in East Asia was reportedly established in the 8th century in Xian, however, the Great Mosque of Xian, whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Indeed, minarets were initially prohibited by the state, mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesias Austronesian neighbors—Malaysia, Brunei, Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during the 7th century, reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes, pointed arches, and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles
Mosque
–
The
Masjid al-Haram surrounds the
Kaaba, and it is the holiest site in Islam.
Mosque
–
The
Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, Iran is a complex which contains the mausoleum of Imam Reza, the eighth Imam of Twelver Shi'ites
Mosque
–
Quba Mosque in
Medina is one of the oldest mosque in the world.
Mosque
–
The
Great Mosque of Kairouan, in Tunisia, is the oldest mosque in the Muslim West.
13.
Ottoman architecture
–
Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. For almost 400 years Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques, overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Byzantine architecture synthesized with architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. The Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in their lands hence or since, today, one finds remnants of Ottoman architecture in certain parts of its former territories under decay. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 1300–1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period and this period witnessed three types of mosques, tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Hacı Özbek Mosque in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque, the domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one, among these are the Fatih Mosque, Mahmutpaşa Mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapı Palace. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths, during the classical period mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable, the master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1489/1490 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities, Mimar Sinans first important work was the Şehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Süleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568–74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect. The Rüstempaşa, Mihriman Sultan, Ibrahimpasa Mosques and the Şehzade, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Roxelana, most classical period design used the Byzantine architecture of the neighboring Balkans as its base, and from there, ethnic elements were added creating a different architectural style. During the reign of Ahmed III and under the impetus of his grand vizier İbrahim Paşa, due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by Seljuk Turks, examples of the creation of this art form can be witnessed in Divriği hospital and mosque a UNESCO world heritage site, Sivas Çifteminare, Konya İnce Minare museum and many more. It is often called the Seljuk Baroque portal, from here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs, the decorative elements of the European Baroque and Rococo influenced even the religious Ottoman architecture. On the other hand, Mellin, a French architect, was invited by a sister of Sultan Selim III to Istanbul and depicted the Bosphorus shores and the pleasure mansions placed next to the sea. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip Period, all eyes were turned to the West, however, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on. Beginning with this period, the class and the elites in the Ottoman Empire started to use the open
Ottoman architecture
–
Blue Mosque in Istanbul, a World Heritage Site and example of the classical style period of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.
Ottoman architecture
–
Traditional Ottoman house in
Safranbolu
Ottoman architecture
–
Traditional Macedonian
Ottoman -style house in
Ohrid,
Macedonia
Ottoman architecture
–
Early
Ottoman period house in
Cumalıkızık
14.
Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Islam is the most widespread religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was introduced to the population in the 15th and 16th centuries as a result of the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia. The Bosniaks are predominantly Muslim by religion, for which reason they have also emphasized as Bosnian Muslims throughout their history. There is also a small Sufi community, located primarily in Central Bosnia, Muslims comprise the single largest religious community in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Minority groups of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina include Albanians, Roma people, Turks, Islam was first introduced to the Balkans on a large scale by the Ottomans in the mid-to-late 15th century who gained control of most of Bosnia in 1463, and seized Herzegovina in the 1480s. Over the next century, the Bosnians - composed of dualists, during the Ottoman era the name Bošnjanin was definitely transformed into the current Bošnjak, with the suffix -ak replacing the traditional -anin. By the early 1600s, approximately two thirds of the population of Bosnia were Muslim, Bosnia and Herzegovina remained a province in the Ottoman Empire and gained autonomy after the Bosnian uprising in 1831. After the 1878 Congress of Berlin it came under the control of Austria-Hungary. In 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed the region, Bosnia, along with Albania, were the only parts of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans where large numbers of people were converted to Islam, and remained there after independence. Within the Federation, distinct Muslim and Catholic majority areas remain, throughout Bosnia, mosques were systematically destroyed by Serb and Croat armed forces. Among the most important losses were two mosques in Banja Luka, Arnaudija and Ferhadija mosque, that were on the UNESCO register of world cultural monuments. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are eight Muftis located in municipalities across the country, Sarajevo, Bihać, Travnik, Tuzla, Goražde, Zenica, Mostar. The acting head of the Islamic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Husein Kavazović, in a 1998 public opinion poll,78. 3% of Bosniaks in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared themselves to be religious. Headscarves for women, or the hijab is worn only by a minority of Bosniak women, Bosnians who participate in or are children of ethnically mixed marriages between the Bosniak, Serb and Croat populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina are often irreligious. The State Constitution provides freedom of religion, and individuals generally enjoy this right in ethnically mixed areas or in areas where they were adherents of the majority religion. The governments census bureau today does not collect data on religious affiliation, Development Programs Human Development Report 2002 as quoted by the Bosnia and Herzegovina report. Historically, Bosnian Muslims has always practiced Islam which is influenced by Sufism. Since Bosnian War, however, some remnants of groups of fighters from Middle-east, fighting on the side of Bosnian Army, remained for some time
Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
The
Emperor's Mosque, the oldest mosque built in the
Ottoman era in
Sarajevo, the capital and largest city of
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Constructed in 1579, the
Ferhadija mosque in
Banja Luka was razed to the ground by Serb extremists during the war and is currently being reconstructed.
Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina
–
Hadzi Ahmeta Dukatar's Mosque (1574) in
Livno
15.
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
–
Not to be confused with Stalingrad. Stari Grad is a municipality in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and it is the oldest and most historically significant part of Sarajevo. At its heart is the Baščaršija, the old town market sector where the city was founded by the Ottoman general Isa-Beg Isaković in the 15th century, the municipality of Stari Grad is characterized by its many religious structures, and examples of unique Bosnian architecture. The population of Stari Grad is slightly above 50,000 and its population density of 742.5 inhabitants per km² also ranks it last among four. Stari Grad contains numerous hotels and tourist attractions including the Gazi Husrev-begs Mosque, Careva Džamija, the land had a home on it and, despite offering the owner money, he refused and continued to refuse even when told that he had to move. When the officials threatened him, he moved the house and rebuilt it, piece by piece, on the side of the Miljacka river. The Sarajevo spite house operates today as a restaurant is called Inat Kuća which means Spite House, Sarajevo Sarajevo Canton Stari Grad, Sarajevo website
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
–
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
–
Coat of arms
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
–
Baščaršija, Old town
Sarajevo
16.
Gazi Husrev-beg
–
Gazi Husrev-beg was a Bosniak Ottoman sanjak-bey of the Sanjak of Bosnia in 1521—1525, 1526—1534, and 1536—1541. He was born in Serres, Greece, to a Bosnian Muslim father Ferhad, and a Turkish mother Selçuka, in less than three years, he conquered the fortresses of Knin, Skradin and Ostrovica. He was appointed sanjak-bey of the Sanjak of Bosnia on 15 September 1521, becoming one of Sultan Suleiman Is most trusted men. A relentless campaign of conquest followed soon, the towns of Greben, Sokol, Jezero, Vinac, Vrbaški Grad, Livač, Kamatin, Bočac, Udbina, Vrana, Modruč. He founded, among the buildings he ordered to construct in the city, the vakuf of Sarajevo. Gazi Husrev-beg played a role to overcome the Christian army at the Battle of Mohács. His 10,000 Akıncıs and his cavalry, composed of Turks, Bosniaks and Crimean Tatars. According to the Ottoman military strategy, the Akıncıs circled the European knights while the Turkish infantry made a retreat after the first assault. Gazi Husrev-begs forces struggled against a power vacuum in Montenegro after the death of Ottoman ally, in 1541, during an uprising of Montenegro nobility, he set out to protect the Crnojevićs and the local populace. After fighting many battles to maintain order in the region, although victorious, he was killed while fighting Christian rebels in Mokro. Legend states that he was a big man, so his warriors were unable to carry him, the legend has it that this event gave Drobnjaci their name, although the name Drobnjaci is recorded earlier in history. However, its connection to Gazi Husrev-begs place of rest is unclear. His corpse was returned to Sarajevo, where it remains in a tomb in the courtyard of his mosque, yugoslav Encyclopedia, article Husrev Beg, vol. IV, Hazim Sabanovič, Zagreb 1960 GAMER, I,1 s, 99-111, The other Ottoman Serhat in Europe, Ottoman territorial expansion in Bosnia and Croatia in first half of 16th century, Dino Mujadžević
Gazi Husrev-beg
–
Gazi Husrev-beg's mosque in Sarajevo
Gazi Husrev-beg
–
Türbe of Gazi Husrev-beg in Sarajevo
Gazi Husrev-beg
–
Gazi Husrev-beg served during the Battle of Mohács.
Gazi Husrev-beg
–
Habsburg delegation, Joseph Freiherr von Lamberg and
Nikola Jurišić, in front of Gazi Husrev-beg. He is credited as a quite effectively military strategist, as well as the greatest donor and builder of Sarajevo. By,
Benedikt Kuripečič, 1530.
17.
Beg (title)
–
Bey is a Turkish title for chieftain, traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups. The feminine equivalent title was Begum, the regions or provinces where beys ruled or which they administered were called beylik, roughly meaning khanate, emirate or principality in the first case, province or governorate in the second. Today, the word is used informally as a social title for men. Unlike mister however, it follows the name and is used generally with first names, the dialect variations bäk, bek, bey, biy, bi, and pig all derive from the Old Turkic form. The actual origin of the word is disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it was a loan-word. This Turkic word is considered a borrowing from an Iranian language. Two principal etymologies have been proposed by scholars,1, the Middle Persian title bag meaning lord and master. Peter Golden derives the word via Sogdian bġy from the same Iranian root, the Iranian bāy gave Turkish word bai, whence Mongol name Bayan. The Chinese title pö, meaning brother and feudal lord. What is certain is that the word has no connections to Turkish berk, strong, or Turkish bögü, the first three rulers of the Ottoman realm were titled Bey. The chief sovereign of the Ottoman Empire only came to be called sultan starting in 1383 when Murad I was granted this title by the caliph in Cairo. By 1336 it had annexed only the Beylik of Karasy, its neighbour on the coast of the Sea of Marmara. The latter were usually titled sanjakbey, beys were lower in rank than pashas and provincial governors, who governed most of the Ottoman vilayets, but higher than effendis. Eventually the chiefs of the former Ottoman capitals Bursa and Edirne in Turkish Thrace both were designated Bey, over time the title became somewhat devalued, as Bey was even used as a courtesy title for a pashas son. By the late 19th century, Bey had been reduced in the Ottoman Empire to an equivalent of the English-speaking address Sir. As with most Turkish titles, it follows the rather than precedes it as in western languages. When one speaks of Mr. Ahmet, the title has to be written with a capital, Bey may combine with efendi to give a common form of address, to which the possessive suffix -m is usually added, beyefendim, efendim. Beyefendi has its counterpart, hanımefendi, used alone, to address a woman without her first name
Beg (title)
–
Central system
18.
Waqf
–
The donated assets may be held by a charitable trust. The person making such dedication is known as waqif, a donor, in Ottoman Turkish law, and later under the British Mandate of Palestine, the waqf was defined as usufruct State land of which the State revenues are assured to pious foundations. In Sunni jurisprudence, waqf, also spelled wakf is synonymous with ḥabs, habs and similar terms are used mainly by Maliki jurists. In Twelver Shiism, ḥabs is a type of waqf. The person making the grant is called al-waqif while the endowed assests are called al-mawquf, the term waqf literally means confinement and prohibition or causing a thing to stop or stand still. Bahaeddin Yediyıldız defines the waqf as a system which comprises three elements, hayrat, akarat and waqf, there is no direct injunction of the Quran regarding Waqf, which is derived from a number of hadiths. One says, Ibn Umar reported, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab got land in Khaybar, so he came to the prophet Muhammad, the Prophet said, If you like, make the property inalienable and give the profit from it to charity. It goes on to say that Umar gave it away as alms and he gave it away for the poor, the relatives, the slaves, the jihad, the travelers and the guests. And it will not be held against him who administers it if he consumes some of its yield in a manner or feeds a friend who does not enrich himself by means of it. In another hadith, Muhammad said, When a man dies, Islamic law puts several legal conditions on the process of establishing a waqf. A waqf is a contract, therefore the founder must be of the capacity to enter into a contract, finally if a person is fatally ill, the waqf is subject to the same restrictions as a will in Islam. The property used to found a waqf must be objects of a valid contract, the object should not be illegal in Islam. Finally these objects should not already be in the public domain, thus, public property cannot be used to establish a waqf. The founder cannot also have pledged the property previously to someone else and these conditions are generally true for contracts in Islam. The property dedicated to waqf is generally immovable, such as estate, all movable goods can also form waqf, according to most Islamic jurists. The Hanafis, however, also allow most movable goods to be dedicated to a waqf with some restrictions, some jurists have argued that even gold and silver can be designated as waqf. The beneficiaries of the waqf can be persons and public utilities, the founder can specify which persons are eligible for benefit. Public utilities such as mosques, schools, bridges, graveyards, modern legislation divides the waqf as charitable causes, in which the beneficiaries are the public or the poor) and family waqf, in which the founder makes the beneficiaries his relatives
Waqf
–
Waqf Writing Room in
Mevlana Museum
19.
Maktab
–
Maktab or Maktabeh or Maktabkhaneh, also called a Kuttab “school” is an Arabic word meaning elementary schools. Though it was used for teaching children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic studies such as Qiraat. Until the 20th century, maktabs were the means of mass education in much of the Islamic world. Maktab refers to only elementary schools in Arabic, Maktab is used in Dari Persian in Afghanistan as an equivalent term to school, including both primary and secondary schools. Avicenna used the word maktab in the same sense, maktabs or kuttābs are an old-fashioned method of education in Egypt and Muslim majority countries, in which a sheikh teaches a group of students who sit in front of him on the ground. The curriculum includes Islam and Quranic Arabic, but focused mainly on memorising the Quran, with the development of modern schools, the number of kuttabs has declined. Kuttāb means writers, plural katatīb / katātīb, in common Modern Arabic usage, maktab means office while maktabah means library or study and kuttāb is a plural word meaning books. In the medieval Islamic world, a school was known as a maktab. Like madrasahs, a maktab was often attached to a mosque, in the 16th century, the Sunni Islamic jurist Ibn Hajar al-Haytami discussed Maktab schools. Ibn Sina described the curriculum of a school in some detail. Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a school from the age of 6. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the Quran, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics, and manual skills. Ibn Sina refers to the secondary stage of maktab schooling as the period of specialization. In medieval times, the Caliphate experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah institutions played a fundamental role in the relatively high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world. Madrasah, meant for higher education Maktab Anbar Maktab Encyclopædia Britannica
Maktab
–
Scholars and Students in an
Ottoman Maktab.
20.
Turkish bath
–
A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
Turkish bath
–
A Turkish bath in
Valencia,
Spain
Turkish bath
–
Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse, constructed in the 16th century,
Iran. Part of the bathouse is being used as a
tea house
Turkish bath
–
Hamam of the
Sultan at the
Topkapı Palace in
Istanbul.
Turkish bath
–
Example of a hamam interior, showing water
buckets and tilted floor
21.
Mimar Sinan
–
Koca Mimâr Sinân Âğâ was the chief Ottoman architect and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects and his apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Stari Most in Mostar, and help design the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire. The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and he rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of ağa. He remained in this post for almost fifty years and his masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha and he is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West. Michelangelo and his plans for St. Mimar Sinans works are among the most influential buildings in history, according to contemporary biographer, Mustafa Sâi Çelebi, Sinan was born in 1489 with the name Joseph. He was born either an Armenian, Cappadocian Greek, Albanian, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sinan had either Armenian or Greek origin. According to some scholars, this means that his family was Cappadocian Greek because the only Orthodox Christians of the region were Greeks, also, some of them have identified his father as a stonemason and carpenter by the name of Christos, a common Greek name. According to Herbert J. Muller though, he seems to have been an Armenian, lucy Der Manuelian of Tufts University suggests that he can be identified as an Armenian through a document in the imperial archives and other evidence. Several scholars have cited Sinans possible Albanian origin, Sinan grew up helping his father in his work, and by the time that he was conscripted would have had a good grounding in the practicalities of building work. There are three records in the library of Topkapı Palace, dictated by Sinan to his friend. In these manuscripts, Sinan divulges some details of his youth and his father is referred to as Abdülmennan, a title which was commonly used in the Ottoman period to define the non-Muslim father of a Muslim convert. In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system and he was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam. He was too old to be admitted to the imperial Enderun School in the Topkapı Palace but was sent instead to an auxiliary school, some records claim that he might have served the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha as a novice of the Ibrahim Pasha School. Possibly, he was given the Islamic name Sinan there and he initially learned carpentry and mathematics but through his intellectual qualities and ambitions, he soon assisted the leading architects and got his training as an architect. During the next six years, he trained to be a Janissary officer. He possibly joined Selim I in his last military campaign, Rhodes according to sources, but when the Sultan died. Two years later he witnessed the conquest of Belgrade, under the new sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, he was present, as a member of the Household Cavalry, at the Battle of Mohács
Mimar Sinan
–
Mimar Sinan bust in
Ankara
Mimar Sinan
–
Şehzade Mosque - Istanbul
Mimar Sinan
–
Şehzade Mosque interior
Mimar Sinan
–
Süleymaniye Mosque - Istanbul
22.
Persia
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Persia
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Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Persia
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Flag
Persia
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A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Persia
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
23.
Republic of Dubrovnik
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The Republic of Ragusa was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia that existed from 1358 to 1808. It reached its peak in the 15th and the 16th centuries, before being conquered by Napoleons French Empire. It had a population of about 30,000 people, out of whom 5,000 lived within the city walls and its motto was Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro, which translated from Latin means Liberty is not well sold for all the gold. Originally named Communitas Ragusina, in the 14th century it was renamed Respublica Ragusina, in Italian it is called Repubblica di Ragusa, in Croatian it is called Dubrovačka Republika. The Croatian name Dubrovnik is derived from the word dubrava, an oak grove, by a folk etymology. It came into use alongside Ragusa as early as the 14th century, the Latin, Italian and Dalmatian name Ragusa derives its name from Lausa, it was later altered in Rausium, Rhagusium or Ragusium or Rausia and finally into Ragusa. The official change of name from Ragusa to Dubrovnik came into effect under Austria-Hungary and it is known in historiography as the Republic of Ragusa. In the 15th century the Ragusan republic also acquired the islands of Korčula, Brač, however they had to be given up due to the resistance of local minor aristocrats sympathizing with Venice which was granting them some privileges. In the 16th century administrative units of the Republic were, the City of Ragusa, Lastovo and Mljet were semi-autonomous communities each having its own Statute. Some of the survivors moved 25 kilometres north to an island near the coast where they founded a new settlement. It has been claimed that a raid by the Slavs in 656 resulted in the total destruction of Epidaurum. Slavs, including Croats and Serbs, settled along the coast in the 7th century, the Slavs named their settlement Dubrovnik. The Romance and Slavs held each other antagonistically, though by the 12th century the two settlements had merged, the channel that divided the city was filled creating the present-day main street which became the city centre. Thus, Dubrovnik became the Croatian name for the united town, there are recent theories based on excavations that the city was established much earlier, at least in the 5th and possibly to the Ancient Greek period. An ideal combination would have a water source in the vicinity. Dubrovnik had both, being halfway between the Greek settlements of Budva and Korčula, which are 95 nautical miles apart, during its first centuries the city, known as Ragusium in Latin and Raousion in Greek, was under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The Saracens laid siege to the city in 866–67, it lasted for fifteen months and was raised due to the intervention of Byzantine Emperor Basil I, who sent a fleet under Niketas Ooryphas in relief. Ooryphas showing of the flag had swift results, as the Slavic tribes sent envoys to the Emperor, once more acknowledging his suzerainty
Republic of Dubrovnik
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Dubrovnik before the
1667 earthquake, Photogravure Kowalczyk 1909
Republic of Dubrovnik
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Flag
Republic of Dubrovnik
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Painting from 1667, kept today in Dubrovnik archives
Republic of Dubrovnik
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A merchant from the Republic, 1708
24.
Pendentive
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A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are segments of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom. In masonry the pendentives thus receive the weight of the dome, prior to the pendentives development, the device of corbelling or the use of the squinch in the corners of a room had been employed. Pendentives were commonly used in Orthodox, Renaissance, and Baroque churches, hagia Sophia Squinch Heinle, Erwin, Schlaich, Jörg, Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03062-6 Rasch, Jürgen, Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion, Architectura,15, pp. 117–139
Pendentive
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One pendentive of the Hagia Sophia main dome
Pendentive
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The pendentives are shown in yellow.
Pendentive
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Arches (left and right), dome (top) and pendentive (centre) in
Moscow Cathedral
Pendentive
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Holy Trinity Church,
Fulnek,
Czech Republic
25.
Muqarnas
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It is used for domes, and especially half-domes in entrances, iwans and apses, mostly in traditional Islamic and Persian architecture. Where some elements project downwards, the style may be called mocárabe, these are reminiscent of stalactites, Muqarnas developed around the middle of the 10th century in northeastern Iran and almost simultaneously — but apparently independently — in North Africa. Examples can be found across Morocco and by extension, the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, the Abbasid Palace in Baghdad, Iraq, and the mausoleum of Sultan Qaitbay, Cairo, Egypt. Large rectangular roofs in wood with muqarnas-style decoration adorn the 12th century Cappella Palatina in Palermo, Sicily, Muqarnas is also found in Armenian architecture. Muqarnas is typically applied to the undersides of domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches, arches, Muqarnas is a downward-facing shape, that is, a vertical line can be traced from the floor to any point on a muqarnas surface. It is also arranged in courses, as in a corbelled vault. The edges of surfaces can all be traced on a single plan view, architects can thus plan out muqarnas geometrically. Muqarnas does not have a significant structural role, Muqarnas need not be carved into the structural blocks of a corbelled vault, it can be hung from a structural roof as a purely decorative surface. Muqarnas may be made of brick, stone, stucco, or wood, the individual cells may be called alveoles. Some modern muqarnas elements have been designed, if not built, with upwards-facing cells, Architecture of Iran Islamic architecture Islamic geometric patterns Mathematics and art Ottoman architecture Muqarnas, A Three-dimensional Decoration of Islam Architecture. Contains a database of over a thousand plans of extant muqarnas, indexed by location and geometry
Muqarnas
–
Muqarnas in the
iwan entrance to the
Shah Mosque in
Isfahan,
Iran
Muqarnas
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Muqarnas on the underside of an arch,
Alhambra Palace,
Granada,
Spain, likely in carved plaster. Note down-ward-projecting "stalactites".
Muqarnas
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Muqarnas
corbel,
Qutb Minar, India
Muqarnas
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High-resolution detail from the Alhambra, showing horizontal
courses; the clearer one zigzags across at about 1/3 of the way down.
26.
Minbar
–
A minbar is a pulpit in the mosque where the imam stands to deliver sermons or in the Hussainia where the speaker sits and lectures the congregation. The word is a derivative of the Arabic root n-b-r, the Arabic plural is manābir, the minbar, the decoration of which some believe to be part of the sunnah, is usually shaped like a small tower with a pointed roof and stairs leading up to it. In contrast, the prophet Muhammed used only a platform three steps. There may be a seat at the top, in contrast to most Christian pulpits, the steps up to the minbar are usually in a straight line on the same axis as the seat, as seen in those illustrated here. They also take the preacher higher above the congregation than is typical in churches, the minbar is located to the right of the mihrab, the niche that indicates the direction of prayer. The minbar is also a symbol of authority, in some mosques there is a platform opposite the minbar where the assistant of the Imam, the muezzin, stands during prayer. The muezzin recites the answers to the prayers of the Imam where applicable, the oldest Islamic pulpit in the world to be preserved intact is the minbar of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Dating from the 9th century, it is a staircase made of carved and sculptured teak wood. Composed of an assembly of three hundred finely sculpted parts, this minbar is considered to be a jewel of Islamic wooden art. Reconstructing a Jewel of Islamic Art
Minbar
–
Minbar of the
Molla Çelebi Mosque in
Istanbul.
Minbar
–
Picture showing the minbar of the
Great Mosque of Kairouan (Mosque of Uqba); this pulpit, the oldest in existence, is still in its place of origin (in the prayer hall of the mosque) and it is protected by a glass panel in order to preserve this precious preaching chair, in
Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Minbar
–
Muslim scholar
Ammar Nakshawani delivering a lecture from a mimbar in
Dar es Salaam 's
Hussainia as part of the
Ramadan ceremonies.
Minbar
–
The doors of the
Saladin Minbar, early 1900s. The minbar was built on
Nur al-Din 's orders, but installed by Saladin
27.
Kurs
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KURS is an AM radio station broadcasting a Spanish-language Catholic radio format. The station is licensed to San Diego, California and is owned by Quetzal Bilingual Communications, KURS is an affiliate of ESNE Radio. Prior to becoming a ESNE Radio station, KURS had broadcast a Gospel Music format,1040 AM is a clear channel frequency reserved for Class A WHO in Des Moines, Iowa, so KURS must restrict its power to 360 watts by day, and 61 watts at night. Official ESNE Radio Website Query the FCCs AM station database for KURS Radio-Locator Information on KURS Query Nielsen Audios AM station database for KURS
Kurs
–
v
28.
Portico
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A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was used in Ancient Greece and has influenced many cultures. Some noteworthy examples of porticos are the East Portico of the United States Capitol, the portico adorning the Pantheon in Rome, porticos are sometimes topped with pediments. Bologna, Italy, is famous for its porticos, in total, there are over 45 km of arcades, some 38 in the city center. The longest portico in the world, about 3.5 km, in Bologna, Italy, porticos stretch for 18 km. Palladio was a pioneer of using temple-fronts for secular buildings, in the UK, the temple-front applied to The Vyne, Hampshire was the first portico applied to an English country house. A pronaos is the area of the portico of a Greek or Roman temple. Roman temples commonly had an open pronaos, usually with only columns and no walls, the word pronaos is Greek for before a temple. In Latin, a pronaos is also referred to as an anticum or prodomus, the different variants of porticos are named by the number of columns they have. The style suffix comes from the Greek στῦλος, column, the tetrastyle has four columns, it was commonly employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans for small structures such as public buildings and amphiprostyles. Roman provincial capitals also manifested tetrastyle construction, such as the Capitoline Temple in Volubilis, the North Portico of the White House is perhaps the most notable four-columned portico in the United States. Hexastyle buildings had six columns and were the standard façade in canonical Greek Doric architecture between the archaic period 600–550 BC up to the Age of Pericles 450–430 BC. With the colonization by the Greeks of Southern Italy, hexastyle was adopted by the Etruscans, Roman taste favoured narrow pseudoperipteral and amphiprostyle buildings with tall columns, raised on podiums for the added pomp and grandeur conferred by considerable height. The Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, is the best-preserved Roman hexastyle temple surviving from antiquity, octastyle buildings had eight columns, they were considerably rarer than the hexastyle ones in the classical Greek architectural canon. The best-known octastyle buildings surviving from antiquity are the Parthenon in Athens, built during the Age of Pericles, and the Pantheon in Rome. The destroyed Temple of Divus Augustus in Rome, the centre of the Augustan cult, is shown on Roman coins of the 2nd century AD as having built in octastyle. The decastyle has ten columns, as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, the temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian in Rome about 130 A. D. was decastyle, the only known example in Roman architecture. Classical architecture List of classical architecture terms Hypostyle Loggia Stoa Greek architecture, Encyclopædia Britannica,1968 Stierlin, Greece, From Mycenae to the Parthenon, TASCHEN,2004, Editor-in-chief Angelika Taschen, Cologne, ISBN 3-8228-1225-0 Stierlin, Henri
Portico
–
Under the portico of the Pantheon
Portico
–
Portico close to piazza Santo Stefano,
Bologna
Portico
–
Temple of Portunus, with its tetrastyle portico of four
Ionic columns
Portico
–
The hexastyle Temple of Concord at
Agrigentum (c. 430 B.C.)
29.
Siege of Sarajevo
–
The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. The siege lasted three times longer than the Battle of Stalingrad and more than a longer than the Siege of Leningrad. From there they assaulted the city with artillery, tanks and small arms, from 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian government defence forces inside the city, numbering some 70,000 troops, were poorly equipped. A total of 13,952 people were killed during the siege, the ARBiH suffered 6,137 fatalities, while Bosnian Serb military casualties numbered 2,241 soldiers killed. The 1991 census indicates that before the siege the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980, there are estimates that prior to the siege the population in the city proper was 435,000. The estimates of the number of living in Sarajevo after the siege ranged from between 300,000 and 380,000. After the war, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted two Serb officials for numerous counts of crimes against humanity committed during the siege, stanislav Galić and Dragomir Milošević were sentenced to life imprisonment and 29 years imprisonment respectively. One of the 11 indictments against Radovan Karadžić, the president of the Republika Srpska, is for the siege. When Yugoslavias longtime leader Marshal Tito died in 1980 this policy of containment underwent a dramatic reversal, nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s after violence erupted in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of a Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to federalisation, croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or to seek independence and this Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became the Republika Srpska in August 1992. A declaration of Bosnian sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 and this referendum was boycotted by the vast majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the referendum was 63. 4% and 99. 7% of voters voted for independence. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and these minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March, on Bosanski Brod on 24 and 30 March 1992 on Bijeljina. On 1 March 1992, an Orthodox wedding in downtown Sarajevo was attacked, nikola Gardović, the grooms father, was killed. It continued through the run-up to Bosnia and Herzegovinas recognition as an independent state, on 5 April, ethnic Serb policemen attacked police stations and then an Interior Ministry training school. The attack killed two officers and one civilian, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared a state of emergency the following day
Siege of Sarajevo
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Bosnian parliament building after being hit by tank fire
Siege of Sarajevo
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A
CIA map of the JNA attack on 2 May 1992
Siege of Sarajevo
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Dutch reporter
Robert Dulmers at Hakija Turajlić's graveside,
Ali Pasha Mosque, March 1993
Siege of Sarajevo
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Sarajevo residents collecting firewood, winter of 1992–1993
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