1.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
2.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Antananarivo
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Antananarivo, then temporarily French Tananarive, also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The larger urban area surrounding the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra, is the capital of Analamanga region. The city is located 1,280 m above the sea level in the center of the island, all 18 Malagasy ethnic groups, as well as residents of Chinese, Indian, European and other origins, are well represented in the city. Antananarivo is the political, economic, educational and cultural heart of Madagascar, the Presidency, National Assembly, Senate and Supreme Court are located here, as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs. Antananarivo also hosts the largest number of universities, nightclubs, art venues, medical services, several national and local sports teams, including the championship-winning national rugby team, the Makis, and several basketball and football teams, are based in Antananarivo. Declaring it the site of his capital, Andrianjaka built a rova that expanded to become the palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina. The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina from its founding until 1710 and his diplomatic and military successes extended Imerina far beyond its traditional borders, bringing the lands of neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control. Antananarivo remained the capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897. This neighborhood was developed under French rule and continues to serve as the capitals economic heart. The city is managed by the Commune Urbaine dAntananarivo under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation, Ny Havana Andriamanjato, Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga, meaning Blue Forest in the central highlands dialect of the Malagasy language. Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba, the islands first occupants, Andrianjaka, king of the Merina people who migrated to the region from the southeast coast, seized the location as the site of his capital city. According to oral history, he deployed a garrison of 1,000 soldiers to successfully capture, the hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona, who renamed it Antananarivo in honor of Andrianjakas soldiers. Unlike most capital cities in southern Africa, Antananarivo was already a city before the colonial era. The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts, early Merina kings used fanampoana to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population. These paddy fields, of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra, successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalonas reign. Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova and each andriana subcaste, numerous fady, including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non-nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits, were imposed. Upon Andriamasinavalonas death in 1710, Imerina split into four warring quadrants, during the 77-year civil war that followed, the eastern districts capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence. The last king of Ambohimanga, Andrianampoinimerina, successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793, he reunited the provinces of Imerina and he moved the kingdoms political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794, and declared Ambohimanga the kingdoms spiritual capital, a role it still maintains
5.
Merina people
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The Merina people, also known as the Imerina, Antimerina or Hova, are the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. They are the highlander Malagasy ethnic group of the African island and their origins are mixed, predominantly with Malayo-Indonesians arriving before the 5th century AD, then many centuries later by Arabs, Africans and other ethnic groups. They speak the Merina language, and one of their dialects is the official Malagasy language of Madagascar, the Merina people are most commonly found in the center of the island. The French fought two wars with the Merina people in 1883-1885 and in 1895, colonized Madagascar in 1895–96 and they built innovative and elaborate irrigation infrastructure and highly productive rice farms in high plateaus of Madagascar by the 18th century. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 to 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. Later Swahili-Arabs and Indian traders came to the northern regions. African slaves were brought to the coasts between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, the Merina peoples culture likely mixed and merged with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba about whom little is known. They emerged as the dominant group and a wealthy kingdom towards the close of the 18th century. The capital of their remains the capital of contemporary Madagascar. Oral history traces the emergence of a kingdom in the central highlands of Madagascar – a region called Imerina – back to early 16th-century king Andriamanelo. The colonial British empire recognized the sovereignty of the Merina kingdom, Radama I welcomed European traders and allowed Christian missionaries to establish missions on Madagascar. After him, the Merina people were ruled by Queen Ranavolona I ruled from 1828 to 1861, Queen Rasoherina from 1863 to 1868, the Merina people called the Malagasy living along the coasts as Cotier. These operations and plantations were worked by the labor of imported slaves. The largest influx of slaves was brought in by the Umani Arabs, the Makua people from Mozambique were one of the major victims of this demand, slave capture and export that attempted to satisfy this demand. The slavery was abolished by the French administration in 1896, which impacted the fortunes of Merina and non-Merina operated slave-run plantations. The dominance of the Merina kingdom over all of Madagascar came to an end with the first Franco-Hova War of 1883 to 1885, the French declared Madagascar as a protectorate in 1894, which the then Merina Queen refused to sign to
6.
Betsileo people
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The Betsileo are a highland ethnic group of Madagascar, the third largest in terms of population, numbering around 1.5 million and making up about 12.1 percent of the population. They chose their name, meaning The Many Invincible Ones, after an invasion by King Ramitraho of the Menabe kingdom in the early 19th century. The Betsileo occupy the south of the Madagascar plateau, most of the Betsileo region lies within the boundaries of the Malagasy province of Fianarantsoa, where their capital city of the same name can be found. Traditionally their territory and their people are divided into three major parts, the Northern Betsileo is defined by the Ivato and Manandona rivers in the north and the Sahanivotry and Mania rivers to the south. The Central Betsileo is found between the Ivato and the Matsiatra rivers, the Southern Betsileo is all the Betsileo territory to the south of the Matsiatra river. The different Betsileo kingdoms existed independently of other with oral traditions dating back to the 17th century. They were all eventually conquered and reorganized by Radama I, a large portion of the Betsileo people were made into slaves and traded domestically or sold to European slave traders. Radama I made Fianarantsoa the administrative capital of the central and southern Betsileo people, the north was attached to Antsirabe. Thus the Betsileo as a group began in the 19th century as a subdivision by the Malagasy government. The Betsileo identity is associated with the Merina culture, since they are both highland-dwelling groups. The Betsileo social structure is determined by a complex system of kinship. There is a connection between family members permeating society to the level of administrative roles and jobs, as most Betsileo are obligated to join their relatives in the family occupation. There is also emphasis on the role of elders as community leaders. Community elders often hold more authority than those in government positions. Betsileo society is influenced by a history of slavery before its abolition during the French colonization. The Betsileo have a system of social organization determined through a number of stratifications. The status structure of the Betsileo is principally determined by the ancestry of an individual’s family, status was historically split between andriana, hova and andevo, the latter being a highly stigmatized term for the lowest social class in contemporary Betsileo society. Since the arrival of European missionaries in the century, much of the Malagasy population has since been converted to Christianity
7.
Malays (ethnic group)
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These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
8.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
9.
Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
10.
Betsimisaraka people
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The Betsimisaraka make up approximately fifteen percent of the Malagasy people and are the second largest ethnic group in Madagascar after the Merina. They occupy a large stretch of the eastern seabord of Madagascar, the Betsimisaraka have a long history of extensive interaction with European seafarers and traders that produced a significant subset with mixed European-Malagasy origins, termed the zana-malata. European influence is evident in the local valse and basesa musical genres, Tromba ceremonies feature strongly in Betsimisaraka culture. Through the late 17th century, the clans of the eastern seaboard were governed by chieftains who typically ruled over one or two villages. A zana-malata named Ratsimilaho emerged to unite these clans under his rule in 1710, the fractured Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily colonized in 1817 by Radama I, king of Imerina who ruled from its capital at Antananarivo in the central highlands. Culturally the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub-groups, many elements of culture are common across both groups, including respect for ancestors, spirit possession, the ritual sacrifice of zebu, and a patriarchal social structure. The groups are distinguished by linguistic sub-dialects and various fady, as well as certain funeral practices, the Betsimisaraka practice famadihana and sambatra, and believe in sorcery and a wide range of supernatural forces. Many taboos and folktales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles, both of which are common throughout Betsimisaraka territory, the Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and numbered over 1,500,000 in 2011. Like the Sakalava to the west, the Betsimisaraka are composed of numerous ethnic sub-groups that formed a confederation in the early 18th century, most Betsimisaraka are of mixed Bantu African and Asian Austronesian descent. They are often subdivided into northern Betsimisaraka and southern Betsimisaraka, separated by the Betanimena Betsimisaraka sub-clan and those around Antongil Bay in the north held a comparatively more official position, with regalia of leadership attested since at least 1500. Villagers in the surrounding the ports exported rice, cattle, slaves. Intermarriage between these European pirates and the daughters of local chiefs produced a mixed population termed zana-malata. Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around a series of powerful leaders, ramanano, the chief of Vatomandry, was elected in 1710 as the leader of the Tsikoa and initiated invasions of the northern ports. He captured Fenerive in 1712, causing the Tsikoa to flee across soggy red fields of clay stuck to their feet. Ratsimilaho was elected king of all the Betsimisaraka and given a new name and he gave his northern compatriots the name Betsimisaraka to reaffirm their unity in the face of their enemies. By the time of his death in 1754, his moderate and he also allied the Betsimisaraka with the other most powerful kingdom of the time, the Sakalava of the west coast, through marriage with Matave, the only daughter of Iboina king Andrianbaba. Ratsimilahos son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755, a despotic leader, Zanahary launched a series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767. This action provoked Sakalava ire, and in 1776 Sakalava soldiers invaded the area to punish the Betsimisaraka inhabitants and kill Benyowsky, Zakavolo, Iavys son, succeeded his father upon his death in 1791
11.
Tsimihety people
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The Tsimihety are a Malagasy ethnic group who are found in the north-central region of Madagascar. Their name means those who never cut their hair, a behavior likely linked to their independence from Sakalava kingdom, located to their west and they are found in mountainous part of the island. They are one of the largest Malagasy ethnic groups and their population estimates range between 700,000 and over 1.2 million, soon afterward they accepted the rule of the Volafotsy, a clan associated with the Maroserana who had migrated north from Sakalava territory. They are thus not a tribe, because they lack tribal ties and their relationships are centered around biological family and kin. The anarchist system prevailed among the Tsimihety people before the 19th century, however, in 1823, Radama I, the Merina king, brought the entire island under one rule, including the Tsimihety, and abolished slavery. The French colonial rule absorbed the Tsimihety in 1896, as a part of French Madagascar, the Tsimihety have been an active part of Madagascar politics ever since. They are, in words, the anarchists of northwest Madagascar. Graeber states that ultimately, the Tsimihety were eventually gobbled up by the state, gave up the utopia, as they sought economic opportunities, the Tsimihety people are patrilineal, and kin relationships with the male ancestors and descendants are most important to both men and women. Their cultural conventions require extended exogamy, which coupled with high rates have led to their migration. The society is notable for the social roles expected by a Tsimihety family from a maternal uncle. The language of the Tsimihety people is a dialect of the Malagasy language, Tsimihety society and economy, as in much of Madagascar, is primarily focused on agriculture. Rice is the crop, and the Tsimihety raise cattle. Working on crop land on Tuesday is fady – a taboo – among the Tsimihety, the main economic center among the Tsimihety is in Mandritsara. Appiah, Anthony, Gates, Jr. Henry Louis, africana, The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Hainteny, The Traditional Poetry of Madagascar, the Ethical Condition, Essays on Action, Person, and Value. Ogot, Bethwell A. Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, wilson, Peter J. Freedom by a Hairs Breadth, Tsimihety in Madagascar
12.
Antaisaka people
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The Antesaka, also known as Tesaka, or Tesaki, are an ethnic group of Madagascar traditionally concentrated south of Farafangana along the south-eastern coast. They have since spread widely throughout the island. The Antesaka form about 5% of the population of Madagascar and they have mixed African, Arab and Malayo-Indonesian ancestry, like the western coastal Sakalava people of Madagascar from whom the clan derives. They traditionally have strong marriage taboos and complex funeral rites, the Antesaka typically cultivate coffee, bananas and rice, and those along the coast engage in fishing. A large portion of the population has emigrated to parts of the island for work. The group was founded by Andriamandresy, a Sakalava prince who was cast out of Menabe after engaging in violence upon being passed over in the line of succession, as of 2013, an estimated 600,000 Malagasy identify as Antesaka. Antesaka have mixed African, Arab and Malayo-Indonesian ancestry, and are descended from a branch of the coastal Sakalava people of western Madagascar. Many Antesaka kings descended from the Zarabehava lineage, a royal Sakalava line that crossed to the east coast between 1620 and 1650, the ancestors of the Antesaka migrated from the Menabe Sakalava kingdom and arrived at Nosipandra by the 1650s. According to oral history, the founder of the Antesaka clan was named Andriamandresy and he was born Repila in the village of Tsiarepioky, near Mahabo, he later changed his name to Ihazorango, and finally adopted the name Andriamandresiarivo in anticipation of being named king. Outraged, Andriamandresys mother exiled him from the territory, and Andraimandresy departed toward the east accompanied by warriors, by the start of the 17th century, the Antesaka had formed one of the four largest kingdoms on Madagascar. Succession was often contested and a source of internal conflict, according to oral history, a king called Ratongalaza had to kill or exile all his brothers to secure the throne. The last and most important king of the 18th century, Lengoabo, was Ratongalazas grandson, in the 19th century, the Antesaka kingdom was invaded by the Merina armies of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands. In the Merina military conquests between 1820 and 1853, captured Antesaka men were killed, but women and children were often taken as slaves back to Imerina. Over a million slaves were captured during this time, with the majority from the Antesaka, Antefasy, Antanosy, France colonized Madagascar in 1895, and the Merina monarchy was disbanded in 1897. When several southern ethnic groups mounted the unsuccessful insurrection du sud rebellion against French colonial administration in 1904–05, in the run up to independence from France, two Antefasy brothers founded lUnion Démocratique et Sociale, one of the most successful cross-island political parties. Their representatives took the top position in the Provincial Councils of Tuléar, one of the partys founders, Norbert Zafimahova, was twice elected as president of the Territorial Assembly, delegated to represent Madagascars interests in the French Senate in 1958. Family life and marriage in particular is regulated by numerous fady, twins are seen as taboo, and were traditionally killed after birth or left in the forest to die. Although this practice has been outlawed, it persists among some traditional communities, in villages they inhabit rectangular one-room houses made of local plant material
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Sakalava people
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The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar. They are found on the western and northwest region of the island, the Sakalava are one of the smaller ethnic groups, constituting about 6.2 percent of the total population, that is over 1,210,000 in 2014. Their name means people of the long valleys and they occupy the western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of ethnic groups that once comprised an empire. The origin of the word Sakalava itself is subject to controversy. The most common explanation is the modern Malagasy translation of Sakalava meaning long ravines, another theory is that the word is possibly from the Arabic saqaliba, which is in turn derived from Late Latin sclavus, meaning slave. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 and 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. Later Swahili-Arabs and Indian traders came to the northern regions. African slaves were brought to the island in increasing numbers between the 15th and the 18th centuries, particularly to the region where Sakalava people now live and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, the founder of Sakalava legacy was 15th century Andriamisara. His descendant Andriandahifotsy, after 1610, then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River and his two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo extended gains further up to the Tsongay region. The chiefs of the different coastal settlements on the island began to extend their power to control trade, the first significant Sakalava kingdoms were formed about the 1650s. They dominated the western of northwestern regions of Madagascar during the 1700s, the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what was then known as Andakabe, now the town of Morondava, were principal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga, the Sakalava kingdom reached its peak geographic spread between 1730-1760, under King Andrianinevenarivo. According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña princes and they may also be descended from the Zafiraminia clans from the southwestern part of the island, possibly from Arab origin. Initially the Arabs exclusively supplied weapons to the Sakalava in exchange for slaves and these slaves were obtained from slave raids to Comoros and other coastal settlements of Madagascar, as well as from merchant ships arriving from the Swahili coast of Africa. The Sakalava kingdom quickly subjugated the neighbouring territories in the Mahafaly area, the Merina oral histories and documents in Comoros mention series of annual expeditions by Sakalava slave raiders against their villages through the end of the 18th century. These expeditions were aided by guns obtained from the Arabs, a weapon that both Comoros and Merina people lacked, the largest and one of most favored ports for slave trade on Madagascar was the Sakalava coastal town of Mahajanga
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French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
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Indian people
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Indian people are citizens of India, the second most populous nation containing 17. 50% of the worlds population. Indian refers to nationality, but not ethnicity or language, the Indian nationality consists of many regional ethno-linguistic groups, reflecting the rich and complex history of India. India hosts all major ethnic groups found in the Indian Subcontinent, population estimates vary from a conservative 12 million to 20 million diaspora. The name Bhārata has been used as a name by people of the Indian subcontinent. The designation Bhārata appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, the name is derived from the ancient Vedic and Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as Bhārata varṣam and uses this term to distinguish it from other varṣas or continents. The Bhāratas were a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings. India is named after legendary Emperor Bharata who was a descendant of the Bhāratas tribe, in early Vedic literature, the term Āryāvarta was in popular use before Bhārata. The Manusmṛti gives the name Āryāvarta to the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern to the Western Sea, while the word Indian and India is derived from Greek Ἰνδία, via Latin India. The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river Indus, the next great ancient Empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, the ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu decimal system during this period. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia. During the early period the great Rashtrakuta dynasty dominated the major part of the Indian subcontinent. From the 8th to 10th century and the Indian Emperor Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was described by the Arab traveller Sulaiman as one of the four kings of the world. The greatest maritime Empire of the medieval Indians was the Chola dynasty, under the great Indian Emperors Rajaraja Chola I and his successor Rajendra Chola I the Chola dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. The Mughal Empire unified much of Indian sub-continent under one realm, under the Mughals India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. This marked a huge influence in the Indian society, the Mughal Empire balanced and pacified local societies through new administrative practices and had diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. The Marathas and Sikhs emerged in the 17th century and established the Maratha Empire, the Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and Bengal, India is one of the worlds oldest civilisations
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Comoros
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Other countries near the Comoros are Tanzania to the northwest and the Seychelles to the northeast. Its capital is Moroni, on Grande Comore, the Union of the Comoros has three official languages – Comorian, Arabic and French. The religion of the majority of the population is Islam, at 1,660 km2, excluding the contested island of Mayotte, the Comoros is the third-smallest African nation by area. The population, excluding Mayotte, is estimated at 798,000, as a nation formed at a crossroads of different civilisations, the archipelago is noted for its diverse culture and history. The archipelago was first inhabited by Bantu speakers who came from East Africa, supplemented by Arab, the country consists of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all in the volcanic Comoros archipelago. The major islands are known by their French names, northwestern-most Grande Comore, Mohéli. France has vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions that would affirm Comorian sovereignty over the island, in addition, Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011 following a referendum passed overwhelmingly. It became part of the French colonial empire in the 19th century before becoming independent in 1975, since declaring independence, the country has experienced more than 20 coups détat or attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated. As of 2008 about half the population lived below the poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The Comoros is the state to be a member of the African Union, Francophonie, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League. The name Comoros derives from the Arabic word قمر qamar, the first human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are thought to have been Polynesian and Melanesian settlers, Malays and Indonesians, travelling by boat. The islands of the Comoros were populated by a succession of peoples from the coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf, the Malay Archipelago, and Madagascar. Bantu-speaking settlers reached the islands as a part of the greater Bantu expansion that took place in Africa throughout the first millennium, according to pre-Islamic mythology, a jinni dropped a jewel, which formed a great circular inferno. This became the Karthala volcano, which created the island of the Comoros, development of the Comoros was divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase is the Dembeni phase, during each island maintained a single. From the eleventh to the centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the Middle East flourished, smaller villages emerged. Many Comorians can trace their genealogies to ancestors from Yemen, mainly Hadhramaut, and Oman. According to legend, in 632, upon hearing of Islam, islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to Mecca—but by the time he arrived there, the Islamic prophet Muhammad had died
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Overseas Chinese
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Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Peoples Republic of China and Republic of China. People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves overseas Chinese, Overseas Chinese can be of the Han Chinese ethnic majority, or from any of the other ethnic groups in China. The Chinese language has various terms equivalent to the English Overseas Chinese which refers to Chinese citizens residing in other than China. The term haigui refers to returned overseas Chinese and guīqiáo qiáojuàn to their returning relatives, huáyì refers to ethnic Chinese residing outside of China. Literally, it means Tang people, a reference to Tang dynasty China when it was ruling China proper. It should be noted that this term is used by the Cantonese, Hoochew, Hakka and Hokkien as a colloquial reference to the Chinese people. The term shǎoshù mínzú is added to the terms for overseas Chinese to indicate those in the diaspora who would be considered ethnic minorities in China. The terms shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the PRC does not distinguish between Han and ethnic minority populations for official policy purposes. For example, members of the Tibetan diaspora may travel to China on passes granted to certain overseas Chinese. Various estimates of the overseas Chinese minority population include 3.1 million,3.4 million,5.7 million, cross-border ethnic groups are not considered overseas Chinese minorities unless they left China after the establishment of an independent state on Chinas border. Some ethnic groups who have connections with China, like the Hmong or Mongolians may not associate themselves as overseas Chinese. The Chinese people have a history of migrating overseas. One of the dates back to the Ming dynasty when Zheng He became the envoy of Ming. He sent people - many of them Cantonese and Hokkien - to explore and trade in the South China Sea, when China was under the imperial rule of the Qing Dynasty, subjects who left the Qing Empire without the Administrators consent were considered to be traitors and were executed. Their family members faced consequences as well, however, the establishment of the Lanfang Republic in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of Qing China, attests that it was possible to attain permission. The republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned and these migrations are considered to be among the largest in Chinas history. Most of the nationalist and neutral refugees fled Mainland China to Southeast Asia as well as Taiwan, many nationalists who stayed behind were persecuted or even executed. Kuomintang members who settled in Malaysia and Singapore played a role in the establishment of the Malaysian Chinese Association
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Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
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Mozambique
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It is separated from Madagascar by the Mozambique Channel to the east. The capital and largest city is Maputo, between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from farther north and west. Swahili commercial ports existed along the coasts until the arrival of Europeans, the area was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonised by Portugal from 1505. The country was an important place where Somali merchants enslaved the local population, after over four centuries of Portuguese rule, Mozambique gained independence in 1975, becoming the Peoples Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. After only two years of independence, the country descended into an intense and protracted civil war lasting from 1977 to 1992, in 1994, Mozambique held its first multiparty elections and has remained a relatively stable presidential republic. However, since 2013, following more than 20 years of peace, Mozambique is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped countries in the world. Mozambique is endowed with rich and extensive natural resources, the countrys economy is based largely on agriculture, but industry is growing, mainly food and beverages, chemical manufacturing, and aluminium and petroleum production. The countrys tourism sector is also growing, South Africa is Mozambiques main trading partner and source of foreign direct investment. Belgium, Brazil, Portugal, and Spain are also among the countrys most important economic partners, since 2001, Mozambiques annual average GDP growth has been among the worlds highest. However, the ranks among the lowest in GDP per capita, human development, measures of inequality. The only official language of Mozambique is Portuguese, which is mostly as a second language by about half of the population. Common native languages include Makhuwa, Sena, and Swahili, the countrys population of around 24 million is composed overwhelmingly of Bantu people. The largest religion in Mozambique is Christianity, with significant minorities following Islam, the island-town was the capital of the Portuguese colony until 1898, when it was moved south to Lourenço Marques. Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and they established agricultural communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them the technology for smelting and smithing iron, from the late first millennium AD, vast Indian Ocean trade networks extended as far south into Mozambique as the ancient port town of Chibuene. Connections are evident at sites including Manyikeni for 11–14th century ties with the inland Great Zimbabwe kingdoms, from about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, the Portuguese attempted to legitimise and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of prazos tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery, Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab Muslim traders and Portuguese and other European traders as well
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Gondwana
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In paleogeography, Gondwana, also Gondwanaland, is the name given to an ancient supercontinent. It is believed to have sutured about 600 to 530 million years ago, Gondwana formed prior to Pangaea, and later became part of it. Around 335 to 250 million years ago Gondwana and Laurasia joined together to form the supercontinent Pangaea, Gondwana then separated from Laurasia in the breakup of Pangaea, drifting farther south after the split. Gondwana itself then also broke apart, the continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist Eduard Suess, after the Gondwana region of central northern India which is derived from Sanskrit for forest of the Gonds. The name had previously used in a geological context, first by H. B. From which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences are also described, for example, the plant family Proteaceae, known only from southern South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, is considered to have a Gondwanan distribution. This pattern is considered to indicate an archaic, or relict. The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process, several orogenies led to its final amalgamation 550 to 500 million years ago at the end of the Ediacaran, and into the Cambrian. These include the Brasiliano Orogeny, the East African Orogeny, the Malagasy Orogeny, the final stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia and western Gondwana. During this interval, the Cambrian explosion occurred and this is the Famatinian block and it formerly continued the line of the Appalachians southwards. One of the sites of Gondwanan amalgamation was the East African Orogeny. The East African Orogeny at about 650–630 Mya affected a part of Arabia, north-eastern Africa, East Africa. Collins and Windley propose that in this orogeny, Azania collided with the Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, the later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, at the same time, in the Kunga Orogeny Neoproterozoic India collided with the Australia/Mawson continent. Other large continental masses, including the core cratons of North America, Europe, when Pangaea broke up, two large masses, Gondwana and Laurasia, were formed. During the late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near the South Pole to near the Equator, across much of Gondwana, the climate was mild. During the Mesozoic, the world was on average warmer than it is today. Gondwana was then host to a variety of flora and fauna for many millions of years
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Masoala National Park
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Masoala National Park, in northeast Madagascar, is the largest of the islands protected areas. Most of the park is situated in Sava Region and a part in Analanjirofo, created in 1997, the park protects 2,300 square kilometres of rainforest and 100 square kilometres of marine parks. The Masoala peninsula is exceptionally diverse due to its huge size, altogether, the park protects tropical rainforest, coastal forest, flooded forest, marsh, and mangrove. Three marine parks protect coral reefs and an array of marine life. Masoala provides an excellent opportunity to experience the unique flora and fauna of the big island, there are ten lemur species, including the flamboyant red ruffed lemur, which is native to the peninsula. The island reserve of Nosy Mangabe is one of the best sites in Madagascar to try to glimpse the elusive nocturnal aye-aye, Masoala is also home to the spectacular day-flying sunset moth, Chrysiridia rhipheus. The Madagascar serpent-eagle was recently rediscovered here, and exists in healthy populations only in part of north east Madagascar. Three marine parks are included in the Masoala National Park, Tampolo in the West, Ambodilaitry in the South and these are among the most interesting marine environments in Madagascar and are superb destinations for kayaking and snorkeling. Each year from July to early September, hundreds of humpback whales visit the Antongil Bay during their long migration, the warm protected waters of the bay provide an ideal breeding and calving ground for these magnificent marine mammals. The park can be accessed from the towns of Maroantsetra or Antalaha, from Maroantsetra, transport by motor boat can be arranged. From Antalaha, the park can be accessed by road to Cap Est using daily bush taxis or by bike as far as the village of Masoala. The park is accessible from several lodges on the peninsula, camping materials can be hired in Maroantsetra. The main trails for visitors are at Nosy Mangabe, Tampolo/Ambodiforaha, Cap Est, campsites are maintained at Nosy Mangabe, Cap Est, Ambatolaidama, and each of the three marine parks. Many villages on the peninsula also provide inexpensive bungalows or basic guest rooms, Antalaha and Maroantsetra both offer a wide array of accommodations, as well as guides and porters for travel on the peninsula. All visits to the park must be accompanied by an official park-approved guide, detailed information on arranging trips is available from the National Park or guide offices in Maroantsetra and Antalaha. This is a wet area of Madagascar. The driest part of the year is from September to December, as the park is accessible only by a three-hour boat journey, the cyclone season is best avoided. In June 2007, Masoala was designated as a World Heritage Site as part of a cluster of parks that represent the biodiversity of the rainforests of the country
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Canal des Pangalanes
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It is used primarily for transportation and fishing, and it has unspoiled natural beaches that are visited by tourists. An initial area of the canal in Toamasina is straight, while subsequent areas have curves, lagoons, connected lakes, construction efforts began during the era of the Merina monarchy, with major expansion during the French colonial period between 1896 and 1904, and additional expansion during 1949–1957. Construction has included the cutting and removal of outcrops to connect previously unconnected areas. Initial expansion and maintenance of Canal des Pangalanes during the time of the Merina monarchy, by 1901, an uninterrupted canal existed between Toamasina and Andevoranto, which extended 95 kilometres. Additional construction from 1949 to 1957, cost over 800 million CFA francs to complete, further work after World War II enabled 30-ton barges to travel between Tamatave and Vatomandry, a distance of 160 kilometres. A study in the 1950s regarding extending the canal for an additional 30 kilometres from Ivondro to Manakara found that the cost would have been at least 1,400 million CFA francs. This proposal was shelved, due to concerns about the construction costs when the trade between the two areas was low relative to these costs. Population growth not attaining expected numbers in the areas during this time was a factor in the rejection of this extension, additional objections to this expansion came from businesspeople in Toamasina and Manakara, who voiced concerns about the potential to lose trade at the port of Toamasina. Large navigation companies opposed this extension, to protect the high fees they imposed for cargo loading and unloading at auxiliary ports on the east coast, Canal des Pangalanes is used by local people, Some of them use canoes for travel and make their homes along its banks. Ferries run up and down navigable areas transporting items such as wood, charcoal, dried fish, many local people rely upon the canal for and, for some of them, it is their only means of travel. The canal provides fish for the locals, and cassava is grown along its banks, coffee factories exist along the canal. Some areas have white, sandy beaches, after use of the canal decreased, a large project in the 1980s restored and renovated it. The rehabilitation project included dredging areas overrun with silt, the operation of a cargo service enabled by the purchase of a fleet of tug barges, by 2011 the tug barges were observed to be no longer in use and the warehouses were empty. The tug barges are stored near the pier in Toamasina, where they are rotting, an oil refinery south of Toamasina contributes to pollution in that area of the canal, as evidenced by hyacinths covered with grey-colored slime. Lists of canals Madagascar Travel Guide – includes a map of Canal des Pangalanes
24.
Antsiranana
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Antsiranana, named Diego-Suarez prior to 1975, is a city in the far north of Madagascar. Antsiranana is the capital of Diana Region and it had an estimated population of 115,015 in 2013. Arrachart Airport provides communication primarily with other parts of Madagascar, the bay and city originally used the name Diego Suarez, named after Diogo Soares, a Portuguese navigator who visited the bay in 1543. In the 1880s, the bay was coveted by France, which desired it as a station for steamships. The colonys administration was subsumed into that of Madagascar in 1896, the Second Pacific Squadron of Imperial Russia anchored and was resupplied at Diego-Suarez on its way to the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. In 1942, Diego Suárez was the objective of Operation Ironclad. Diego Suarez, with its harbor and a concentration of government officials, was selected as the initial invasion point. The Japanese responded with an attack by submarines on the British naval forces in the harbor, damaging Battleship HMS Ramillies. France continued to use the city as a base after Malagasy independence in 1960. Lycée Français Diego Suarez, or Lycée Français Sadi-Carnot, is a French international school in Antsiranana, historically it was the Collège français Sadi Carnot. The climactic scenes of the history novel The Madagaskar Plan are set in the city. Antsiranana Bay Atlantis Loved Kilimanjaro Diego Suarez review Media related to Antsiranana at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
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The Central Highlands, Central High Plateau, or Hauts-Plateaux are a mountainous biogeographical region in central Madagascar. They include the part of the islands interior above 800 m altitude. Because of the habitat of the Central Highlands, there is little local endemism. Pp. 71–81 in Wilson, D. E. and Reeder, mammal Species of the World, a taxonomic and geographic reference. 3rd ed. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2 vols,2142 pp. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 Garbutt, N.2007. Mammals of Madagascar, A Complete Guide, london, A & C Black,304 pp. ISBN 978-0-7136-7043-1 Goodman, S. M. Rakotondravony, D. Randriamanantsoa, H. N. and Rakotomalala-Razanahoera, a new species of rodent from the montane forest of central eastern Madagascar. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 118, 863–873, raxworthy, C. J. Maminirina, C. P. and Olson, L. E. A new species of shrew tenrec from northern Madagascar, fahr, J. Christidis, L. and Appleton, B.2007. Specific status of populations on Madagascar referred to Miniopterus fraterculus, with description of a new species, bradman, H. M. Christidis, L. and Appleton, B.2009. The use of molecular phylogenetic and morphological tools to identify cryptic and paraphyletic species, Examples from the diminutive long-fingered bats on Madagascar, musser, G. G. and Carleton, M. D.2005. Pp. 894–1531 in Wilson, D. E. and Reeder, mammal Species of the World, a taxonomic and geographic reference. 3rd ed. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2 vols
26.
Lake Alaotra
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Lake Alaotra is the largest lake in Madagascar, located in Toamasina Province, in the northern central plateau. Its basin is composed of freshwater lakes and marshes surrounded by areas of dense vegetation. It forms the center of the islands most important rice-growing region and it is a rich habitat for wildlife, including some rare and endangered species, as well as an important fishing ground. Lake Alaotra and its surrounding wetlands cover 7,223 square kilometres, and include a range of habitats, including water, reedbeds, marshes. The lake itself covers 900 km2, Lake Alaotra was declared a wetland of international importance under the international Ramsar Convention on February 2,2003. The longfin tilapia was introduced into Lake Alaotra from the mainland in 1954, by 1957, it provided 46% of the catch, perhaps because it was moving into an empty ecological niche as a phytophagous species. The fertile plain surrounding Lake Alaotra is Madagascars most important rice-producing region, the hills surrounding the lake were formerly forested, but have mostly been cleared for farmland in past decades. Severe erosion on these hill slopes has caused considerable sedimentation of the lake, which is fast disappearing. Pressure to create more rice fields has also led locals to burn the reedbeds surrounding the lake and these reedbeds provide the sole habitat of the endemic Alaotra gentle lemur. The lake is also an important but increasingly threatened habitat for waterbirds, two waterbird species were endemic to northern Madagascar, the Madagascar pochard and the Alaotra grebe. The Madagascar pochard is now endangered and no longer found on the lake. The Alaotra grebe was declared extinct in 2010, in earlier times, Lake Alaotra was where the largest numbers lived, the near-flightless grebe may never have occurred elsewhere except in the immediate area of the lake. The Ambato River provides the lake water and also drains it. After 381 km, the flows into the Indian Ocean. The GRAP-Lake Alaotra project Madagascar Pochard is endemic to Madagascar, where it was historically in the Lake Alaotra basin Project Alaotra by Madagascar Wildlife Conservation
27.
Subsidence
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Subsidence is the motion of a surface as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea level. The opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase in elevation, ground subsidence is of concern to geologists, geotechnical engineers and surveyors. Subsidence frequently causes problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids. If the roof of these voids becomes too weak, it can collapse and this type of subsidence can result in sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep. Several types of mining, and specifically methods which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse will result in surface subsidence. Mining-induced subsidence is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, mining-induced subsidence is nearly always very localized to the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside. Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders and this is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventive measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining. If natural gas is extracted from a gas field the initial pressure in the field will drop over the years. The gas pressure also supports the soil layers above the field, if the pressure drops, the soil pressure increases and this leads to subsidence at the ground level. Since exploitation of the Slochteren gas field started in the late 1960s the ground level over a 250 km² area has dropped by a current maximum of 30 cm, the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported immediate subsidence caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. In Northern Japan, subsidence of 0.50 m was observed on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Miyako, Tōhoku, while Rikuzentakata, in the south at Sōma, Fukushima,0.29 m was observed. The maximum amount of subsidence was 1.2 m, coupled with horizontal diastrophism of up to 5.3 m on the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi Prefecture, the habitation of lowlands, such as coastal or delta plains, requires drainage. The resulting aeration of the leads to the oxidation of its organic components, such as peat. This applies especially when water levels are periodically adapted to subsidence, in order to maintain desired unsaturated zone depths. In addition to this, drained soils consolidate as a result of increased effective stress, in this way, land subsidence has the potential of becoming self-perpetuating, having rates up to 5 cm/yr. Water management used to be tuned primarily to such as crop optimisation but, to varying extents. When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in the brittle crust, or by flow in the hotter. Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the wall of normal faults
28.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
29.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
30.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
31.
Hydrocarbon exploration
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Hydrocarbon exploration is the search by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the Earths surface, such as oil and natural gas. Oil and gas exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology, visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation. However, most exploration depends on sophisticated technology to detect. Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation, offshore and remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells cost US$10 –30 million, while deep water wells can cost up to US$100 million plus, hundreds of smaller companies search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as US$100,000. A prospect is a trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. A significant amount of geological, structural and seismic investigation must first be completed to redefine the potential hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect. Four geological factors have to be present for a prospect to work, a source rock - When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure and temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form. Most hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped, reservoir - The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is commonly a porous sandstone or limestone, the oil collects in the pores within the rock although open fractures within non-porous rocks may also store hydrocarbons. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production, trap - The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural or stratigraphic trap. Exploration risk is a concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the presence of the imperative geological factors. This confidence is based on data models and is usually mapped on Common Risk Segment Maps. High confidence in the presence of imperative geological factors is usually coloured green, therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis. The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess all different geological factors, furthermore, it results in simple maps that can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration decisions on. Bright spot - On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation containing hydrocarbons, chance of success - An estimate of the chance of all the elements within a prospect working, described as a probability. Dry hole - A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons, see also Dry hole clause Flat spot - Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section, flat due to gravity. Hydrocarbon in place - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. e, net reserve - part of net sand that has the minimum reservoir qualities, i. e. minimum porosity and permeability values
32.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
33.
Antandroy
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The Antandroy are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy. They are particularly known for their dances, cotton woven clothing, elaborately decorated tombs. The herding of zebu remains the economic activity of the Antandroy. The name Tandroy means people of the thorns in reference to the thickets of endemic plants that characterize the southwestern region of Madagascar. They tend to bear stronger East African than Austronesian features, the Antandroy trace their ancestry back to the Sakalava people. There are around 600,000 Antandroy as of 2013 and they constitute the fifth largest ethnic group on the island. The inhabitants of the Tandroy region identify with one of two distinct traditions, the oral history of the Karimbola clan inhabiting the western portion of Tandroy does not describe a migration into the area, but rather implies the inhabitants were always present. In the early 18th century, the westernmost portion of Tandroy was conquered by the Menarandra dynasty of the neighboring Mahafaly people, in the eastern portion of Tandroy, the original population of the Mahandrovato clan was gradually outnumbered by Antanosy and Bara refugees. By the early 18th century a centralized confederation emerged to unite all those living between the Menarandra and Mendare rivers and this confederation was ruled by a dynasty of Zafimanara, a sub-group of the Mahandrovato clan, which gave the region and its people the name Antandroy. Zafimanara power waned around 1790 when significant flooding and the consequent ecological upheaval prompted them to flee to the Manombo plateau, throughout French colonization of Madagascar, the Antandroy - alongside the Mahafaly - were viewed as the most uncivilized of the islands ethnic groups. This perception spread among fellow Malagasy, establishing a stereotype that characterized the Antandroy as half-clothed savages, the toppling of the Tsiranana presidency and end of the First Republic in 1972 was sparked by the armed protest of Antandroy peasants in Toliara against corruption in tax collection. The Antandroy are a nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy. Antandroy families are patriarchal and women are expected to be subordinate to the males in their family, circumcision is an important ritual for male Antandroy, and among some communities the foreskin is shot from the barrel of a gun in celebration. The Antandroy share the common Malagasy beliefs in a god and the eternal life and power of the ancestors, who intervene in the affairs of the living. The Antandroy commune with and can be possessed by the ancestors by entering a state called bilo. Crocodiles are commonly feared among the Antandroy, and members of the Zafindravoay clan believe they are the descendants of a union between a Tandroy woman and a crocodile. In addition, the spirit is believed to be able to exert positive or negative influence over events in the life of a Tandroy. Mpisoro soothsayers are a feature of Antandroy village society and are a respected authority in traditional communities
34.
Mananara River
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The Mananara River is one of the main rivers in eastern Madagascar. Its mouth is located at the Indian Ocean near the city of Vangaindrano in the Atsimo-Atsinanana region, the Mananara is formed by the merger of the Menarahaka, Itomampy, and Ionaivo. The Ionavio rises on the slopes of Tsimahamory peak, at an elevation of 1500m. The Itomampy rises not far from the Ionaivo, about 40 km from the Indian Ocean, at approximately 1600m, the Menarahaka rises in the Andringitra massif, at approximately 2000m elevation. It is joined by the Sahambano before joining the Ionaivo
35.
Mangoro River
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The Mangoro River is the largest river on the east coast of Madagascar by basin size and water volume, and is 300 km in length. The Mangoro begins northeast of the town of Anjozorobe in the Analamanga region and its primary tributaries are the Onive River and Nosivolo River. Its mouth is at the Indian Ocean near the town of Ambodiharina, owing to its many tributaries, the Mangoro maintains a high flow year round, making it an ideal river for rafting. There is a road and rail bridge over the river west of Moramanga on Route nationale 2, there are small populations of crocodiles in the more placid sections of the river. But their population is minimal and continues to plummet
36.
Bemarivo River
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The Bemarivo River, literally the big shallow, is located in northern Madagascar. It drains to the north-eastern coast, into the Indian Ocean and it drains the eastern part of the Tsaratanana Massif and the northern half of the Marojejy Massif. It is crossed by the RN 5a near Nosiarina and its mouth is situated in the north of Sambava. It serves as the edge of the territory known as Betsimisaraka. Confusingly, a tributary of the Sofia River is also called the Bemarivo River
37.
Drainage divide
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A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
38.
Mozambique Channel
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The Mozambique Channel is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between Madagascar and Mozambique. The channel is about 1,600 km long and 419 km across at its narrowest point, a warm current, the Mozambique Current, flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of South Africa. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mozambique Channel as follows, a line from the estuary of the River Rovuma to Ras Habu, the Northern point of Ile Grande Comore, the Northern of the Comore Islands, to Cap dAmbre the Northern extremity of Madagascar. A line from Cap Sainte-Marie, the Southern extreme of Madagascar to Ponto do Ouro on the mainland. Despite being defined as the South African coast by the IHO, japanese Submarines at Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel Beach, Chandler B. ed. Mozambique Channel. Chicago, F. E. Compton and Co
39.
Betsiboka River
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Betsiboka River is a 525-kilometre long river in central-north Madagascar. It flows northwestward and empties to Bombetoka Bay, forming a large delta and it originates to the east of Antananarivo. The river is surrounded in mangroves, the river is distinct for its red-coloured water, which is caused by river sediments. The river carries an amount of reddish-orange silt to the sea. Much of this silt is deposited at the mouth of the river or in the bay and it is dramatic evidence of the catastrophic erosion of northwestern Madagascar. Several fish species are endemic to the basin, including the three cichlids Paretroplus petiti, P. tsimoly and P. maculatus. The Betsibokas largest tributary, the Ikopa River, drains the city of Antananarivo. Floods in Madagascar at NASA Earth Observatory Sediment Laden Drainages at Lunar and Planetary Institute, USRA NASA, Earth from Space
40.
Mahajanga
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Mahajanga is a city and an administrative district on the northwest coast of Madagascar. Mahajanga is a favorite tourist destination for Malagasy tourists and international travelers, with beaches, a coconut-lined boardwalk. The city of Mahajanga is the capital of the Boeny Region, the district had a population of 220,629 in 2013. Mahajanga is a seaport, the second most important one in Madagascar after Toamasina, the marine terminal accommodates containerships and small general cargo freighters. Because of limited depth at the wharf, only small ships can call at the terminal. Deeper-draft ships anchor off the terminal and transfer cargoes to and from barges, severe storms during December 2006 damaged the bulkhead, allowing water to flow in and wash backfill out from under the terminals paving blocks. The resulting collapse of pavement blocks has made operations at the less efficient. The largest and most valuable containerized export is frozen shrimp, there is an international airport with regional flights to the Comoros and Mayotte. Mahajanga is on the Betsiboka River, which leads to Bombetoka Bay. The city has a sizable Muslim population, in 1977, it was the scene of ethnic unrest, forcing the evacuation of the Comorian minority living there. Mahajanga is also the seat of a Roman Catholic Diocese, in the 1780s a community of roughly 200 Indian traders had formed at Mahajanga at the mouth of the Betsiboka River, according to French traveler Dumaine. Thus, the etymology of the word Mahajanga is Indic and their dhows, which they used to transport goods to and from the African mainland, flew French flags. Initial arrivals were mainly Muslim Khojas, Ismailis and Daoudi Bohras, the 1911 census found 4,480 Indians in the country, making them 21% of the total foreign population and the second-largest foreign population after the French. Following the nationalisation of businesses in the 1970s, many were compelled to leave. By 2000, they were believed to control 50-60% of the countrys economy. In December 2006, a cyclone hit Mahajanga, causing significant damage to the port facilities, Mahajanga II is an administrative district surrounding but separate from the city. Its population was 77,524 in 2013
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies document "Madagascar" by Peter J. Schraeder.
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