1.
History of the family
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The history of the family is a branch of social history that concerns the sociocultural evolution of kinship groups from prehistoric to modern times. The family has a universal and basic role in all societies, research on the history of the family crosses disciplines and cultures, aiming to understand the structure and function of the family from many viewpoints. For example, sociological, ecological or economical perspectives are used to view the interrelationships between the individual, their relatives, and the historical time, the study of family history has shown that family systems are flexible, culturally diverse and adaptive to ecological and economical conditions. Family defined as the co-residence and the organization by kinship are both integral in the development of the concept of the family. A co-residential group that makes up a household may share general survival goals and a residence, the history of the family emerged as a separate field of history in the 1970s, with close ties to anthropology and sociology. The trend was especially pronounced in the U. S. and it emphasizes demographic patterns and public policy. It is quite separate from genealogy, although, it draws on the same primary sources such as censuses. According to a pioneering study in 1978 called, Women, Work. It has considered the interaction of production and reproduction in an analysis of the wage labor and thus helped to bring together labor. Much work has been done on the dichotomy in womens lives between the sphere and the public. For a recent worldwide overview covering 7000 years see Maynes and Waltner, the history of childhood is a growing subfield. Early scholars of family history applied Darwins biological theory of evolution in their theory of the evolution of family systems. American anthropologist, Lewis H. Morgan, published Ancient Society in 1877, Morgans book was the inspiration for Friedrich Engels book, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, published in 1884. Engels expanded Morgans hypothesis that economic factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society, Engels theory of resource control and later that of Karl Marx was used to explain the cause and effect of the change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, the book, Centuries of Childhood by Philippe Ariès, published in France in 1960, had a great influence on the revival of the field of family history studies. Ariès used the analysis of data to draw the conclusion that the concept of childhood was a concept that emerged in modern nuclear families. Since the early 20th century, scholars have begun to unify methods of gathering data, one notable book by W. I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, Polish Peasant in Europe and America, was influential in establishing the precedence of a systematic longitudinal data analysis. Studies of current family systems additionally employ qualitative observations, interviews, focus groups, in most cultures of the world, the beginning of family history is set in creation myths
2.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
3.
Family
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In the context of human society, a family is a group of people affiliated either by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence or some combination of these. Members of the family may include spouses, parents, brothers, sisters, sons. Members of the family may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces. Sometimes these are considered members of the immediate family, depending on an individuals specific relationship with them. In most societies, the family is the institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, anthropologists generally classify most family organizations as matrifocal, conjugal, avuncular, sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo. The word family can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, global village, the field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. Family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics, one of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons, biologically and/or socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances, the giving and receiving of care and nurture, jural rights and obligations, thus, ones experience of ones family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a family of orientation, from the point of view of the parent, the family is a family of procreation, the goal of which is to produce and enculturate and socialize children. Christopher Harris notes that the conception of family is ambiguous. Diverse data from ethnography, history, law and social statistics, reveal the human family as a social institution, the different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified societies, much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims, Times have changed, it is acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work. The way roles are balanced between the parents will help children grow and learn life lessons. There is great importance of communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain, the term nuclear family is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer to conjugal families. A conjugal family includes only the husband, the wife, sociologists distinguish between conjugal families and nuclear families. Other family structures, such as blended parents, single parents, a matrifocal family consists of a mother and her children
4.
Kinship
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Anthropologist Robin Fox states that the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the raw material as exists in the animal world. These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of economic, political. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of relationships in one or more human cultures. Further, even within two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i. e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, in some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors and this may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into groups, roles, categories. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of relationship, a relationship may be relative or reflect an absolute. Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession, many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared origin, a shared historical or cultural connection. For example, a person studying the roots of human languages might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, in biology, kinship typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members of a species. It may also be used in this sense when applied to human relationships. Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, in most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Kin terminologies can be descriptive or classificatory
5.
Pedigree chart
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The word pedigree is a corruption of the French pied de grue or cranes foot, because the typical lines and split lines resemble the thin leg and foot of a crane. A Pedigree results in the presentation of information in the form of an easily readable chart. Pedigrees use a set of symbols, squares represent males and circles represent females. Pedigree construction is a history, and details about an earlier generation may be uncertain as memories fade. If the sex of the person is unknown a diamond is used, someone with the phenotype in question is represented by a filled-in symbol. Heterozygotes, when identifiable, are indicated by a dot inside a symbol or a half-filled symbol. Relationships in a pedigree are shown as a series of lines, parents are connected by a horizontal line and a vertical line leads to their offspring. The offspring are connected by a horizontal line and listed in birth order from left to right. If the offspring are then they will be connected by a triangle. If an offspring dies then its symbol will be crossed by a line, if the offspring is still born or aborted it is represented by a small triangle. Each generation is identified by a Roman numeral, and each individual within the generation is identified by an Arabic number. Analysis of the using the principles of Mendelian inheritance can determine whether a trait has a dominant or recessive pattern of inheritance. Pedigrees are often constructed after a family member afflicted with a disorder has been identified. This individual, known as the proband, is indicated on the pedigree by an arrow, the purpose of these heraldic visitations was to register and regulate the use of coats of arms. Those who claimed the right to arms had to provide proof either of a grant of arms to them by the College. It was for this reason that pedigrees were recorded by the visitations, pedigrees continue to be registered at the College of Arms and kept up to date on a voluntary basis but they are not accessible to the general public without payment of a fee. More visible, therefore, are the recorded in published works, such as Burkes Peerage and Burkes Landed Gentry in the United Kingdom and. A pedigree may be used to establish the probability of a child having a disorder or condition
6.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
7.
Scottish clan
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A Scottish clan is a kinship group among the Scottish people. Most clans have their own patterns, usually dating from the 19th century. The modern image of clans, each with their own tartan, historically, tartan designs were associated with Lowland and Highland districts whose weavers tended to produce cloth patterns favoured in those districts. Many clans have their own chief, those that do not are known as armigerous clans. Clans generally identify with geographical areas originally controlled by their founders, sometimes with a castle and clan gatherings. The most notable gathering of recent times was The Gathering 2009 and it is a common misconception that every person who bears a clans name is a lineal descendant of the chiefs. Many clansmen although not related to the chief took the surname as their own to either show solidarity. Most of the followers of the clan were tenants, who supplied labour to the clan leaders, thus by the eighteenth century the myth had arisen that the whole clan was descended from one ancestor, with the Scottish Gaelic of clan meaning children or offspring. The word clan is derived from the Gaelic word clanna, meaning children, however, the need for proved descent from a common ancestor related to the chiefly house is too restrictive. Clans developed a territory based on the men who came to accept the authority of the dominant group in the vicinity. A clan also included a group of loosely related septs – dependent families – all of whom looked to the clan chief as their head. According to the former Lord Lyon, Sir Thomas Innes of Learney, Clans with recognised chiefs are therefore considered a noble community under Scots law. A group without a recognised by the Sovereign, through the Lord Lyon, has no official standing under Scottish law. A chief of a clan is the person who is entitled to bear the undifferenced arms of the ancestral founder of the clan. The clan is considered to be the chiefs heritable estate and the chiefs Seal of Arms is the seal of the clan as a noble corporation, under Scots law, the chief is recognised as the head of the clan and serves as the lawful representative of the clan community. Historically, a clan was made up of everyone who lived on the chiefs territory, through time, with the constant changes of clan boundaries, migration or regime changes, clans would be made up of large numbers of members who were unrelated and who bore different surnames. Often, those living on a chiefs lands would, over time, a chief could add to his clan by adopting other families, and also had the legal right to outlaw anyone from his clan, including members of his own family. Today, anyone who has the surname is automatically considered to be a member of the chiefs clan
8.
Bloodlines of Salem
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Bloodlines of Salem is a Salt Lake City-based family-history group in the United States of America. Its purpose was described as providing a place where visitors share ideas and information about the Salem witch trials of 1692, its participants, many visitors have researched and proved their descents from one or more of the participants. The trials unfolded more than three centuries ago and continue to figure prominently in the studies of history, law and religion, as amateur and professional researchers, or Salemologists, however, their study of the trials isnt limited to their lineages. The person wont be charged a fee, may use the postnominal abbreviation MBoS. The current head of BLoS, as of October 2013, is Steven Hale, group researchers investigate and publish evidence of notable descendants and relatives of trials participants. Its 2007 investigation discovered that Harry Potter film actor Tom Felton is a relative of several participants including Lt. Nathaniel Felton and John Proctor, who was hanged during the trials
9.
Society of Genealogists
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The Society of Genealogists is a UK-based educational charity, founded in 1911 to promote, encourage and foster the study, science and knowledge of genealogy. The Societys Library is the largest specialist genealogical library outside North America, membership is open to any adult who agrees to abide by the Societys rules and who pays the annual subscription. At the end of 2010, it had 11,014 members, until it purchased 37 Harrington Gardens, South Kensington, in 1954, the Society was based in Malet Place, Bloomsbury, London. The Society possesses the largest family history library in the United Kingdom. The library catalogue is available on the Societys web site, in 2000, the Society made a number of its genealogical datasets available online on the commercial service British Origins, with some free access for Society members. As of 2011 this material is hosted commercially by Findmypast with a free service to members run by the Society itself on its own web site using the Frontis Archive Publishing System. The emphasis is on British, British Empire and Commonwealth sources, the Societys Internet suite offers free access to major genealogical websites including Ancestry, Origins and Findmypast. co. uk. The society runs a programme of lectures, visits, and courses every year, and publishes textbooks, indexes, the latter is currently edited by Michael Gandy. Years not listed means no one was awarded
10.
Whakapapa
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Whakapapa, or genealogy, is a fundamental principle that permeates the whole of Māori culture. However, it is more than just a genealogical device and it is in fact a paradigm of cultural discourse and provides the basis for establishing, enhancing, and even challenging relationships between individuals, whānau, hapū and iwi. The recitation of whakapapa is an element in establishing identity -. Experts in whakapapa can trace and recite a lineage not only through the generations in a linear sense. Some scholars have attributed this type of activity as being tantamount to ancestor worship. Most Māori would probably attribute this to ancestor reverence, tribes and sub-tribes are mostly named after an ancestor, for example, Ngati Kahungunu means descendants of Kahungunu. Many physiological terms are also genealogical in nature, for example, the terms iwi, hapu, and whānau can also be translated in order as bones, pregnant, and give birth. The prize winning Māori author, Keri Hulme, named her best known novel as The Bone People, most formal orations begin with the nasal expression - Tihei Mauriora. This is translated as the Sneeze of Life, in effect, the orator is announcing that his speech has now begun, and that his airways are clear enough to give a suitable oration. Whakapapa is defined as the descent of all living things from the gods to the present time. Hence, whakapapa also implies a connection to land and the roots of one’s ancestry. In order to trace one’s whakapapa it is essential to identify the location where one’s ancestral heritage began, whakapapa links all people back to the land and sea and sky and outer universe, therefore, the obligations of whanaungatanga extend to the physical world and all being in it. Usually details of a client’s whakapapa are not required since sufficient information can be obtained through their iwi identification, cases where whakapapa may be required include adoption cases or situations where whakapapa information may be of benefit to the client’s health and well-being. Whakapapa is also believed to determine an individual’s intrinsic tapu, sharing whakapapa enables the identification of obligations. and gaining trust of participants. Additionally since whakapapa is believed to be linked to the physical gene concepts of tapu would still apply. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that appropriate cultural protocols are adhered to, misuse of such private and privileged information is of great concern to Māori. While whakapapa information may be disclosed to a kaimatai hinengaro in confidence, additionally, it may be beneficial to find out if the client is comfortable with whakapapa information being stored in ways that have the potential to be disclosed to others. To combat such issues, a Māori Code of Ethics has been suggested, a Māori Code of Ethics may prevent the mismanagement or manipulation of either the information or the informants
11.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a Christian restorationist church that is considered by its members to be the restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has established congregations, according to the church, it has over 70,000 missionaries and a membership of over 15 million. It is ranked by the National Council of Churches as the fourth-largest Christian denomination in the United States and it is the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith during the period of religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening. Adherents, often referred to as Latter-day Saints, or, less formally, Mormons, view faith in Jesus Christ and his atonement as fundamental principles of their religion. The church has a canon which includes four scriptural texts, the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants. The current president is Thomas S. Monson, individual members of the church believe that they can also receive personal revelation from God in conducting their lives. The president heads a hierarchical structure with various levels reaching down to local congregations, Bishops, drawn from the laity, lead local congregations. Male members, after reaching age 12, may be ordained to the priesthood, Women do not hold positions within the priesthood, but do occupy leadership roles in some church auxiliary organizations. Both men and women may serve as missionaries, and the church maintains a large missionary program which proselytizes, faithful members adhere to church laws of sexual purity, health, fasting, and Sabbath observance, and contribute ten percent of their income to the church in tithing. The LDS Church was formally organized by Joseph Smith on April 6,1830, Smith intended to establish the New Jerusalem in North America, called Zion. In 1831, the moved to Kirtland, Ohio, and began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri. However, in 1833, Missouri settlers brutally expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County, the Kirtland era ended in 1838, after a financial scandal rocked the church and caused widespread defections. Smith regrouped with the church in Far West, Missouri. Believing the Saints to be in insurrection, the Missouri governor ordered that the Saints be exterminated or driven from the State, in 1839, the Saints converted a swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River into Nauvoo, Illinois, which became the churchs new headquarters. Nauvoo grew rapidly as missionaries sent to Europe and elsewhere gained new converts who then flooded into Nauvoo, meanwhile, Smith introduced polygamy to his closest associates. He also established ceremonies, which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, to allow people to become gods in the afterlife. He also introduced the church to an accounting of his First Vision. This vision would come to be regarded by the LDS Church as the most important event in history since the resurrection of Jesus
12.
Baptism for the dead
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Baptism for the dead is best known as a doctrine of the Latter Day Saint movement, which has practiced it since 1840. It is currently practiced by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the LDS Church teaches that those who have died may choose to accept or reject the baptisms done on their behalf. The modern term itself is derived from a phrase baptised for the dead occurring in one verse of the New Testament, early heresiologists Epiphanius of Salamis and Chrysostom attributed the practice respectively to the Cerinthians and to the Marcionites, whom they identified as heretical Gnostic groups. In the practice of the LDS Church, a living person, after giving a short prayer, which includes the name of the deceased individual, the proxy is immersed briefly in the water, then brought up again. Baptism for the dead is an ordinance of the church and is based on the belief that baptism is required for entry into the Kingdom of God. In the Restoration Branches movement, which broke from the RLDS Church in the 1980s, many adherents reject the validity of the ordinance completely. Others regard it a rite, the permission for which has been withdrawn by God ever since the Latter Day Saints failed to complete the Nauvoo Temple within the specified time frame. Other Latter Day Saint denominations that accept baptism for the dead include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the Strangite Church performed baptisms for the dead during the 1840s in Voree, Wisconsin, and later during the 1850s on Beaver Island, Michigan. In each case, the practice was authorized by on the basis of what James J. Strang reported as a revelation, the question of whether the Strangite Church still practices proxy baptism is an open one, but belief is considered orthodox. As part of their sacraments, the New Apostolic Church and the Old Apostolic Church also practice baptism for the dead, as well as Communion, in this practice a proxy or substitute is baptised in the place of an unknown number of deceased persons. According to NAC and OAC doctrine the deceased do not enter the body of the substitute, outside of Christianity, proxy baptisms were practiced by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Mormon scholar, John A. Tvedtnes says, Baptism for the dead was performed by the dominant church until forbidden by the canon of the Council of Carthage in A. D.397. Some of the sects, however, continued the practice. For it is written, Take, Eat, but the bodies of the dead can neither take nor eat, nor let the ignorance of the presbyters baptize those who are dead. Tertullian attributes the practice of 1 Corinthians baptised for the dead to the Marcionites, the fourth canon of the Synod of Hippo, held in 393, declares, The Eucharist shall not be given to dead bodies, nor baptism conferred upon them. For it is written, Take, Eat, but the bodies of the dead can neither take nor eat, nor let the ignorance of the presbyters baptize those who are dead. In the context of insisting that in Christ shall all be made alive. Christ the firstfruits, afterward they that are Christs, Paul wrote in 1 Corinthians 15,29, Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, why are they then baptized for the dead
13.
Daughters of the American Revolution
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The Daughters of the American Revolution is a lineage-based membership service organization for women who are directly descended from a person involved in the United States struggle for independence. A non-profit group, they work to promote preservation, education. It currently has approximately 180,000 members in the United States and its motto is God, Home, and Country. The DAR is a white organization with a record of excluding African American women. In 1889 the centennial of President George Washingtons inauguration was celebrated, out of the renewed interest in United States history, numerous patriotic and preservation societies were founded. The first meeting of the society was held August 9,1890, the first DAR chapter was organized on October 11,1890, at the Strathmore Arms, the home of Mary Smith Lockwood, one of the DARs four co-founders. Other founders were Eugenia Washington, a great-grandniece of George Washington, Ellen Hardin Walworth and they had also held organizational meetings in August 1890. The First Lady, Caroline Lavina Scott Harrison, wife of President Benjamin Harrison, lent her prestige to the founding of DAR, having initiated a renovation of the White House, she was interested in historic preservation. She helped establish the goals of DAR, which was incorporated by charter in 1896. This was in addition to fraternal and civic organizations flourishing in this period. The DAR chapters raised funds to initiate a number of historic preservation and they began a practice of installing markers at the graves of Revolutionary War veterans to indicate their service, and adding small flags at their gravesites on Memorial Day. Other activities included commissioning and installing monuments to battles and other related to the War. The DAR recognized women patriots contributions as well as those of soldiers, for instance, they installed a monument at the site of a spring where Polly Hawkins Craig and other women got water to use against flaming arrows, in the defense of Bryan Station. In addition to installing markers and monuments, DAR chapters have purchased, preserved and operated historic houses, see DAR Historic Sites and Database for a map and database of DAR sites. Washington, D. C. had segregated facilities under laws established by a Southern-dominated Congress, in 1945, African-American jazz singer Hazel Scott was excluded from performing at Constitution Hall. In October 1945, the DAR invited First Lady Bess Truman to a tea at the hall, congressman Powell protested and asked Truman not to attend the tea. She chose to go, but said publicly that she opposed discrimination, the White House received letters asking Bess Truman to resign from the DAR in protest of their policy, she declined to do so. Other letters supported her having attended the tea, the DAR did not officially reverse its white performers only policy until 1952
14.
Ned Kelly
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Edward Ned Kelly was an Australian bushranger of Irish descent. Kelly was born in the British colony of Victoria as the third of eight children to an Irish convict from County Tipperary and his father died after serving a six-month prison sentence, leaving Kelly, then aged 12, as the eldest male of the household. The Kellys were a poor family who saw themselves as downtrodden by the Squattocracy. Arrested in 1870 for associating with bushranger Harry Power, Kelly was first convicted of stealing horses and he fled to the bush in 1878 after being indicted for the attempted murder of a police officer at the Kelly familys home. After he, his brother Dan, and two associates fatally shot three policemen, the Government of Victoria proclaimed them outlaws. During the remainder of the Kelly Outbreak, Kelly and his associates committed armed robberies in Euroa and Jerilderie, and murdered Aaron Sherritt. In a manifesto letter, Kelly—denouncing the police, the Victorian government, threatening dire consequences against those who defied him, he ended with the words, I am a widows son outlawed and my orders must be obeyed. All were killed except Kelly, who was wounded by police fire. Despite support for his reprieve, Kelly was tried, convicted and sentenced to death by hanging and his final words are famously reported to have been, such is life. Even before his execution, Kelly had become a figure in Australia. Despite the passage of more than a century, he remains an icon, inspiring countless works in the arts. Kelly continues to cause division in his homeland, some celebrate him as Australias equivalent of Robin Hood, journalist Martin Flanagan wrote, What makes Ned a legend is not that everyone sees him the same—its that everyone sees him. Like a bushfire on the horizon casting its red glow into the night. Kellys father, John Kelly, was born in 1820 in County Tipperary, Ireland, to Thomas and Mary, after his release in 1848, Red Kelly moved to Victoria and found work at James Quinns farm at Wallan Wallan as a bush carpenter. He subsequently turned his attention to gold-digging, at which he was successful and he soon became notorious as a cattle thief and his house was a rendezvous of criminals. On 18 November 1850, at the age of 30, Red Kelly married Ellen Quinn, his employers 18-year-old daughter, Ned Kelly was his parents third child. The exact date of his birth is not known but, among other things, on passing Beveridge for the last time he told an officer, do you see a little hill there. That is where I was born about 28 years ago, now, I am passing through it, I suppose, to my doom
15.
Adoption
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Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. Adoption for the well-born While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, the Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well documented in the Codex Justinianus, the use of adoption by the aristocracy is well documented, many of Romes emperors were adopted sons. Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare, abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empires slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families, although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them. Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well, evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices, in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. China had a idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship. The practice of adopting the children of members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai. Adoption and commoners The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, in medieval society, bloodlines were paramount, a ruling dynasty lacking a natural-born heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption, english Common Law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, for example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Europes cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption, without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church, initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Churchs innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and this created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europes abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage. This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum is a good example, adopting to create a family The next stage of adoptions evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages, Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City
16.
Grief
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Grief is a multifaceted response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or something that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the response to loss, it also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural. While the terms are used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss. Grief is a response to loss. It is the suffering one feels when something or someone the individual loves is taken away. Crying is a normal and natural part of grieving and it has also been found, however, that crying and talking about the loss is not the only healthy response and, if forced or excessive, can be harmful. Lack of crying is also a natural, healthy reaction, potentially protective of the individual, Science has found that some healthy people who are grieving do not spontaneously talk about the loss. Pressing people to cry or retell the experience of a loss can be harmful, berger identifies five ways of grieving, as exemplified by, Nomads, Nomads have not yet resolved their grief and do not seem to understand the loss that has affected their lives. Memorialists, This identity is committed to preserving the memory of the one that they have lost. Normalizers, This identity is committed to re-creating a sense of family, activists, This identity focuses on helping other people who are dealing with the same disease or with the same issues that caused their loved ones death. Seekers, This identity will adopt religious, philosophical, or spiritual beliefs to create meaning in their lives, in Bonannos book, The Other Side of Sadness, What the New Science of Bereavement Tells Us About Life After a Loss, he summarizes his research. His findings include that a natural resilience is the component of grief. The first researcher to use data, he outlined four trajectories of grief. Bonannos work has demonstrated that absence of grief or trauma symptoms is a healthy outcome, rather than something to be feared as has been the thought. Recovery, When normal functioning temporarily gives way to threshold or sub-threshold psychopathology, usually for a period of at least several months, chronic dysfunction, Prolonged suffering and inability to function, usually lasting several years or longer. Delayed grief or trauma, When adjustment seems normal but then distress, researchers have not found evidence of delayed grief, but delayed trauma appears to be a genuine phenomenon. The Kübler-Ross model, commonly known as the five stages of grief, is a theory first introduced by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book, On Death, kubler-Ross actually applied the stages to persons who were dying, not persons who were grieving. Her studies involved her work with the ill and it was not until much later in her career did she give into the notion that it could be applied to those grieving
17.
Adam and Eve
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Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman and the ancestors of all humans. It provides the basis for the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. It also provides much of the basis for the doctrines of the fall of man and original sin that are important beliefs in Christianity. In the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, chapters one through five, in the first, Adam and Eve are not mentioned. Instead, God created humankind in Gods image and instructed them to multiply, in the second narrative, God fashions Adam from dust and places him in the Garden of Eden. Adam is told that he can till the ground and eat freely of all the trees in the garden, except for a tree of the knowledge of good, subsequently, Eve is created from one of Adams ribs to be Adams companion. They are innocent and unashamed about their nakedness, however, a serpent deceives Eve into eating fruit from the forbidden tree, and she gives some of the fruit to Adam. These acts give them additional knowledge, but it gives them the ability to conjure negative and destructive concepts such as shame, God later curses the serpent and the ground. God prophetically tells the woman and the man what will be the consequences of their sin of disobeying God, then he banishes them from the Garden of Eden. The story underwent extensive elaboration in later Abrahamic traditions, and it has been analyzed by modern biblical scholars. The story of Adam and Eve is often depicted in art, the story of the fall of Adam is often understood to be an allegory. There is no evidence that Adam and Eve ever literally existed. In the Book of Genesis, the Genesis creation narrative tells of the creation of the first humans, humankind, in Genesis 1, scholars recognize two separate accounts of the creation in the Old Testament. In the Priestly narrative, God creates the world in six days, culminating in the creation of humanity, here, in the Priestly narrative, the emphasis is on the entirety of the universe and its creation. Here, in the Jahwist narrative, the emphasis is on the Earth within the universe, and humankinds residence on the Earth. Contrast, for example, the order of terms in Genesis 1,1 where it says that God made the heavens and the Earth with Genesis 2,4 where it says God made the Earth and the heavens. In the Jahwist version of the story, God places the man in a garden in Eden where he is permitted to till the land and tend the garden and animals, Genesis 2, 8–15. But none of the animals are found to be a companion for the man, so God causes the man to sleep
18.
Heraldry
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The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
19.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
20.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
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The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, multiple copies were made of that one original and then distributed to monasteries across England, where they were independently updated. In one case, the Chronicle was still being updated in 1154. Nine manuscripts survive in whole or in part, though not all are of historical value. The oldest seems to have been started towards the end of Alfreds reign and these manuscripts collectively are known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Taken as a whole, however, the Chronicle is the single most important historical source for the period in England between the departure of the Romans and the following the Norman conquest. Much of the information given in the Chronicle is not recorded elsewhere, in addition, the manuscripts are important sources for the history of the English language, in particular, the later Peterborough text is one of the earliest examples of Middle English in existence. Seven of the nine surviving manuscripts and fragments now reside in the British Library, the remaining two are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and the Parker Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. All of the manuscripts are copies, so it is not known for certain where or when the first version of the Chronicle was composed. It is generally agreed that the version was written in the late 9th century by a scribe in Wessex. After the original Chronicle was compiled, copies were made and distributed to various monasteries, additional copies were made, for further distribution or to replace lost manuscripts, and some copies were updated independently of each other. Some of these copies are those that have survived. The earliest extant manuscript, the Winchester Chronicle, was written by a single scribe up to the year 891, the scribe wrote the year number, DCCCXCII, in the margin of the next line, subsequent material was written by other scribes. It is known that the Winchester manuscript is at least two removes from the original Chronicle, as a result, there is no proof that the Chronicle was compiled at Winchester. The Chronicle, as well as the distribution of copies to other centres of learning, of the nine surviving manuscripts, seven are written entirely in Old English. One, known as the Bilingual Canterbury Epitome, is in Old English with a translation of each annal into Latin, another, the Peterborough Chronicle, is in Old English except for the last entry, which is in early Middle English. The oldest is known as the Winchester Chronicle or the Parker Chronicle, six of the manuscripts were printed in an 1861 edition for the Rolls Series by Benjamin Thorpe with the text laid out in columns labelled A to F. He also included the few remnants of a burned seventh manuscript
21.
Odin
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In Germanic mythology, Odin is a widely revered god. In the modern period, Odin continued to be acknowledged in the folklore of Germanic Europe. Forms of his name appear frequently throughout the Germanic record, though narratives regarding Odin are mainly found in Old Norse works recorded in Iceland and these texts make up the bulk of modern understanding of Norse mythology. In Old Norse texts, Odin is depicted as one-eyed and long-bearded, frequently wielding a spear named Gungnir, and wearing a cloak, Odin is attested as having many sons, most famously the god Baldr with Frigg, and is known by hundreds of names. Odin has an association with Yule, and mankinds knowledge of both the runes and poetry is also attributed to him. In Old Norse texts, Odin is given primacy over female beings associated with the battlefield—the valkyries—and oversees Valhalla, where he receives half of those who die in battle, the other half are chosen by the goddess Freyja for her afterlife location, Fólkvangr. In later folklore, Odin appears as a leader of the Wild Hunt and he has also been associated with charms and other forms of magic, particularly in Old English and Old Norse texts. Odin has been a frequent subject of study in Germanic studies, in the modern period, Odin has inspired numerous works of poetry, music, and other forms of media. He is venerated in most forms of the new religious movement Heathenry, together with other gods venerated by the ancient Germanic peoples, some branches focus particularly on him. The Old Norse theonym Óðinn and its cognates, including Old English Wōden, Old Saxon Wōden, the masculine noun *wōđanaz developed from the Proto-Germanic adjective *wōđaz, related to Latin vātēs and Old Irish fáith, both meaning seer, prophet. Adjectives stemming from *wōđaz include Gothic woþs possessed, Old Norse óðr, mad, frantic, furious, additionally the Old Norse noun æði rage, fury and Old High German wuotī madness derive from the feminine noun *wōđīn, from *wōđaz. Over 170 names are recorded for the god Odin and these names are variously descriptive of attributes of the god, refer to myths involving him, or refer to religious practices associated with the god. This multitude of names makes Odin the god with the most names known among the Germanic peoples, the weekday name Wednesday derives from Old English wōdnesdæg. Cognate terms are found in other Germanic languages, such as Middle Low German wōdensdach, all of these terms derive from Proto-Germanic *Wodensdag, itself a Germanic interpretation of Latin Dies Mercurii. However, in Old High German, the derived from Odins was replaced by a translation of Church Latin media hebdomas. The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans and they regard it as a religious duty to offer to him, on fixed days, human as well as other sacrificial victims. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. But their rankings in their respective religious spheres may have very different
22.
Confucius
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Confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and his followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death. Confuciuss principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief and he championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government and he espoused the well-known principle Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself, the Golden Rule. Confucius is also a deity in Daoism. According to tradition, three generations before Confucius time, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state, Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings through the Dukes of Song. Confucius family and personal name respectively was Kong Qiu, in Chinese, he is most often known as Kongzi. He is also known by the honorific Kong Fuzi, in the Wade–Giles system of romanization, the honorific name is rendered as Kung Fu-tzu. The Latinized name Confucius is derived from Kong Fuzi, and was first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China, within the Analects, he is often referred to simply as the Master. In 1 AD, Confucius was given his first posthumous name, in 1530, he was declared the Extremely Sage Departed Teacher. He is also known separately as the Great Sage, First Teacher and it is generally thought that Confucius was born on September 28,551 BC. His birthplace was in Zou, Lu state and his father Kong He, also known as Shuliang He, was an officer in the Lu military. Kong died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai in poverty and his mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married his wife Qiguan, and a year later the couple had their first child, Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died early in her life as a child. Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts, Confucius was born into the class of shi, between the aristocracy and the common people. When his mother died, Confucius is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition, the Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy
23.
Guinness World Records
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The book itself holds a world record, as the best-selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 63rd year of publication, the international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europes fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad and he realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beavers idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, the twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away, after the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies, since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. Because the book became a hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years, Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot, Guinness Superlatives Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades, and, under their management, the group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002, with offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US. Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors, many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as new records. The majority of records are no longer listed in the book or on the website. For those unable to wait the 4–6 weeks for a reply, the Guinness Book of Records is the worlds most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages
24.
Roots: The Saga of an American Family
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Roots, The Saga of an American Family is a novel written by Alex Haley and first published in 1976. The novel spent months on The New York Times Best Seller List, the last seven chapters of the novel were later adapted in the form of a second miniseries, Roots, The Next Generations. It stimulated interest in genealogy and appreciation for African American history, following the success of the novel and the miniseries, Haley was accused by two authors of plagiarism of their novels. Harold Courlander was able to prove that Roots was plagiarized from his novel The African, the resulting trial ended with an out-of-court settlement and Haleys admission that some passages within Roots had been copied from Courlanders work, Haley claimed this was unintentional. In a later interview with BBC Television, the judge in Courlanders lawsuit against Haley said. The book was described as faction and was sold in the non-fiction section of bookstores. Haley spent the last chapter of the book describing his research in archives and libraries to support his familys oral tradition with written records, however, historians and genealogists have found critical errors in his research work. Most of the novel is either unsupported or contradicted by the available evidence, Kunta has a typically difficult but free childhood in his village, Juffure. His village subsists on farming, and sometimes they do not have enough food, yet Kunta is surrounded by love and traditions. Ominously, the village had heard of the recent arrival of toubob, one morning when Kunta is cutting wood to make a drum, he is captured by several toubob slave-traders. After a nightmarish journey across the Atlantic on board the British slave ship Lord Ligonier, John Waller of Spotsylvania County, Virginia purchases Kunta at an auction and gives him the name Toby. However, Kunta is headstrong and tries to run four times. When he is captured for the last time, slave hunters cut off part of his foot to cripple him. Kunta is then bought by his masters brother, Dr. William Waller and he becomes a gardener and eventually his masters buggy driver. He marries Bell, Wallers cook, and together they have a daughter, Kizzys childhood as a slave is as happy as her parents can make it. She is close friends with John Wallers daughter Missy Anne, yet her life changes when she forges a traveling pass for her beau Noah, a field hand. When he is caught and confesses, she is away from her family at the age of sixteen. Kizzy is bought by Tom Lea, a farmer and chicken fighter who rose from poor beginnings and he rapes and impregnates her, and she gives birth to George, who later becomes known as Chicken George when he becomes his fathers cockfighting trainer
25.
Alex Haley
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Alexander Murray Palmer Alex Haley was an American writer and the author of the 1976 book Roots, The Saga of an American Family. ABC adapted the book as a miniseries of the same name. In the United States the book and miniseries raised the awareness of African American history and inspired a broad interest in genealogy. Haleys first book was The Autobiography of Malcolm X, published in 1965, a collaboration through numerous interviews with the subject. He was working on a family history novel at his death. Haley had requested that David Stevens, a screenwriter, complete it and it was adapted as a film of the same name released in 1992. Alex Haley was born in Ithaca, New York, on August 11,1921, Haley lived with his family in Henning, Tennessee, before returning to Ithaca with his family when he was five years old. Haleys father was Simon Haley, a professor of agriculture at Alabama A&M University, and his mother was Bertha George Haley, the family had African American, Mandinka, Cherokee, Scottish, and Scots-Irish roots. The younger Haley always spoke proudly of his father and the obstacles of racism he had overcome, the following year he returned to his father and stepmother to tell them he had withdrawn from college. His father felt that Alex needed discipline and growth, and convinced him to enlist in the military when he turned 18, on May 24,1939, Alex Haley began what became a 20-year career in the United States Coast Guard. Haley traced back his maternal ancestry, through research, to Jufureh. Haley enlisted as a mess attendant, later he was promoted to the rate of petty officer third-class in the rating of steward, one of the few ratings open to African Americans at that time. It was during his service in the Pacific theater of operations that Haley taught himself the craft of writing stories, during his enlistment other sailors often paid him to write love letters to their girlfriends. He said that the greatest enemy he and his crew faced during their long voyages was not the Japanese forces, after World War II, Haley petitioned the U. S. Coast Guard to allow him to transfer into the field of journalism. By 1949 he had become a petty officer first-class in the rating of journalist and he later advanced to chief petty officer and held this grade until his retirement from the Coast Guard in 1959. He was the first chief journalist in the Coast Guard, the rating having been created for him in recognition of his literary ability. Further, the Republic of Korea awarded him the War Service Medal 10 years after he died, after retiring from the U. S. Coast Guard, Haley began another phase of his journalism career. He eventually became an editor for Readers Digest magazine
26.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
27.
Charan
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Charan is a caste members of which are considered divine by large section of indian society. The caste has its presence in the Sindh, Rajasthan and Gujarat states of India, abu al-Fazal ibn Mubarak, the state historian of Mugal Emperor Akbar, in his book Ain-i-Akbari refers to them as good poets and better soldiers. Members of the caste are considered to be divine by a section of society. Women of the caste are adored as mother goddesses by other communities of this region including Rajputs. Charan society is based on written genealogy, a Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status. Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that In them we have a combination of the characteristics of the Brahmin. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti, drank liquor, took meat and engaged in military activities. They stood at the portal on occasions of marriage to demand gifts from the bridegrooms. Their eating and drinking habits resemble those of the Rajputs, Charans used to enjoy consumption of opium and drinking of liquor, practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. Charans do not eat the flesh of cows and hold those who do in utter disregard, a husband and wife will not drink milk from the same cow, or milk soiled by their counter part. Drinking milk from one mother symbolises that those who do so should be considered as siblings, before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of Navratri. Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman, a whole genre of literature is known as Charan literature. The Dingal language and literature exist largely due to this caste, in Praise of Death, History and Poetry in Medieval Marwar
28.
Bard
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For example, William Shakespeare, and Rabindranth Tagore, are known as the Bard of Avon and the Bard of Bengal respectively. The word is a Celtic loan word from Scottish Gaelic bàrd, Irish bard, in 16th-century Scotland, it was a derogatory term for an itinerant musician, but it was later romanticised by Sir Walter Scott. The equivalent Cornish bardh was retained in English in the form of the drollteller, in medieval Gaelic and Welsh society, a bard or bardd was a professional poet, employed to compose eulogies for his lord. If the employer failed to pay the amount, the bard would then compose a satire. In other Indo-European societies, the function was fulfilled by skalds, rhapsodes, minstrels and scops. A hereditary caste of professional poets in Proto-Indo-European society has been reconstructed by comparison of the position of poets in medieval Ireland and in ancient India in particular. Bards were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies, the pre-Christian Celtic peoples recorded no written histories, however, Celtic peoples did maintain an intricate oral history committed to memory and transmitted by bards and filid. Bards facilitated the memorisation of such materials by the use of metre, rhyme, in medieval Ireland, bards were one of two distinct groups of poets, the other being the fili. According to the Early Irish law text on status, Uraicecht Becc, bards were a class of poets. However, it has also argued that the distinction between filid and bards was a creation of Christian Ireland, and that the filid were more associated with the church. By the Early Modern Period, these came to be used interchangeably. Irish bards formed a professional caste of highly trained, learned poets. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles and they were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicenn, the bardic system lasted until the mid-17th century in Ireland and the early 18th century in Scotland. In Ireland, their fortunes had always linked to the Gaelic aristocracy. The early history of the bards can be known indirectly through mythological stories. The first mention of the profession in Ireland is found in the The Book of Invasions, in a story about the Irish colony of Tuatha De Danann. They became the aos sí, comparable to Norse alfr and British fairy, during the tenth year of the reign of the last Belgic monarch, the people of the colony of Tuatha De Danann, as the Irish called it, invaded and settled in Ireland
29.
Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
30.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
31.
New England Historic Genealogical Society
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The New England Historic Genealogical Society is the oldest and largest genealogical society in the United States, founded in 1845. New England Historic Genealogical Society is America’s founding genealogical organization and the most respected name in family history, established in 1845, NEHGS is a leading comprehensive resource for family history research and the largest society of its kind in the world. Today it has over 220,000 members and guest members worldwide, NEHGS maintains a large web site with more than 1.3 billion names in its databases, the largest such online collection of any genealogical society. NEHGS library catalog is online and lists more than 200,000 genealogical books. The R. Stanton Avery Special Collections features over twenty million manuscript items, with an emphasis on the period of the 17th century to the present, covering New England, initially, the founders debated the nature of the organization they would establish. Among their decisions was whether to focus on genealogy, heraldry, or history, Genealogy and history were favored and plans were made to incorporate as the New England Historical Genealogical Society. This change did not please everyone and one or two of the founders regarded the new name as cumbersome, on March 18,1845 the General Court of Massachusetts approved the Societys petition for incorporation. These records or registers were often executed in pen-and-ink or in needlework and were more ornate counterparts to similar printed forms found in Bibles, later, in the mid-19th century, decorative family register prints were made widely available to the public by lithographers such as Nathaniel Currier. The founders of NEHGS also acted to make permanent the systematic work of the first generation of genealogical researchers, Farmer capitalized on the increasing acceptability of antiquarianism to frame genealogy within the early republics ideological framework of pride in ones American ancestors. Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts in part led to the creation of NEGHS, a group of its members founded a similar organization in New York two decades later in 1869. Many of these records were saved from destruction, for more than a century, NEHGS was directly administered by its officers and board of trustees. In 1962, NEHGS appointed its first professional director, Edgar Packard Dean, Dean oversaw the Societys move from Beacon Hill to its present location in the Back Bay and retired in 1972. Dean was succeeded by Richard Donald Pierce, a Unitarian minister, librarian and formerly dean of Emerson College, after a tenure of nine years, Bell left NEHGS in 1982. Crandall left briefly in 1987 and the directorship was filled by John Winthrop Sears, Crandall returned to NEHGS in 1988 and continued to expand the organization. In 2005, Crandall stepped down to executive director emeritus. Today, NEHGS has a 22-person Board of Trustees that sets policies for the organization at quarterly meetings. A larger Council meets annually and, together with the Board, forms the Council of the Corporation, hoff, David Curtis Dearborn, a northern New England specialist, and Irish-American authority Marie E. Daly. Current staff members include Thomas R. Wilcox, Jr. formerly executive director of the Maine Maritime Museum, child, Rhonda M. McClure, and Scott C
32.
Genealogical Society of Utah
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The Genealogical Society of Utah, established in 1894, does business as FamilySearch International, which is the genealogical arm of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. All of these resources were created to help find their ancestors and are available free of charge to the public. Members of the LDS Church believe that tracing family lineage is essential for special ceremonies that seal family units together for eternity. According to Mormons, this fulfills a Biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to turn the heart of the fathers to the children, the headquarters of FamilySearch/GSU is in downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, where hundreds of employees and volunteers help inquiring researchers. GSU began microfilming records of genealogical importance in 1938 and began digital imaging of records in 1998, FamilySearch preserves these images from more than 100 nations in the Granite Mountain Records Vault. The society published the Utah Genealogical and Historical Magazine from 1910 to 1940, in 1975, the GSU became the Genealogical Department of the LDS Church, which later became the Family History Department. At that time, its head officer was renamed President from Executive Director, however, the title President of the Genealogical Society of Utah and other GSU titles were still used and bestowed upon department officers. This broke with tradition, since the President of the GSU was no longer the departments executive director or an authority of the LDS Church. Later this decision was reversed and the Family History Department was separated from the Church History Department, the Genealogical Society of Utah, Improvement Era,30, 1104–1106 Official website Taylor, Rebecca M. A Century of Genealogy The Friend, March 1994, Genealogical Society, A century of steady growth and development Church News, November 1994
33.
Family History Library
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The Family History Library is a genealogical research facility in downtown Salt Lake City. The library is open to the free of charge and is operated by FamilySearch. The origins of the Family History Library can be traced to the founding of the Genealogical Society of Utah in 1894. Through time the Library has changed locations within Salt Lake City as follows, south Temple Street Church Administration Building 47 E. Main Street Church Office Building 50 E. North Temple Street 35 N, west Temple Street The current library building, just west of Temple Square was opened on October 23,1985, and cost $8.2 million. In 1938 the Genealogical Society of Utah began to microfilm records which contained genealogical data from around the world, today the Genealogical Society of Utah is more commonly known as FamilySearch, and is currently working on digitizing many of its microfilm collections to be shared online. Its main purpose is to one of the LDS Church fundamental tenets. These ordinances are performed in temples, as its collection has grown, however, more individuals throughout the world are using the collection to research their ancestry and chart their genealogy. The library is in Salt Lake City, Utah, where the headquarters of the LDS Church are located and it is the largest genealogical library in the world and is open to the general public at no charge. The library holds genealogical records for over 110 countries, territories and its collections include over 1.6 million rolls of microfilmed records onsite and access the total collection of more than 2. The library offers research assistance to help patrons trace their own family history, professional genealogists and volunteers offer assistance in about 30 languages, which includes reading and translating genealogically relevant documents. The library also offers free one-on-one consultations on difficult research problems, additionally, there are classes on genealogical research topics free to the public and classes available online. Free family history research advice and information are offered online at the FamilySearch Research Wiki, the library is in the process of digitizing much of its microfilm collection. An online index to some of the records is also being created, volunteers to the project are now being actively solicited at FamilySearchIndexing. org. The searchable database containing the images and index will be available through the churchs FamilySearch website. The Pilot Site version may be accessed at http, //search. labs. familysearch. org/recordsearch/start. html Branches of the library are called Family History Centers. While there are over 4,400 family history centers operating in more than 134 countries there are only about 17 major regional branch library class facilities, the others are ward, branch and stake facilities with at least one or more genealogical computers. For details, see Family History Center, most of the microfilms in the main librarys collection can be loaned to a family history center for a nominal charge
34.
Elijah
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Elijah or Elias was a prophet and a miracle worker who lived in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of Ahab, according to the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Books of Kings Elijah defended the worship of Yahweh over that of the Canaanite deity Baal, Yahweh also performed many miracles through Elijah, including resurrection, bringing fire down from the sky, and entering Heaven alive by a whirlwind. He is also portrayed as leading a school of prophets known as the sons of the prophets, after his death, Elisha his disciple and most devoted assistant took over his role as leader of this school. References to Elijah appear in Ecclesiasticus, the New Testament, the Mishnah and Talmud, the Quran, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and Baháí writings. In Judaism, Elijahs name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover Seder and the brit milah. He appears in stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature. The Christian New Testament describes how Elijah was thought, by some, Jesus makes it clear that John the Baptist is the Elijah who was promised to come in Malachi 4,5. Elijah appears with Moses during the Transfiguration of Jesus, Elijah is also a figure in various Christian folk traditions, often identified with earlier pagan thunder or sky gods. In Islam, Elijah appears in the Quran as a prophet and messenger of God, due to his importance to Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians, Elijah has been venerated as the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1752. However, scholars today are divided as to whether the united Kingdom under Solomon ever existed, omri achieved domestic security with a marriage alliance between his son Ahab and princess Jezebel, a priestess of Baal and the daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia. Under Ahabs kingship, these tensions were exacerbated, Ahab built a temple for Baal, and his wife Jezebel brought a large entourage of priests and prophets of Baal and Asherah into the country. It is in context that Elijah is introduced in 1 Kings 17,1 as Elijah the Tishbite. No background for the person of Elijah is given except for his description as being a Tishbite. His name in Hebrew means My God is Yahweh, and may be a title applied to him because of his challenge to worship of Baal, as told in the Hebrew Bible, Elijahs challenge is bold and direct. Baal was the Canaanite god responsible for rain, thunder, lightning, Elijah not only challenges Baal on behalf of his own God, Yahweh, he challenges Jezebel, her priests, Ahab and the people of Israel. After Elijahs confrontation with Ahab, God tells him to out of Israel, to a hiding place by the brook Chorath, east of the Jordan. When the brook dries up, God sends him to a living in the town of Zarephath in Phoenicia. When Elijah finds her and asks to be fed, she says that she not have sufficient food to keep her and her own son alive
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