1.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
2.
Code
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An early example is the invention of language which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what he or she saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient of that understands time. One reason for coding is to communication in places where ordinary plain language. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings. Before giving a precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping C = is a code, whose alphabet is the set. Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001011 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01 011, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acabc. Using terms from formal language theory, the mathematical definition of this concept is as follows. In this section, we consider codes which encode each character by a code word from some dictionary. Variable-length codes are useful when clear text characters have different probabilities. A prefix code is a code with the property, there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes, prefix codes are widely referred to as Huffman codes even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes, the country and publisher parts of ISBNs, Krafts inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable code, not necessary a prefix one. Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage, such a code is called an error-correcting code, and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Walsh–Hadamard, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, Goppa, low-density parity-check codes, error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors. A cable code replaces words with words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly
3.
Cipher
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In cryptography, a cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment, to encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, cipher is synonymous with code, as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message, however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography. Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, there are exceptions and some cipher systems may use slightly more, or fewer, characters when output versus the number that were input. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase, for example, UQJHSE could be the code for Proceed to the following coordinates. When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, the ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, the encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be difficult, if not impossible. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size, by whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption, or if a different key is used for each. If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender, if the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the key property. The word cipher in former times meant zero and had the same origin, Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin as cifra, cipher was later used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are many theories about how the word cipher may have come to mean encoding, the Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero. Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption, the French formed the word chiffre and adopted the Italian word zero. The English used zero for 0, and cipher from the word ciphering as a means of computing, the Germans used the words Ziffer and Chiffre. The Dutch still use the word cijfer to refer to a numerical digit, the Serbians use the word cifra, which refers to a digit, or in some cases, any number. Besides cifra, they use word broj for a number, the Italians and the Spanish also use the word cifra to refer to a number
4.
Jewish culture
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Jewish culture is the culture of the Jewish people from the formation of the Jewish nation in biblical times through life in the diaspora and the modern state of Israel. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, so that it has been called not only a religion, not all individuals or all cultural phenomena can be classified as either secular or religious, a distinction native to Enlightenment thinking. Secular Judaism, is a phenomenon related to Jewish secularization - a historical process of divesting all of these elements of culture from their religious beliefs. Secular Judaism, derived from the philosophy of Moses Mendelssohn, arose out of the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, in recent years, the academic field of study has encompassed Jewish Studies, History, Literature, Sociology, and Linguistics. Historian David Biale has traced the roots of Jewish secularism back to the pre-modern era, additionally, many schools include the academic study of Judaism and Jewish culture in their curricula. This phenomenon has led to different variations of Jewish culture unique to their own communities. There has not been a political unity of Jewish society since the united monarchy, Medieval Jewish communities in Eastern Europe continued to display distinct cultural traits over the centuries. Constantin Măciucă writes of a differentiated but not isolated Jewish spirit permeating the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews and this was only intensified as the rise of Romanticism amplified the sense of national identity across Europe generally. The Haskalah combined with the Jewish Emancipation movement under way in Central, at the same time, pogroms in Eastern Europe provoked a surge of migration, in large part to the United States, where some 2 million Jewish immigrants resettled between 1880 and 1920. By 1931, shortly before The Holocaust, 92% of the Worlds Jewish population was Ashkenazi in origin, secularism originated in Europe as series of movements that militated for a new, heretofore unheard-of concept called secular Judaism. During the 1940s, the Holocaust uprooted and destroyed most of the Jewish communities living in much of Europe and this, in combination with the creation of the State of Israel and the consequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, resulted in a further geographic shift. Gary Tobin, head of the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, said of traditional Jewish culture, every religious attribute is filled with culture, every cultural act filled with religiosity. Synagogues themselves are great centers of Jewish culture, after all, what is life really about. Food, relationships, enrichment … So is Jewish life, so many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the Passover Seder — its essentially great theater, Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting. Jewish philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or in relation to the religion of Judaism, the Jewish philosophy is extended over several main eras in Jewish history, including the ancient and biblical era, medieval era and modern era. The ancient Jewish philosophy is expressed in the bible, other writings related to philosophy can be found in the Deuterocanonical books such as Sirach and Book of Wisdom. During the Hellenistic era, Hellenistic Judaism aspired to combine Jewish religious tradition with elements of Greek culture, the philosopher Philo used philosophical allegory to attempt to fuse and harmonize Greek philosophy with Jewish philosophy
5.
Number
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Numbers that answer the question How many. Are 0,1,2,3 and so on, when used to indicate position in a sequence they are ordinal numbers. To the Pythagoreans and Greek mathematician Euclid, the numbers were 2,3,4,5, Euclid did not consider 1 to be a number. Numbers like 3 +17 =227, expressible as fractions in which the numerator and denominator are whole numbers, are rational numbers and these make it possible to measure such quantities as two and a quarter gallons and six and a half miles. What we today would consider a proof that a number is irrational Euclid called a proof that two lengths arising in geometry have no common measure, or are incommensurable, Euclid included proofs of incommensurability of lengths arising in geometry in his Elements. In the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, a pair of walking forward marked addition. They were the first known civilization to use negative numbers, negative numbers came into widespread use as a result of their utility in accounting. They were used by late medieval Italian bankers, by 1740 BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. In Maya civilization zero was a numeral with a shape as a symbol. The ancient Egyptians represented all fractions in terms of sums of fractions with numerator 1, for example, 2/5 = 1/3 + 1/15. Such representations are known as Egyptian Fractions or Unit Fractions. The earliest written approximations of π are found in Egypt and Babylon, in Babylon, a clay tablet dated 1900–1600 BC has a geometrical statement that, by implication, treats π as 25/8 =3.1250. In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650 BC, astronomical calculations in the Shatapatha Brahmana use a fractional approximation of 339/108 ≈3.139. Other Indian sources by about 150 BC treat π as √10 ≈3.1622 The first references to the constant e were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier. However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of logarithms calculated from the constant and it is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred. The discovery of the constant itself is credited to Jacob Bernoulli, the first known use of the constant, represented by the letter b, was in correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691. Leonhard Euler introduced the letter e as the base for natural logarithms, Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in 1727 or 1728, in an unpublished paper on explosive forces in cannons, and the first appearance of e in a publication was Eulers Mechanica. While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c, e was more common, the first numeral system known is Babylonian numeric system, that has a 60 base, it was introduced in 3100 B. C. and is the first Positional numeral system known
6.
Nature
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Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, or material world or universe. Nature can refer to the phenomena of the world. The study of nature is a part of science. Although humans are part of nature, human activity is understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena. The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or essential qualities, innate disposition, and in ancient times, literally meant birth. Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis, which related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals. This usage continued during the advent of scientific method in the last several centuries. Within the various uses of the word today, nature often refers to geology, for example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, human nature or the whole of nature. Depending on the context, the term natural might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural. Earth is the planet known to support life, and its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the solar system, it is third closest to the sun, it is the largest terrestrial planet and its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region. Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre,71 percent of the Earths surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the land in the Northern Hemisphere. Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions, the outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates. The interior remains active, with a layer of plastic mantle. This iron core is composed of a solid phase. Convective motion in the core generates electric currents through dynamo action, the atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life-forms, which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions. Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth, the geology of an area evolves through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and deformational processes change their shapes and locations
7.
Isopsephy
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Isopsephy is the Greek word for the practice of adding up the number values of the letters in a word to form a single number. Isopsephism, the occurrence of isopsephy, is used as a synonym. The early Greeks used pebbles arranged in patterns to learn arithmetic, isopsephy is related to gematria, the same practice using the Hebrew alphabet, and the ancient number systems of many other peoples. A gematria of Latin-script languages was also popular in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and its remains in numerology. For instance in Ancient Greece, Greek numerals used the alphabet and it is just a short step from using letters of the alphabet in everyday arithmetic and mathematics to seeing numbers in words, and to writing with an awareness of the numerical dimension of words. An early reference to isopsephy, albeit of more-than-usual sophistication, is from the mathematician Apollonius of Perga and he asks, Given the verse, ΑΡΤΕΜΙΔΟΣ ΚΛΕΙΤΕ ΚΡΑΤΟΣ ΕΞΟΧΟΝ ΕΝΝΕΑ ΚΟΥΡΑΙ, what does the product of all its elements equal. More conventional are the instances of found in graffiti at Pompeii. One reads Φιλω ης αριθμος ϕμε, I love her whose number is 545, another says, Amerimnus thought upon his lady Harmonia for good. The number of her name is 45. Suetonius, writing in 121 AD, reports a political slogan that someone wrote on a wall in Rome, Nero, Orestes, Nero his mother slew which appears to be another example. In Greek, Νερων, Nero, has the numerical value 50+5+100+800+50=1005, also in the 1st century AD, Leonidas of Alexandria created isopsephs, epigrams with equinumeral distichs, where the first hexameter and pentameter equal the next two verses in numerical value. He addressed some of them to Nero, Θυει σοι τοδε γραμμα γενεθλιακαισιν εν ὡραις, Καισαρ, Καλλιοπης γαρ ακαπνον αει θυος· εις δε νεωτα Ην εθελῃς, θυσει τουδε περισσοτερα. Here the sum of both the first and second distich is 5699, in another of his distichs the hexameter line is equal in number to its corresponding pentameter, Εἱς προς ἑνα ψηφοισιν ισαζεται, ου δυο δοιοις, Ου γαρ ετι στεργω την δολιχογραφιην. One line is equal in number to one, not two to two, for I no longer approve of long epigrams. A headstone found at the Temple of Artemis at Sparta Orthia is a 2nd-century AD example of elegiac verse. It says, ΟΡΘΕΙΗ ΔΩΡΟΝ ΛΕΟΝΤΕΥΣ ΑΝΕΘΗΚΕ ΒΟΑΓΟΣ ΒΨΛ ΜΩΑΝ ΝΙΚΗΣΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΑΔΕ ΕΠΑΘΛΑ ΛΑΒΩΝ ΒΨΛ ΚΑΙ Μ ΕΣΤΕΨΕ ΠΑΤΗΡ ΕΙΣΑΡΙΘΜΟΙΣ ΕΠΕΣΙ ΒΨΛ It is the votive stele for a boy who won a competition in singing. The words in each line add up to ΄ΒΨΛ, that is 2730, in Greek, each unit was assigned a separate letter, each tens a separate letter, and each hundreds a separate letter. This requires 27 letters, so the 24-letter alphabet was extended by using three obsolete letters, digamma ϝ, for 6, qoppa ϙ for 90, and sampi ϡ for 900
8.
Abjad numerals
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The Abjad numerals are a decimal numeral system in which the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet are assigned numerical values. They have been used in the Arabic-speaking world since before the century when Arabic numerals were adopted. In modern Arabic, the word abjadīyah means alphabet in general, in the Abjad system, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, alif, is used to represent 1, the second letter, bāʾ, is used to represent 2, etc. Individual letters also represent 10s and 100s, yāʾ for 10, kāf for 20, qāf for 100, the word abjad itself derives from the first four letters in the Phoenician alphabet, Aramaic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet and other scripts for Semitic languages. These older alphabets contained only 22 letters, stopping at taw, the Arabic Abjad system continues at this point with letters not found in other alphabets, ṯāʾ=500, etc. The Abjad order of the Arabic alphabet has two different variants. Loss of samekh was compensated for by the split of shin ש into two independent Arabic letters, ش and ﺱ, which moved up to take the place of samekh. The most common Abjad sequence, read right to left, is, This is commonly vocalized as follows. Before the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the numbers were used for all mathematical purposes. In modern Arabic, they are used for numbering outlines, items in lists. In English, points of information are sometimes referred to as A, B, and C, the abjad numbers are also used to assign numerical values to Arabic words for purposes of numerology. The common Islamic phrase بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم bismillāh al-Raḥmān al-Raḥīm has a value of 786. The name Allāh الله by itself has the value 66, a few of the numerical values are different in the alternative Abjad order. For four Persian letters these values are used, The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the earlier Hebrew numerals up to 400, the Hebrew numeral system is known as Gematria and is used in Kabbalistic texts and numerology. Like the Abjad order, it is used in times for numbering outlines and points of information. The Greek numerals differ in a number of ways from the Abjad ones, the Greek language system of letters-as-numbers is called isopsephy
9.
Chai (symbol)
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Chai is a Hebrew word that figures prominently in modern Jewish culture, the Hebrew letters of the word are often used as a visual symbol. According to The Jewish Daily Forward, its use as an amulet originates in 18th century Eastern Europe, Chai as a symbol goes back to medieval Spain. Letters as symbols in Jewish culture go back to the earliest Jewish roots, in medieval Kabbalah, Chai is the lowest emanation of God. The Jewish commentaries give a long treatment to certain verses in the Torah with the word as their central theme. Three examples are Leviticus 18 וָחַי בָּהֶם Chai Bahem, and you live by. Deuteronomy 31,9 רְאֵה נָתַתִּי לְפָנֶיךָ הַיּוֹם, אֶת-הַחַיִּים וְאֶת-הַטּוֹב, וְאֶת-הַמָּוֶת, there is nary an ancient Jewish commentator who does not comment on that verse. The Shema prayer as well speaks of the importance of Chai, to live, two common Jewish names used since Talmudic times, are based on this symbol, Chaya feminine, Chayim masculine. The Jewish toast is lchaim, to life, the word is made up of two letters of the Hebrew alphabet - Chet and Yod, forming the word chai, meaning alive, or living. The most common spelling in Latin script is Chai, but the word is also spelled Hai. The usual modern pronunciation of word is, while a transcription of the Biblical. There have been various mystical numerological speculations about the fact that, according to the system of gematria, for this reason,18 is a spiritual number in Judaism, and many Jews give gifts of money in multiples of 18 as a result. The Chai symbol can be worn by Jews as a medallion around the neck, similarly to other Jewish symbols, such as the Star of David and the Hamsa. In Hebrew, the related word chaya means life or long life, Jews often give gifts and donations in multiples of 18, which is called giving chai. Mailings from Jewish charities usually suggest the amounts to give in multiples of chai rather than the usual multiples of 25 and it appears in the slogan ʿam yisraʾel ḥay. It is heard in a BBC recording from April 20,1945 of Jewish survivors of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp five days after their liberation and this was the first Sabbath ceremony openly conducted on German soil since the beginning of the war. With people still dying around them, the survivors sung what would become the Israeli national anthem, at the end of Hatikvah, British Army Chaplain Leslie Hardman shouts out, Am Yisrael Chai. In the Eurovision Song Contest 1983, which was held in Germany four decades after Shoah, Israel was represented with the song Chai, performed by Ofra Haza, an English language Jewish radio station in Johannesburg, South Africa is called ChaiFM. Elvis Presley wore a Chai necklace while performing toward the end of his life, baseball star Rod Carew wore a chai necklace during his playing days, his first wife and daughters were Jewish, even though Carew himself never formally converted to Judaism
10.
Luck
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Yet the author Max Gunther defines it as events that influence ones life and are seemingly beyond ones control. It is the sense that people mean when they say they do not believe in luck. In the descriptive sense, people speak of luck after events that they find to be fortunate or unfortunate, Therefore, cultural views of luck vary from perceiving luck as a matter of random chance to attributing to such explanations of faith or superstition. For example, the Romans believed in the embodiment of luck as the goddess Fortuna, Carl Jung viewed luck as synchronicity, which he described as a meaningful coincidence. Lucky symbols are popular worldwide and take many forms, the English noun luck appears comparatively late, during the 1480s, as a loan from Low German luk, a short form of gelucke. Compare to old Slavic word lukyj - appointed by destiny and old Russian luchaj - destiny and it likely entered English as a gambling term, and the context of gambling remains detectable in the words connotations, luck is a way of understanding a personal chance event. Luck has three aspects which make it distinct from chance or probability, Luck can be accident or chance. Luck applies to a sentient being, some examples of luck, Finding a valuable object or money. Winning an event despite negative logical assumptions and you correctly guess an answer in a quiz which you did not know. Luck is interpreted and understood in different ways. Luck refers to that which happens to a person beyond that persons control and this view incorporates phenomena that are chance happenings, a persons place of birth for example, but where there is no uncertainty involved, or where the uncertainty is irrelevant. Within this framework, one can differentiate between three different types of luck, Constitutional luck, that is, luck with factors that cannot be changed, place of birth and genetic constitution are typical examples. Circumstantial luck—with factors that are brought on. Accidents and epidemics are typical examples, ignorance luck, that is, luck with factors one does not know about. Examples can be identified only in hindsight, another view holds that luck is probability taken personally. A rationalist approach to luck includes the application of the rules of probability, the rationalist thinks that the belief in luck is a result of poor reasoning or wishful thinking. In general, A happens and then B happens, Therefore, in the rationalist perspective, probability is only affected by confirmed causal connections. The gamblers fallacy and inverse gamblers fallacy both explain some reasoning problems in common beliefs in luck and they involve denying the unpredictability of random events, I havent rolled a seven all week, so Ill definitely roll one tonight
11.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
12.
Writing
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Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion through the inscription or recording of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language, Writing is not a language but a form of technology that developed as tools developed with human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary, Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws, in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. H. G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to put agreements, laws and it made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible, the command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death. The major writing systems—methods of inscription—broadly fall into four categories, logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, another category, ideographic, has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, a logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, many logograms have an ideographic component. For example, in Mayan, the glyph for fin, pronounced ka, was used to represent the syllable ka whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of an element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation. However, such phonetic elements complement the elements, rather than vice versa. A syllabary is a set of symbols that represent syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable ka may look nothing like the syllable ki, syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek, Cherokee, Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam, most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component
13.
Greek alphabet
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It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
14.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
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Giovanni Pico della Mirandola was an Italian Renaissance nobleman and philosopher. Giovanni was born at Mirandola, near Modena, the youngest son of Gianfrancesco I Pico, Lord of Mirandola and Count of Concordia, by his wife Giulia, daughter of Feltrino Boiardo, Count of Scandiano. The family had long dwelt in the Castle of Mirandola, which had become independent in the century and had received in 1414 from the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund the fief of Concordia. Mirandola was an autonomous county in Emilia, near Ferrara. The Pico della Mirandola were closely related to the Sforza, Gonzaga and Este dynasties, and Giovannis siblings wed the descendants of the rulers of Corsica, Ferrara, Bologna. Giovannis maternal family was distinguished in the arts and scholarship of the Italian Renaissance. His cousin and contemporary was the poet Matteo Maria Boiardo, who grew up under the influence of his own uncle, a precocious child with an exceptional memory, Giovanni was schooled in Latin and possibly Greek at a very early age. Intended for the Church by his mother, he was named a papal protonotary at the age of ten, at the sudden death of his mother three years later, Pico renounced canon law and began to study philosophy at the University of Ferrara. During a brief trip to Florence, he met Angelo Poliziano, the courtly poet Girolamo Benivieni, for the rest of his life he remained very close friends with all three, including the ascetic and anti-humanist Savonarola. From 1480 to 1482, he continued his studies at the University of Padua, already proficient in Latin and Greek, he studied Hebrew and Arabic in Padua with Elia del Medigo, a Jewish Averroist, and read Aramaic manuscripts with him as well. Del Medigo also translated Judaic manuscripts from Hebrew into Latin for Pico, Pico also wrote sonnets in Latin and Italian which, because of the influence of Savonarola, he destroyed at the end of his life. He spent the four years either at home, or visiting humanist centres elsewhere in Italy. In 1485, he travelled to the University of Paris, the most important centre in Europe for Scholastic philosophy and theology, and it was probably in Paris that Giovanni began his 900 Theses and conceived the idea of defending them in public debate. During this time two life-changing events occurred, the first was when he returned to settle for a time in Florence in November 1484 and met Lorenzo de Medici and Marsilio Ficino. It was an auspicious day that Ficino had chosen to publish his translations of the works of Plato from Greek into Latin. Pico appears to have charmed both men, and despite Ficinos philosophical differences, he was convinced of their Saturnine affinity, Lorenzo would support and protect Pico until his death in 1492. Without Lorenzos support it is doubtful that Pico would have survived the Inquisition coming after him. Soon after this stay in Florence, Pico was travelling on his way to Rome where he intended to publish his 900 Theses, stopping in Arezzo he became embroiled in a love affair with the wife of one of Lorenzo de Medicis cousins
15.
Kabbalah
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Kabbalah is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of thought that originated in Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist in Judaism is called a Mekubbal, Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal, and mysterious Ein Sof and the mortal and finite universe. While it is used by some denominations, it is not a religious denomination in itself. It forms the foundations of religious interpretation. Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence and it also presents methods to aid understanding of the concepts and thereby attain spiritual realisation. Kabbalah originally developed within the realm of Jewish tradition, and kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain, traditional practitioners believe its earliest origins pre-date world religions, forming the primordial blueprint for Creations philosophies, religions, sciences, arts, and political systems. Safed Rabbi Isaac Luria is considered the father of contemporary Kabbalah and it was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century onwards. According to the Zohar, a text for kabbalistic thought. These four levels are called pardes from their initial letters, peshat, the direct interpretations of meaning. Derash, midrashic meanings, often with imaginative comparisons with similar words or verses, sod, the inner, esoteric meanings, expressed in kabbalah. Kabbalah is considered by its followers as a part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah being an inherent duty of observant Jews. A third tradition, related but more shunned, involves the magical aims of Practical Kabbalah and they can be readily distinguished by their basic intent with respect to God, The Theosophical tradition of Theoretical Kabbalah seeks to understand and describe the divine realm. Consequently, it formed a minor tradition shunned from Kabbalah. According to traditional belief, early kabbalistic knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs, prophets, According to this view, early kabbalah was, in around the 10th century BC, an open knowledge practiced by over a million people in ancient Israel. Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time to hide the knowledge and make it secret and it is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within kabbalah. There are several different schools of thought with different outlooks, however. From the Renaissance onwards Jewish Kabbalah texts entered non-Jewish culture, where they were studied and translated by Christian Hebraists, syncretic traditions of Christian Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah developed independently of Jewish Kabbalah, reading the Jewish texts as universal ancient wisdom. Both adapted the Jewish concepts freely from their Judaic understanding, to merge with other theologies, religious traditions, with the decline of Christian Cabala in the Age of Reason, Hermetic Qabalah continued as a central underground tradition in Western esotericism
16.
Hebrew Bible
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They are composed mainly in Biblical Hebrew, with some passages in Biblical Aramaic. The term does not comment upon the naming, numbering or ordering of books, the term Hebrew Bible is an attempt to provide specificity with respect to contents but avoid allusion to any particular interpretative tradition or theological school of thought. Hebrew Bible refers to the Jewish biblical canon, in its Latin form, Biblia Hebraica, it traditionally serves as a title for printed editions of the Masoretic Text. Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible as a substitute to terms with religious connotations. Hebrew Bible Old Testament without prescribing the use of either, however, he accepts that there is no reason why non-Christians should feel obliged to refer to these books as the Old Testament, apart from custom of use. Modern Christian formulations of this tension include Supersessionism, Covenant Theology, New Covenant Theology, Dispensationalism, in terms of canon, Christian usage of Old Testament does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books but, rather, varies depending on denomination. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic, written and printed in Aramaic square-script, the books that constitute the Hebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium. The oldest texts seem to come from the 11th or 10th centuries BCE and they are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. Since the 19th century, most biblical scholars have agreed that the Pentateuch consists of four sources which have been woven together and these four sources are J, D, E and P sources. They were combined to form the Pentateuch sometime in the 6th century BCE and this theory is now known as the documentary hypothesis, and has been the dominant theory for the past two hundred years. The Deuteronomist credited with the Pentateuchs book of Deuteronomy is also said to be the source of the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, several editions, all titled Biblia Hebraica, have been produced by various German publishers since 1906. Between 1906 and 1955, Rudolf Kittel published nine editions of it,1966, the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft published the renamed Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in six editions until 1997. Since 2004 the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft has published the Biblia Hebraica Quinta, other projects include, Hebrew University Bible Project Hebrew Bible, A Critical Edition Biblical canon Books of the Bible Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Torah Brueggemann, Walter. An introduction to the Old Testament, the canon and Christian imagination, the People of Ancient Israel, an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row,1974. Sinai and Zion, An Entry into the Jewish Bible, archived from the original on 14 March 2012. The Ancient Near East, Volume I, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. An abridgement of Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament Noth, how the Bible Became a Book. The Old Testament, A Literary History, hebrew-English Tanakh, the Jewish Bible Complete, fully vocalized, contilated, Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, together with the classic English translation by the Jewish Publication Society
17.
Chapters and verses of the Bible
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The Bible is a compilation of many shorter books written at different times by a variety of authors, and later assembled into the biblical canon. All but the shortest of these books have been divided into chapters, generally a page or so in length, since the mid-16th century, each chapter has been further divided into verses of a few short lines or sentences. Sometimes a sentence spans more than one verse, as in the case of Ephesians 2, 8–9, as the chapter and verse divisions were not part of the original texts, they form part of the paratext of the Bible. The Jewish divisions of the Hebrew text differ at various points from those used by Christians, some chapter divisions also occur in different places, e. g.1 Chronicles 5, 27–41 in Hebrew Bibles is numbered as 1 Chronicles 6, 1–15 in Christian translations. The original manuscripts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet, peh פ indicated an open paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a closed paragraph that began on the same line after a small space. These two letters begin the Hebrew words open and closed, and are, themselves, open פ, the earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions. The Hebrew Bible was also divided into larger sections. In Israel the Torah were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections so it could be read through in one year, the New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons, neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions. Chapter divisions, with titles, are found in the 9th century Tours manuscript. 3, the so-called Bible of Rorigo, Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the chapter divisions are based. While chapter divisions have become universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Lockes Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. One of the most frequent of these was a type of punctuation. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymuss work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440, the first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini, but his system was never widely adopted
18.
Talmud
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The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
19.
Jewish prayer
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Jewish prayer are the prayer recitations and Jewish meditation traditions that form part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism. These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the siddur, however, if the Talmud mentions tefillah, it refers to the Shemoneh Esreh only. Prayer—as a service of the heart—is in principle a Torah-based commandment and it is not time-dependent and is mandatory for both Jewish men and women. You shall serve God with your whole heart, further additional prayers, Musaf are recited by Orthodox and Conservative congregations on Shabbat, major Jewish holidays, and Rosh Chodesh. A fifth prayer service, Neila, is recited only on Yom Kippur, the language of the prayers, while clearly from the Second Temple period, often employs Biblical idiom. However the differences are compared with the commonalities. Most of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melodies or trope, synagogues may designate or employ a professional or lay hazzan for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer, especially on Shabbat or holidays. According to the Talmud Bavli, tefillah is a Biblical command, what service is performed with the heart. Prayer is therefore referred to as Avodah sheba-Lev and it is not time-dependent and is mandatory for both Jewish men and women. Mentioning tefillah, the Talmud always refers to the Amidah, that is also called Shemoneh Esreh, the noted rabbi Maimonides likewise categorizes tefillah as a Biblical command of Written law, as the Babylon Talmud says. The Oral law, according to the Talmud Bavli gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers, According to Rabbi Jose b, Hanina, each of the Patriarchs instituted one prayer, Abraham the morning, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening prayers. This view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned, however, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a mussaf service, are still based on the sacrifices. Each service was instituted parallel to an act in the Temple in Jerusalem, the morning Tamid offering, the afternoon Tamid offering. Therefore, the Anshei Knesset HaGedola based their Takkanah that Jewish men were required to pray three times a day from hints to personal habits of the forefathers in the tanach. Additional references in the Hebrew Bible have been interpreted to suggest that King David, moreover, it is generally accepted by Orthodox, Modern Orthodox, and Sephardic religious authorities that women are exempt from the evening prayer. Conservative Judaism regards the halakhic system of daily services as mandatory. According to halakha, all prayers and virtually all communal prayers may be said in any language that the person praying understands. Maimonides relates that until the Babylonian exile, all Jews composed their own prayers, the differences are quite minor compared with the commonalities
20.
Abraham Abulafia
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Very early in life he was taken by his parents to Tudela, Navarre, where his aged father Samuel Abulafia instructed him in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. In 1258, when Abraham was eighteen years old, his father died and his first journey in 1260 was to the Land of Israel, where he intended to begin a search for the legendary river Sambation and the Ten Lost Tribes. He was highly articulate, able and eager to teach others and he wrote industriously on Kabbalistic, philosophical, and grammatical subjects, and succeeded in surrounding himself with numerous pupils, to whom he imparted much of his own enthusiasm. He immersed himself in the study of the Sefer Yetzirah and its numerous commentaries and this book, and particularly the commentary and method of the German Jewish mystic, Eleazar of Worms, exercised a deep influence upon him, and had the effect of greatly increasing his mystical bent. He soon left for Castile, where he disseminated his prophetic Kabbalah among figures like R. Moses of Burgos and his most important disciple, some time around 1275 he taught The Guide for the Perplexed and his Kabbalah in a few cities in Greece. He wrote the first of his books, Sefer haYashar. That same year he made his way through Trani back to Capua, in obedience to an inner voice, he went in 1280 to Rome, in order to effect the conversion to Judaism of Pope Nicholas III on the day before Rosh Hashanah,5041. The pope, then in nearby Suriano, heard of it, close to the inner gate the stake was erected in preparation, but not in the least disturbed, Abulafia set out for Suriano and reached there August 22. While passing through the gate, he heard that the pope had died from an apoplectic stroke during the preceding night. Returning to Rome, he was thrown into prison by the Order of Friars Minor and he was next heard of in Sicily, where he supposedly appeared as a prophet and Messiah. He remained active in Messina for a decade, presenting himself as a prophet and he had several students there as well as some in Palermo. Shlomo ben Aderet subsequently wrote a letter against Abulafia and this controversy was one of the principal reasons for the exclusion of Abulafia’s Kabbalah from the Spanish schools. Abulafia had to take up the pilgrims staff anew, and under distressing conditions compiled his Sefer haOt Book of the Sign on the island of Comino, near Malta. In 1291 he wrote his last, and perhaps his most intelligible, work, Abulafia’s literary activity spans the years 1271–91 and consists of several books, treatises on grammar, and poems, but amongst which only thirty survive. More influential are his handbooks, teaching how to achieve the experience, Chayei ha-Olam ha-Ba, Or ha-Sekhel, Sefer ha-Cheshek. The spiritualized understanding of the concepts of messianism and redemption as an intellectual development represents a contribution of the messianic ideas in Judaism. As part of his messianic propensity, Abulafia become an intense disseminator of his Kabbalah, orally and in written form, in his first treatises, Get ha-Shemot and Maftei’ach ha-Reayon, Abulafia describes a linguistic type of Kabbalah similar to the early writings of Rabbi Joseph Gikatilla. Some of the elements of those techniques stem from commentaries on Sefer Yetzirah of Ashkenazi, in his writings expressions of what is known as the unio mystica of the human and the supernal intellects may be discerned
21.
Rebbe
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Rebbe /ˈrɛbɛ/ or /ˈrɛbi/, is a Yiddish word derived from the Hebrew word rabbi, which means master, teacher, or mentor. Like the title rabbi it refers to teachers of Torah or leaders of Judaism, in common parlance of modern times, the term The Rebbe is often used specifically by Hasidim to refer to the leader of their Hasidic movement. The Yiddish term rebbe comes from the Hebrew word rabbi, meaning My Master and it was an honorific originally given to those who had Smicha in the Pharisaic and Talmudic era. Since vowels were not written at the time, it is impossible to know whether it was pronounced rah-bee or r-bee. The English word rabbi comes directly from this form, in Yiddish, the word became reb-eh —now commonly spelled rebbe (/ˈrɛbə/—or just reb. The word master רב rav literally means great one, the Sages of the Mishnah known as the Tannaim, from the 1st and 2nd centuries of the common era, were known by the title Rabbi. Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi, the leader of Jewry in Mishnaic Times, was simply called Rabbi, as being the rabbi par excellence of his generation. The Sages of the Talmud known as the Amoraim, from the 3rd, 4th and early 5th centuries, those born in the Land of Israel, are called Rabbi, spiritual leader—The spiritual head of a Hasidic movement is called a rebbe. His followers would address him as The Rebbe or refer to him speaking to others as the Rebbe or my Rebbe. He is referred to by others as the Rebbe of a particular Hasidut, in Hebrew, a hasidic rebbe is often referred to as an AdMoR, which is an abbreviation for Adoneinu, Moreinu, veRabbenu. In the Litvishe world, when not referring to a hasidic rebbe, sephardic Jews can pronounce it as Ribbi. The Lubavitcher hasidim have a tradition that the Hebrew letters that make up the word rebbe are also an acronym for Rosh Bnei Yisroel, an ordinary communal rabbi, or rebbe in Yiddish, is sometimes distinct from a Rav, who is a more authoritative halakhic decider. A significant function of a Rav is to answer questions of halakha, the short form Reb is an honorific for Orthodox Jewish men, who are most likely to have profound knowledge of the Talmud and Torah, as opposed to Reconstructionist, Reform or Conservative Judaism. Originally, this title was added to the names of Jews at the time of the schism with the Karaite sect, as a sign of loyalty to the rabbinic tradition. Sometimes a hasid has a rebbe as his guide and an additional rav for rulings on issues of halakha. Sprouting Hasidim use the concept of a rebbe in the sense of rabbi. For example, I will ask my rebbe, rabbi Ploni, a hasidic rebbe is generally taken to mean a great leader of a Hasidic dynasty, also referred to as Grand Rabbi in English or an ADMOR, a Hebrew acronym for Adoneinu-Moreinu-veRabbeinu. Outside of Hasidic circles the term Grand Rabbi has been used to refer to a rabbi with a spiritual status
22.
Yiddish
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Yiddish is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized alphabet based on the Hebrew script, the earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language לשון־אַשכּנז or טײַטש, a variant of tiutsch, the contemporary name for Middle High German. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called מאַמע־לשון, distinguishing it from לשון־קדש, the term Yiddish, short for Yiddish-Teitsch, did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century the language was commonly called Jewish, especially in non-Jewish contexts. Modern Yiddish has two major forms, Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern, Mideastern, and Northeastern dialects, Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern, Midwestern, and Northwestern dialects, the term Yiddish is also used in the adjectival sense, synonymously with Jewish, to designate attributes of Ashkenazi culture. Prior to the Holocaust, there were over 10 million speakers of Yiddish, 85% of the Jews who died in the Holocaust were Yiddish speakers, assimilation following World War II further decreased the use of Yiddish both among survivors and Yiddish-speakers from other countries. However, the number of speakers is increasing in global Hasidic communities, the established view is that, as with other Jewish languages, Jews speaking distinct languages learned new co-territorial vernaculars, which they then Judaized. Exactly what German base lies behind the earliest form of Yiddish is disputed, both Weinreich and Solomon Birnbaum developed this model further in the mid-1950s. In Weinreichs view, this Old Yiddish substrate later bifurcated into two versions of the language, Western and Eastern Yiddish. They retained the Semitic vocabulary needed for religious purposes and created a Judeo-German form of speech, recent linguistic research has finessed, contested, or challenged the Weinreich model, providing alternative approaches to the origins of Yiddish. Some theorists argue that the fusion occurred with a Bavarian dialect base, the two main candidates for the germinal matrix of Yiddish, the Rhineland and Bavaria, are not necessarily incompatible. There may have been developments in the two regions, seeding the Western and Eastern dialects of Modern Yiddish. Dovid Katz proposes that Yiddish emerged from contact between speakers of High German and Aramaic-speaking Jews from the Middle East, wexlers model has met with little academic support, and strong critical challenges, especially among historical linguists. Alternative theories recognize the extent of Yiddishs Germanic vocabulary. Ashkenaz was centered on the Rhineland and the Palatinate, in what is now the westernmost part of Germany and its geographic extent did not coincide with the German principalities of the time, and it included northern France. Ashkenaz bordered on the inhabited by another distinctive Jewish cultural group, the Sephardim or Spanish Jews
23.
Aramaic
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Aramaic is a language or group of languages belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family. More specifically, it is part of the Northwest Semitic group, the Aramaic alphabet was widely adopted for other languages and is ancestral to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets. During its approximately 3000 years of history, Aramaic has served variously as a language of administration of empires, therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language, each time and place rather has had its own variation. The Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, Aram is used as a proper name of several people in the Torah including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and now called Syria, is considered the epicenter of Aramaic. The language is often considered to have originated within Assyria. Interestingly, the Christian New Testament, for which the constituent texts are written in Koine Greek. The Hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria instead translated Aramaic to the Syrian tongue, a related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct. Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan Province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq and it is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Central Neo-Aramaic consists of Turoyo and the recently extinct Mlahsô, very little remains of Western Aramaic. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic are preserved in liturgical and literary usage. Each dialect of Aramaic has its own pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel and it usually has a back counterpart, and a front counterpart. There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects, there is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound, the open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א alaph or ה he. The close front vowel is the long i and it has a slightly more open counterpart, the long e, as in the final vowel of café. Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced more open
24.
Jacob ben Asher
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Jacob was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Baal ha-Turim, after his work in halakha. The work was divided into 4 sections, each called a tur and he was the third son of the Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel, a Rabbi of the Holy Roman Empire who moved to Castile. Besides his father, who was his teacher, Jacob quotes very often in the Turim his elder brother Jehiel, once his brother Judah. According to many, Jacob moved to Castile with his father and was not born there, some say Jacob succeeded his father as the rabbi of the Jewish community of Toledo, while others say his brother Judah ben Asher did. His brothers were rabbis of different communities in Iberia. Arbaah Turim, one of the most important halachic books of all times, sefer ha-Remazim, or Kitzur Piske ha-Rosh, an abridgment of his fathers compendium of the Talmud, in which he condensed his fathers decisions, omitting the casuistry. Rimze Baal ha-Turim, a commentary on the Pentateuch, which is printed in virtually all Jewish editions of the Pentateuch. This concise commentary consists of mystical and symbolical references in the Torah text, often using gematria, perush Al ha-Torah, a less known commentary on the Pentateuch, taken mainly from Nachmanides, but without his cabalistic and philosophical interpretations. Jacob quotes many other commentators, among them Saadia Gaon, Rashi, Joseph Dara, Works of Jacob ben Ascher in the Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke. Retrieved 2010-04-20 Works written by or about Jacob ben Asher at Wikisource
25.
Rabbi
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In Judaism, a rabbi /ˈræbaɪ/ is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רַבִּי rabi, meaning My Master, the word master רב rav literally means great one. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic and Talmudic era, the first sage for whom the Mishnah uses the title of rabbi was Yohanan ben Zakkai, active in the early to mid first century CE. Within the various Jewish denominations there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, for example, Orthodox Judaism does not ordain women as rabbis, but other movements have chosen to do so for halakhic reasons as well as ethical reasons. Although the usage rabbim many the majority, the multitude occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea scrolls there is no evidence to support an association with the later title Rabbi, the root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning lord. As a sign of respect, some great rabbis are simply called The Rav. The titles Rabban and Rabbi are first mentioned in the Mishnah, the term was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin. The title Rabbi occurs in the books of Matthew, Mark, and John in the New Testament, other variants are rəvī and, in Yiddish, rebbə. The word could be compared to the Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi, in ancient Hebrew, rabbi was a proper term of address while speaking to a superior, in the second person, similar to a vocative case. While speaking about a superior, in the person one could say ha-rav or rabbo. Later, the term evolved into a title for members of the Patriarchate. Thus, the title gained an irregular form, רַבָּנִים rabbanim. Rabbi as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. All of the above personalities would have expected to be steeped in the wisdom of the Torah and the commandments. And honor is due only for Torah, as it is said, The wise shall inherit honor, and only Torah is truly good, as it is said, I have given you a good teaching, do not forsake My Torah. This was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, the title Rabbi was borne by the sages of ancient Israel, who were ordained by the Sanhedrin in accordance with the custom handed down by the elders. They were titled Ribbi and received authority to judge penal cases, Rab was the title of the Babylonian sages who taught in the Babylonian academies. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, a recognised scholar could be called Rab or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages
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Judah Loew ben Bezalel
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He is also the subject of a 19th-century legend that he created The Golem of Prague, an animate being fashioned from clay. Rabbi Loew is buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague in Josefov and his descendants surnames include Braude, Loewy, Loeb, Lowy, Oppenheimer, Pfaelzer, Lowenstein and Keim. His birth year is uncertain, with different sources listing 1512,1520 and 1526 and his uncle Jakob ben Chajim was Reichsrabbiner of the Holy Roman Empire, his brother Chaim of Friedberg a famous rabbinical scholar. There is no documented evidence of his having received formal religious education and his family consisted of his wife, Pearl, six daughters, and a son, Bezalel, who became a Rabbi in Kolín, but died early in 1600. He was independently wealthy, probably as a result of his fathers successful business enterprises and he also revised the community statutes on the election and taxation process. Although he retired from Moravia in 1588 at age 60, the communities still considered him an authority long after that and this phenomenon even affected his own family. He used one of the two yearly grand sermons to denounce the phenomenon and he moved back to Prague in 1588, where he again accepted a rabbinical position, replacing the retired Isaac Hayoth. He immediately reiterated his views on Nadler, on 23 February 1592, he had an audience with Emperor Rudolf II, which he attended together with his brother Sinai and his son-in-law Isaac Cohen, Prince Bertier was present with the emperor. The conversation seems to have related to Kabbalah a subject which held much fascination for the emperor. In 1592, the Maharal moved to Poznań, where he had been elected as Chief Rabbi of Poland, in Poznań he composed Netivoth Olam and part of Derech Chaim. Davidic Line According to Jewish tradition, the Maharals family descended patrilineally from the Babylonian Exilarchs, towards the end of his life he moved back to Prague, where he died in 1609. He was buried in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague, in the Book of Genesis, the patriarch Jacob refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh, a Young Lion when blessing him. In Jewish naming tradition the Hebrew name and the name are often combined as a pair. The Maharals classic work on the Rashi commentary of the Torah is called the Gur Aryeh al HaTorah in Hebrew, meaning Young Lion upon the Torah. The Maharals tomb in Prague is decorated with a shield with a lion with two intertwined tails, alluding both to his first name and to Bohemia, the arms of which has a two-tailed lion. It is unknown how many Talmudic rabbinical scholars the Maharal taught in Moravia, the former promoted his teachers program of regular Mishnah study by the masses, and composed his Tosefoth Yom Tov with this goal in mind. In the words of a writer, the Maharal prevented the Balkanization of Jewish thought. A more recent authority who had roots in both traditions was Rabbi Isaac Hutner, Rabbi Hutner succinctly defined the ethos of the Maharals teachings as being Nistar BeLashon Nigleh, meaning, The Hidden in the language of the Revealed
27.
Hasidic Judaism
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Hasidism, sometimes Hasidic Judaism, is a Jewish religious sect. It arose as a revival movement in contemporary Western Ukraine during the 18th century. Today most affiliates reside in the United States, Israel, Israel Ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov, is regarded as its founding father, and his disciples developed and disseminated it. Current Hasidism is a sub-group within Ultra-Orthodox Judaism and is noted for its religious conservatism, Hasidic thought draws heavily on Lurianic Kabbalah and to an extent is a popularization of it. Hasidim, the adherents of Hasidism, are organized in independent sects known as courts or dynasties, each headed by its own hereditary leader, a Rebbe. Reverence and submission to the Rebbe are key tenets, as he is considered an authority with whom the follower must bond to gain closeness to God. The various courts share basic convictions but operate apart and possess unique traits, there are several courts with many thousands of member households each, and dozens of smaller ones. The terms hasid and hasidut, meaning pietist and piety, have a history in Judaism. The Talmud and other old sources refer to the Pietists of Old who would contemplate an entire hour in preparation for prayer, the phrase denoted extremely devoted individuals who did not only observe the Law to its letter but performed good deeds even beyond it. Adam himself is honored with the title in tractate Eruvin 18b by Rabbi Meir, Adam was a great hasid, the title continued to be applied as an honorific for the exceptionally devout. In the 16th century, when Kabbalah spread, the title became associated with it. Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah wrote in his glossa on Isaac Lurias version of the Shulchan Aruch that one who wishes to tap the hidden wisdom, the movement founded by Israel Ben Eliezer in the 18th century adopted the term hasidim in the original connotation. But when the sect grew and developed specific attributes, from the 1770s and its common adherents, belonging to groups each headed by a spiritual leader, were henceforth known as Hasidim. Yet eventually, the sect gained such a mass following that the old connotation was sidelined. In popular discourse at least, Hasid came to someone who follows a religious teacher from the movement. It also entered Modern Hebrew as such, meaning adherent or disciple, one was not merely a hasid anymore, observed historian David Assaf, but a Hasid of someone or some dynasty in particular. Originally denoting an observant, moral person, in Hasidic literature Tzaddiq became synonymous with the often hereditary master heading a sect of followers, as noted by Joseph Dan, every attempt to present such a body of ideas has failed. The difficulty of separating the movements philosophy from that of its inspiration, Lurianic Kabbalah
28.
Torah
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The Torah is the central reference of Judaism. It has a range of meanings and it can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the rabbinic commentaries. In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes both the five books and the Oral Torah, the Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation, reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life. The word Torah in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, the meaning of the word is therefore teaching, doctrine, or instruction, the commonly accepted law gives a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, the earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been The Torah of Moses. This title, however, is neither in the Torah itself. It appears in Joshua and Kings, but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus, in contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were The Book of Moses and The Book of the Torah, Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law. The Torah starts from the beginning of Gods creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and it ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the teachings given explicitly or implicitly embedded in the narrative. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs, God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt. Exodus begins the story of Gods revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed, Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction. Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following Gods commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan, even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land
29.
Mishna
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The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions known as the Oral Torah. It is also the first major work of Rabbinic literature, most of the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew, while some parts are Aramaic. The Mishnah consists of six orders, each containing 7–12 tractates,63 in total, the word Mishnah can also indicate a single paragraph or a verse of the work itself, i. e. the smallest unit of structure in the Mishnah. For this reason the work is sometimes called by the plural. The term Mishnah originally referred to a method of teaching by presenting topics in an order, as contrasted with Midrash. The Mishnah consists of six orders, each containing 7–12 tractates,63 in total, each masechet is divided into chapters and then paragraphs. In this last context, the word means a single paragraph of the work, i. e. the smallest unit of structure, leading to the use of the plural, Mishnayot. Because of the division into six orders, the Mishnah is sometimes called Shas, in each order, tractates are arranged from biggest to smallest. A popular mnemonic consists of the acronym ZMaN NaKaT, the Babylonian Talmud states that there were either six hundred or seven hundred orders of the Mishnah. Hillel the Elder organized them into six orders to make it easier to remember, the historical accuracy of this tradition is disputed. There is also a tradition that Ezra the scribe dictated from memory not only the 24 books of the Tanakh but 60 esoteric books. It is not known whether this is a reference to the Mishnah, interestingly, Reuvein Margolies posited that there were originally seven orders of Mishnah, citing a Gaonic tradition on the existence of a seventh order containing the laws of Stam and Berachot. A number of important laws are not elaborated upon in the Mishnah and these include the laws of tzitzit, tefillin, mezuzot, the holiday of Hanukkah, and the laws of conversion to Judaism. These were later discussed in the minor tractates, nissim ben Jacobs Hakdamah Lemafteach Hatalmud argued that it was unnecessary for Judah the Prince to discuss them as many of these laws were so well known. Rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah from the four centuries, done in the Land of Israel. In themselves they are known as Gemara, the books which set out the Mishnah in its original structure, together with the associated Gemara, are known as Talmuds. Two Talmuds were compiled, the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud, unlike the Hebrew Mishnah, the Gemara is written primarily in Aramaic. The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, the term Mishnah is related to the verb shanah, to teach or repeat, and to the adjectives sheni and mishneh, meaning second
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Menstruation
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Menstruation, also known as a period or monthly, is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche, however, periods may occasionally start as young as eight years old and still be considered normal. The average age of the first period is later in the developing world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Menstruation stops occurring after menopause, which occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Periods also stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the months of breastfeeding. Up to 80% of women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation, common signs and symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. These may interfere with life, therefore qualifying as premenstrual syndrome. In 3 to 8%, symptoms are severe, a lack of periods, known as amenorrhea, is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not occurred in 90 days. Other problems with the cycle include painful periods and abnormal bleeding such as bleeding between periods or heavy bleeding. Menstruation in other animals occurs in primates, such as apes and monkeys, as well as bats, the menstrual cycle occurs due to the rise and fall of hormones. This cycle results in the thickening of the lining of the uterus, the egg is released from an ovary around day fourteen in the cycle, the thickened lining of the uterus provides nutrients to an embryo after implantation. If pregnancy does not occur, the lining is released in what is known as menstruation, the first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 12 to 15, however, it may start as early as eight. The average age of the first period is later in the developing world. The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s, Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, the medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 in Western countries
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Equinox
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An equinox is the moment in which the plane of Earths equator passes through the center of the Sun, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September. On an equinox, day and night are of equal duration all over the planet. They are not exactly equal, however, due to the size of the sun. To avoid this ambiguity, the word equilux is sometimes used to mean a day in which the durations of light, see Length of equinoctial day and night for further discussion. The word is derived from the Latin aequinoctium, aequus and nox, the equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator is perpendicular to the equator. As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated, the word comes from Latin equi or equal and nox meaning night. In other words, the equinoxes are the times when the subsolar point is on the equator. The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox, the equinoxes, along with solstices, are directly related to the seasons of the year. In the southern hemisphere, the equinox occurs in September. When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox. Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year. By 1500 AD, it had drifted backwards to 11 March and this drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to create a modern Gregorian calendar. However, the leap year intervals in his calendar were not smooth and this causes the equinox to oscillate by about 53 hours around its mean position. This in turn raised the possibility that it could fall on 22 March, the astronomers chose the appropriate number of days to omit so that the equinox would swing from 19 to 21 March but never fall on the 22nd. Vernal equinox and Autumnal equinox, these names are direct derivatives of Latin. The equivalent common language English terms spring equinox and autumn equinox are even more ambiguous, March equinox and September equinox, names referring to the months of the year they occur, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all use a solar-based calendar where the equinoxes occur every year in the same month. Northward equinox and southward equinox, names referring to the apparent direction of motion of the Sun
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1 (number)
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1, is a number, a numeral, and the name of the glyph representing that number. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement, for example, a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the series of natural numbers. The word one can be used as a noun, an adjective and it comes from the English word an, which comes from the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz. The Proto-Germanic root *ainaz comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no-, compare the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz to Old Frisian an, Gothic ains, Danish een, Dutch een, German eins and Old Norse einn. Compare the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- to Greek oinos, Latin unus, Old Persian aivam, Old Church Slavonic -inu and ino-, Lithuanian vienas, Old Irish oin, One, sometimes referred to as unity, is the first non-zero natural number. It is thus the integer before two and after zero, and the first positive odd number, any number multiplied by one is that number, as one is the identity for multiplication. As a result,1 is its own factorial, its own square, its own cube, One is also the result of the empty product, as any number multiplied by one is itself. It is also the natural number that is neither composite nor prime with respect to division. The Gupta wrote it as a line, and the Nagari sometimes added a small circle on the left. The Nepali also rotated it to the right but kept the circle small and this eventually became the top serif in the modern numeral, but the occasional short horizontal line at the bottom probably originates from similarity with the Roman numeral I. Where the 1 is written with an upstroke, the number 7 has a horizontal stroke through the vertical line. While the shape of the 1 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures, many older typewriters do not have a separate symbol for 1 and use the lowercase letter l instead. It is possible to find cases when the uppercase J is used,1 cannot be used as the base of a positional numeral system, as the only digit that would be permitted in such a system would be 0. Since the base 1 exponential function always equals 1, its inverse does not exist, there are two ways to write the real number 1 as a recurring decimal, as 1.000. and as 0.999. There is only one way to represent the real number 1 as a Dedekind cut, in a multiplicative group or monoid, the identity element is sometimes denoted 1, but e is also traditional. However,1 is especially common for the identity of a ring. When such a ring has characteristic n not equal to 0,1 is the first figurate number of every kind, such as triangular number, pentagonal number and centered hexagonal number, to name just a few
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Aleph
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Aleph is the first letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Ālep, Hebrew Ālef א, Aramaic Ālap
34.
2 (number)
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2 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 1 and preceding 3. The number two has many properties in mathematics, an integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers written in a system based on an even number, such as decimal and hexadecimal. If it is even, then the number is even. In particular, when written in the system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0,2,4,6. In numeral systems based on an odd number, divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a root that is even. Two is the smallest and first prime number, and the only prime number. Two and three are the two consecutive prime numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan prime, and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also a Stern prime, a Pell number, the first Fibonacci prime, and it is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and fourth Perrin numbers. Despite being prime, two is also a highly composite number, because it is a natural number which has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to the number itself. The next superior highly composite number is six, vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the decimal base. Two is the number x such that the sum of the reciprocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols ∑ k =0 ∞12 k =1 +12 +14 +18 +116 + ⋯ =2. This comes from the fact that, ∑ k =0 ∞1 n k =1 +1 n −1 for all n ∈ R >1, powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne primes, and important to computer science. Two is the first Mersenne prime exponent, the square root of 2 was the first known irrational number. The smallest field has two elements, in the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,2 is identified with the set
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Bet (letter)
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This letters name means house in various Semitic languages, and appears to derive from an Egyptian hieroglyph of a house by acrophony. The Phoenician letter gave rise to, among others, the Greek Beta, Latin B, the Arabic letter ب is named باء bāʾ. For /p/, it may be used interchangeably with the Persian letter پ - pe in this case, Hebrew spelling, בֵּית The Hebrew letter represents two different phonemes, a b sound and a v sound. The two are distinguished by a dot in the centre of the letter for /b/ and no dot for /v/ and it is also named beth, following the Tiberian Hebrew pronunciation, in academic circles. In modern Hebrew the frequency of the usage of bet, out of all the letters, is 4. 98%, when the Bet has a dot in its center, known as a dagesh, then it represents /b/. There are various rules in Hebrew grammar that stipulate when and why a dagesh is used, when this letter appears as ב without the dagesh in its center then it represents a voiced labiodental fricative, /v/. Bet in gematria symbolizes the number 2, as a prefix, the letter bet may function as a preposition meaning in, at, or with. Bet is the first letter of the Torah, as Bet is the number 2 in gematria, this is said to symbolize that there are two parts to Torah, the Written Torah and the Oral Torah. In set theory, the numbers stand for powers of infinite sets. In the Syriac alphabet, the letter is ܒ — Beth. It is one of six letters that represents two associated sounds, when Beth has a hard pronunciation it is a. When Beth has a soft pronunciation it is pronounced as a. However, in dialects, the soft Beth is more often pronounced as a. Whether Beth should be pronounced as a hard or soft sound is determined by its context within a word. However, wherever it is traditionally geminate within a word, even in dialects that no longer distinguish double consonants, in the West Syriac dialect, some speakers always pronounce Beth with its hard sound. Beth, when attached to the beginning of a word, represents the preposition in, with, as a numeral, the letter represents the number 2, and, using various systems of dashes above or below, can stand for 2,000 and 20,000
36.
3 (number)
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3 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 2 and preceding 4. Three is the largest number still written with as many lines as the number represents, to this day 3 is written as three lines in Roman and Chinese numerals. This was the way the Brahmin Indians wrote it, and the Gupta made the three lines more curved, the Nagari started rotating the lines clockwise and ending each line with a slight downward stroke on the right. Eventually they made these strokes connect with the lines below, and it was the Western Ghubar Arabs who finally eliminated the extra stroke and created our modern 3. ٣ While the shape of the 3 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender, as, for example, in some French text-figure typefaces, though, it has an ascender instead of a descender. A common variant of the digit 3 has a flat top and this form is sometimes used to prevent people from fraudulently changing a 3 into an 8. It is usually found on UPC-A barcodes and standard 52-card decks,3 is, a rough approximation of π and a very rough approximation of e when doing quick estimates. The first odd prime number, and the second smallest prime, the only number that is both a Fermat prime and a Mersenne prime. The first unique prime due to the properties of its reciprocal, the second triangular number and it is the only prime triangular number. Both the zeroth and third Perrin numbers in the Perrin sequence, the smallest number of sides that a simple polygon can have. The only prime which is one less than a perfect square, any other number which is n2 −1 for some integer n is not prime, since it is. This is true for 3 as well, but in case the smaller factor is 1. If n is greater than 2, both n −1 and n +1 are greater than 1 so their product is not prime, the number of non-collinear points needed to determine a plane and a circle. Also, Vulgar fractions with 3 in the denominator have a single digit repeating sequences in their decimal expansions,0.000, a natural number is divisible by three if the sum of its digits in base 10 is divisible by 3. For example, the number 21 is divisible by three and the sum of its digits is 2 +1 =3, because of this, the reverse of any number that is divisible by three is also divisible by three. For instance,1368 and its reverse 8631 are both divisible by three and this works in base 10 and in any positional numeral system whose base divided by three leaves a remainder of one. Three of the five regular polyhedra have triangular faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, also, three of the five regular polyhedra have vertices where three faces meet – the tetrahedron, the hexahedron, and the dodecahedron
37.
Gimel
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Gimel is the third letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Gīml, Hebrew ˈGimel ג, Aramaic Gāmal, Syriac Gāmal ܓ, and Arabic ǧīm ج. The Arabic letter ج is named جيم ǧīm, differences in pronunciation occur, because speakers of Modern Standard Arabic pronounce words in accordance to their spoken variety of Arabic. In such varieties, cognate words will have consistent differences in pronunciation of this sound, In most of the Arabian Peninsula, Algeria, Iraq, yet in Algeria and the Arabian Peninsula it may be softened to in some environments. In most of the Levant and north west Africa, in some regions of Sudan, Yemen and Sindh, another common reconstruction of the Classical Arabic pronunciation. This pronunciation also exist in north west Africa in words that contain grooved alveolar sounds, in Gulf Arabic, in the most colloquial speech, while and sometimes softened to in Literary Arabic pronunciation. Egyptians always use the letter to represent, as well as in names and loanwords, however, it isnt incorrect to use it in Egypt for transcribing /ʒ/~/d͡ʒ/. The opposite isnt incorrect among other Arabic language speakers, in Perso-Arabic script, it is called jīm. In Egypt, when there is a need to transcribe /ʒ/ or /d͡ʒ/, in Persian, Urdu, Sindhi, Ottoman Turkish and other languages using Perso-Arabic script, چ represents the affricate /t͡ʃ/. Hebrew spelling, גִּימֵל Bertrand Russell posits that the form is a conventionalized image of a camel. The letter may be the shape of the animals head, neck. Powell, a specialist in the history of writing, states It is hard to imagine how gimel = camel can be derived from the picture of a camel, Gimel is one of the six letters which can receive a dagesh. The two functions of dagesh are distinguished as either qal or hazaq, the six letters are bet, gimel, daled, kaph, pe, and taf. Three of them have their value changed in modern Hebrew from the fricative to the plosive by adding a dagesh. The other three represent the pronunciation in modern Hebrew, but have had alternate pronunciations at other times and places. They are essentially pronounced in the fricative as ג gh غ, dh ذ, in the Temani pronunciation, gimel represents /ɡ/, /ʒ/, or /d͡ʒ/ when with a dagesh, and /ɣ/ without a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, the combination ג׳ is used in loanwords, in gematria, gimel represents the number three. The word gimel is related to gemul, which means justified repayment, or the giving of reward, Gimel is also one of the seven letters which receive special crowns when written in a Sefer Torah. See shin, ayin, teth, nun, zayin, in Modern Hebrew, the frequency of usage of gimel, out of all the letters, is 1. 26%
38.
4 (number)
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4 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 3 and preceding 5. Four is the only cardinal numeral in the English language that has the number of letters as its number value. Four is the smallest composite number, its divisors being 1 and 2. Four is also a composite number. The next highly composite number is 6, Four is the second square number, the second centered triangular number. 4 is the smallest squared prime and the even number in this form. It has a sum of 3 which is itself prime. The aliquot sequence of 4 has 4 members and is accordingly the first member of the 3-aliquot tree, a number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a multiple of 4. For example,1092 is a multiple of 4 because 92 =4 ×23, only one number has an aliquot sum of 4 and that is squared prime 9. Four is the smallest composite number that is equal to the sum of its prime factors, however, it is the only composite number n for which. It is also a Motzkin number, in bases 6 and 12,4 is a 1-automorphic number. In addition,2 +2 =2 ×2 =22 =4, continuing the pattern in Knuths up-arrow notation,2 ↑↑2 =2 ↑↑↑2 =4, and so on, for any number of up arrows. A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral which include kites, rhombi, a circle divided by 4 makes right angles and four quadrants. Because of it, four is the number of plane. Four cardinal directions, four seasons, duodecimal system, and vigesimal system are based on four, a solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is a tetrahedron, and 4 is the smallest possible number of faces of a polyhedron. The regular tetrahedron is the simplest Platonic solid, a tetrahedron, which can also be called a 3-simplex, has four triangular faces and four vertices. It is the only regular polyhedron
39.
Dalet
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Dalet is the fourth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Dālet, Hebrew Dālet ד, Aramaic Dālath, Syriac Dālaṯ ܕ, and Arabic Dāl د. Its sound value is a voiced alveolar plosive, the letter is named dāl, and is written in several ways depending on its position in the word, The letter represents a /d/ sound. Hebrew spelling, דָּלֶת The letter is dalet in the modern Israeli Hebrew pronunciation, dales is still used by many Ashkenazi Jews and daleth by some Jews of Middle-Eastern background, especially in the diaspora. In some academic circles, it is called daleth, following the Tiberian Hebrew pronunciation, the ד like the English D represents a voiced alveolar stop. Just as in English, there may be subtle varieties of the sound that are created when it is spoken, dalet can receive a dagesh, being one of the 6 letters that can receive Dagesh Kal. There are minor variations to this pronunciation, such as ד dhalet /d/ or דּ dalet /d/. In addition, in modern Hebrew, the combination ד׳ is used when transcribing foreign names to denote /ð/, in gematria, dalet symbolizes the number four. The letter dalet, along with the He is used to represent the Names of God in Judaism, the letter He is used commonly, and the dalet is rarer. A good example is the keter of a tallit, which has the blessing for donning the tallit, a reason for this is that the He is used as an abbreviation for HaShem The Name and the dalet is used as a non-sacred way of referring to God. 59%. In the Syriac alphabet, the letter is ܕ — dolath in western pronunciation, dalath. It is one of six letters that represents two associated sounds, when daled/dolath has a hard pronunciation it is a. When it has a soft pronunciation it is pronounced as a. The letter is common in Syriac as it is often attached to the beginning of words as the relative pronoun. Daled/dolath is always written with a point below it to distinguish it from the letter resh, as a numeral, dalad/dolath stands for the number four. With various systems of dots and dashes, it can stand for 4,000 and 40,000
40.
5 (number)
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5 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 4 and preceding 6. Five is the prime number. Because it can be written as 221 +1, five is classified as a Fermat prime, therefore a regular polygon with 5 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge. 5 is the third Sophie Germain prime, the first safe prime, the third Catalan number, Five is the first Wilson prime and the third factorial prime, also an alternating factorial. Five is the first good prime and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also the number that is part of more than one pair of twin primes. Five is conjectured to be the only odd number and if this is the case then five will be the only odd prime number that is not the base of an aliquot tree. Five is also the only prime that is the sum of two primes, namely 2 and 3. The number 5 is the fifth Fibonacci number, being 2 plus 3,5 is also a Pell number and a Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation. Whereas 5 is unique in the Fibonacci sequence, in the Perrin sequence 5 is both the fifth and sixth Perrin numbers,5 is the length of the hypotenuse of the smallest integer-sided right triangle. In bases 10 and 20,5 is a 1-automorphic number,5 and 6 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under either definition. There are five solutions to Známs problem of length 6 and this is related to the fact that the symmetric group Sn is a solvable group for n ≤4 and not solvable for n ≥5. While all graphs with 4 or fewer vertices are planar, there exists a graph with 5 vertices which is not planar, K5, Five is also the number of Platonic solids. A polygon with five sides is a pentagon, figurate numbers representing pentagons are called pentagonal numbers. Five is also a square pyramidal number, Five is the only prime number to end in the digit 5, because all other numbers written with a 5 in the ones-place under the decimal system are multiples of five. As a consequence of this,5 is in base 10 a 1-automorphic number, vulgar fractions with 5 or 2 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, unlike expansions with all other prime denominators, because they are prime factors of ten, the base. When written in the system, all multiples of 5 will end in either 5 or 0
41.
He (letter)
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He is the fifth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Hē, Hebrew Hē ה, Aramaic Hē, Syriac Hē ܗ, and Arabic Hāʾ ﻫ. Its sound value is a glottal fricative. The proto-Canaanite letter gave rise to the Greek Epsilon, Etruscan
42.
6 (number)
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6 is the natural number following 5 and preceding 7. The SI prefix for 10006 is exa-, and for its reciprocal atto-,6 is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square number nor a prime number. Six is the second smallest composite number, its proper divisors are 1,2 and 3, since six equals the sum of its proper divisors, six is the smallest perfect number, Granville number, and S -perfect number. As a perfect number,6 is related to the Mersenne prime 3,6 is the only even perfect number that is not the sum of successive odd cubes. As a perfect number,6 is the root of the 6-aliquot tree, and is itself the sum of only one number. Six is the number that is both the sum and the product of three consecutive positive numbers. Unrelated to 6 being a number, a Golomb ruler of length 6 is a perfect ruler. Six is the first discrete biprime and the first member of the discrete biprime family, Six is the smallest natural number that can be written as the sum of two positive rational cubes which are not integers,6 =3 +3. Six is a perfect number, a harmonic divisor number and a superior highly composite number. The next superior highly composite number is 12,5 and 6 form a Ruth-Aaron pair under either definition. There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6, if n is a natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-Latin square with order n. The smallest non-abelian group is the symmetric group S3 which has 3, s6, with 720 elements, is the only finite symmetric group which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism allows us to construct a number of mathematical objects such as the S Steiner system, the projective plane of order 4. This can also be expressed category theoretically, consider the category whose objects are the n element sets and this category has a non-trivial functor to itself only for n =6. 6 similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of the radius so that each coin makes contact with the central one. This makes 6 the answer to the kissing number problem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained by extending this pattern to the lattice in which each circle touches just six others. 6 is the largest of the four all-Harshad numbers, a six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regular polygons capable of tiling the plane
43.
Waw (letter)
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Waw is the sixth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician wāw, Aramaic waw, Hebrew vav ו, Syriac waw ܘ and Arabic wāw و. It represents the consonant and the vowels and and it is the origin of Greek Ϝ, Υ and Latin F, V and the derived letters U, W, Y. The preceding consonant could either have no diacritic or a mark, damma. A long /oː/ In many dialects, as a result of the monophthongization that underwent the diphthong /aw/ in most of the words, a part of a diphthong, /aw/. In this case it has no diacritic, but could be marked with a sukun in some traditions, the preceding consonant could either have no diacritic or have fatḥa sign, hinting to the first vowel /a/ in the diphthong. As a vowel, wāw can serve as the carrier of a hamza, wāw serves several functions in Arabic. Perhaps foremost among them is that it is the conjunction in Arabic, equivalent to and, it is usually prefixed to other conjunctions, such as وَلَكِن wa-lākin, meaning. Another function is the oath, by preceding a noun of great significantly valued by the speaker and it is often literally translatable to By. or I swear to. And is often used in the Quran in this way, with an additional triple dot diacritic above waw, the letter then named ve is used to represent distinctively the consonant /v/ sometimes in Arabic-based Sorani Kurdish and in Arabic-based Uyghur. /o/ in Sorani Kurdish, /v/ in Arabic-based Kazakh, /ø/ in Uyghur, thirty-fourth letter of the Azerbaijani Arabic script, represents Ô /ɔ/. In Jawi script, Used for /v/. 00% and it is pronounced, like in Arabic, as a by some Jews of Mizrahi origin. In modern Israeli Hebrew, some loanwords, the pronunciation of whose source contains /w/, modern Hebrew has no standardized way to distinguish orthographically between and. The pronunciation is determined by prior knowledge or must be derived through context, some non standard spellings of the sound are sometimes found in modern Hebrew texts, such as word-initial double-vav, וואללה – /ˈwala/ or, rarely, vav with a geresh, ו׳יליאם – /ˈwiljam/. Vav can be used as a mater lectionis for an o vowel, in case it is known as a ḥolam male. The distinction is normally ignored and the HEBREW POINT HOLAM is used in all cases and this vowel can be denoted without the vav, as just the dot placed above and to the left of the letter it points, and is called then ḥolam ḥaser. Some inadequate typefaces dont support the distinction between the ḥolam male ⟨וֹ⟩ /o/, the consonantal vav pointed with a ḥolam ḥaser ⟨וֺ⟩ /vo/. In the word שִׁוּוּק, marketing, the first denotes a vav with dagesh and this is the most common usage. For example, yomar means he will say and vayomar means he said, for example, ahavtah means you loved, and veahavtah means you will love
