1.
Riedstadt
–
Riedstadt, with its municipal area of 73.76 km² is Groß-Gerau districts biggest town by land area. It lies in Hesse, Germany, about 12 km southwest of Darmstadt, riedstadt is shaped not only by its preserved rural structure, but also by being near several cities, namely Frankfurt am Main, Darmstadt, Wiesbaden, Mainz, and Mannheim. As its name suggests, it lies in the Hessisches Ried, the community practises the structured settlement of environmentally friendly business operations. Local recreation sites near the community include the Kühkopf-Knoblochsaue nature reserve, the Bergstraße, the Odenwald, riedstadt consists of the centres Crumstadt, Erfelden, Goddelau, Leeheim, and Wolfskehlen. The community came into being on 1 January 1977 with Hesses municipal reforms, which merged the independent communities of Goddelau, Wolfskehlen, Erfelden, Crumstadt. Erfelden was first mentioned in a document from the Lorsch Monastery in 779. In the Thirty Years War, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden spent two nights at the house in 1631 while his troops were crossing the Rhine. His building master Matthäus Staud built the Schwedensäule at Erfelden which recalls the crossing, Goddelau was first mentioned in a donation document when Count Gundram donated his property in Terminis Gotalohono to Fulda Abbey. Over the centuries, the village was shaped by its dwellers agricultural, in 1588 there were roughly 180 inhabitants in Goddelau. The house in which writer and revolutionary Georg Büchner would later be born was built in 1665, Leeheim was first mentioned in the Lorsch codex in 766 when a man named Dodo made a donation to the Lorsch Monastery. Near the earlier village of Camba, the Salian Conrad II was chosen to be German King in 1024, Leeheim was shaped by several monastic properties, belonging to, among others, St. Albans Monastery in Mainz. The overlords were the Wolfskehlers, and later the Katzenelnbogen family, in 1536, Leeheim became Evangelical, and in the Thirty Years War, more than 70% of the village was destroyed. In 1666, almost half the inhabitants lost their lives to the Plague, in earlier times, Leeheim developed itself from a farming village into a workers residential village with recreational lands on the Riedsee, a nearby lake, and a golf course. Wolfskehlen is Riedstadts northernmost constituent community and it was first mentioned in the document Historia Episcopatus Wormatiensis in 1002 in which Emperor Heinrich II granted Bishop Burchard of Worms the rights in the Forest of Forehahi. In 1252, the Lords of Wolfskehlen, who had taken their name from the village, in 1539, Barbara von Wolfskehlen wed Eberhard von Gemmingen-Hornberg, who introduced the Reformation into Wolfskehlen. In 1579, the Mainz Palatinate ceded its rights to the Landgraves of Hesse, during the Thirty Years War, and through the Plague, almost the whole population was killed, the reconstruction began in the 18th century. From 1868 to 1878, the building of the Mannheim–Frankfurt railway brought the dissolution of the purely agricultural structure. After the Second World War, the village absorbed about 800 refugees, in January 2011, Werner Amend was voted as the new mayor
2.
Grand Duchy of Hesse
–
Hesse lost its independence when it joined the German Empire in 1871. Before 1866, its northern neighbour was its former sister Landgraviate, since 1803 an Electorate, of Hesse-Kassel – for this reason, Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleons Confederation of the Rhine during the Napoleonic Wars. Rapidly expanding during the mediatizations, Hesse-Darmstadt became an amalgamation of smaller German states, the legal patchwork of the state culminated in a decree issued on 1 October 1806 by Louis I. The old territorial estates were abolished, which altered Hesse-Darmstadt from a mosaic of patrimonial fragments into a centralized, during the Congress of Vienna it was forced to cede the Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt had received in 1803, to the Kingdom of Prussia. However, Hesse-Darmstadt received some territory on the bank of the Rhine. The Grand Duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse, in 1867, the northern half of the Grand Duchy became a part of the North German Confederation, while the half of the Grand Duchy south of the Main remained outside. In 1871, it became a constituent state of the German Empire, the last Grand Duke, Ernst Ludwig, was forced from his throne at the end of World War I, and the state was renamed the Peoples State of Hesse. After World War II, the majority of the state combined with Frankfurt am Main, the Waldeck area, excluded were the Montabaur district from Hessen-Nassau and that part of Hessen-Darmstadt on the left bank of the Rhine, which became part of the Rhineland-Palatinate state. Wimpfen—an exclave of Hessen-Darmstadt—became part of Baden-Württemberg, in the district of Sinsheim, after a plebiscite on 29 April 1951, Bad Wimpfen was transferred from Sinsheim district to Heilbronn District. This change to Heilbronn was carried out on 1 May 1952, the Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces, Starkenburg, Right bank of the Rhine, south of the Main. Rhenish Hesse, Left bank of the Rhine, territory gained from the Congress of Vienna, upper Hesse, North of the Main, separated from Starkenburg by the Free City of Frankfurt. List of rulers of Hesse Line of succession to the former Hessian throne Hessenlager Constitution of Hesse Das Großherzogtum Hessen 1806–1918 Großherzogtum Hessen 1910
3.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
4.
University of Strasbourg
–
The University of Strasbourg in Strasbourg, Alsace, France, is the second largest university in France, with about 46,000 students and over 4,000 researchers. On 1 January 2009, the fusion of three universities reconstituted a united University of Strasbourg. With as many as 18 Nobel laureates, the university is now ranked among the best in the League of European Research Universities, the university emerged from a Lutheran humanist German Gymnasium, founded in 1538 by Johannes Sturm in the Free Imperial City of Strassburg. It was transformed to a university in 1621 and elevated to the ranks of a university in 1631. Among its earliest university students was Johann Scheffler who studied medicine and later converted to Catholicism and became the mystic and poet Angelus Silesius. The Lutheran German university still persisted even after the annexation of the City by King Louis XIV in 1681, during the German Empire the university was greatly expanded and numerous new buildings were erected because the university was intended to be a showcase of German against French culture in Alsace. In 1918, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, so a reverse exodus of Germanophone teachers took place, during the Second World War, when France was occupied, personnel and equipment of the University of Strasbourg were transferred to Clermont-Ferrand. In its place, the short-lived German Reichsuniversität Straßburg was created, the university campus covers a vast part near the center of the city, located between the Cité Administrative, Esplanade and Gallia bus-tram stations. Modern architectural buildings include, Escarpe, the Doctoral College of Strasbourg, Atrium, Pangloss, the student residence building for the Doctoral College of Strasbourg was designed by London-based Nicholas Hare Architects in 2007. The structures are depicted on the inner wall of the Esplanade university restaurant, accompanied by the names of their architects. The administrative organisms, attached to the university, are located in the Agora building
5.
University of Giessen
–
The University of Giessen, officially called Justus Liebig University Giessen, is a large public research university in Giessen, Hesse, Germany. It is named after its most famous faculty member, Justus von Liebig and it covers the areas of arts/humanities, business, dentistry, economics, law, medicine, science, social sciences, and veterinary medicine. Its university hospital, which has two sites, Gießen and Marburg, is the private university hospital in Germany. The University of Giessen is among the oldest institutions of higher educations in the German-speaking world and it was founded in 1607 as a Lutheran university in the city of Giessen in Hesse-Darmstadt because the all-Hessian Landesuniversität had become Reformed. Endowed with an issued by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, on 19 May 1607. The Peace of Westphalia led to the restoration of the old location, in the 17th and 18th centuries the Ludoviciana was a typical small state university that then had the four common faculties. The instruction was reasonable, with about 20 to 25 professors teaching several hundred students, in the 18th century came gradual modernization of the curricula and reforms in the instruction, which were definitively influenced by the local lordly court in Darmstadt. The example for the reforms were both of the universities of the Enlightenment, the University of Halle, founded in 1694. Indeed, all attempts at reform were from the start limited by the finances of Hesse-Darmstadt. The noteworthy creation of a Faculty of Economics was ultimately was out of this financial hardship. In the Faculty of Economics, new subjects were brought together. After finishing studies in this Faculty, a number of youths were able to gain recognition in the Faculties of Medicine. They established the unusually diverse course offerings that continue to exist to the day at the University of Giessen. The University of Giessen weathered the transition from the 18th to the 19th century unscathed and was still the only university of an enlarged territory, the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Alongside Jena, Giessen was the prototype for the politicized Vormärz university, at the turn of the 20th century, the Ludoviciana began to expand into a modern university. During this period, new clinics in human and veterinary medicine were established, the decisive backer of this project was the last Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig, to whom the university bestowed out of thankfulness the honorary title of Rector Magnificentissimus. In 1902 the student body surpassed one thousand, for the first time included in the student body were women, who since 1900 were admitted as guest students and starting in 1908 were admitted for regular study. After the different Hessian states were united in 1929, both universities became public universities of that German state, philosophikum II, for example is an area on the outskirts of the city bordering the city forest
6.
Danton's Death
–
Dantons Death was the first play written by Georg Büchner, set during the French Revolution. Georg Büchner wrote his works in the period between Romanticism and Realism in the so-called Vormärz era in German history and literature. The goal of the politically liberal poets of this period was that literature of an existence would again become an effective organ for renewing political and social life. They were opposed to the Romantics and against the restoration of the old order from prior to the Napoleonic Wars. They fought against convention, feudalism and absolutism, campaigned for freedom of speech, the emancipation of the individual, including women and Jews, and for a democratic constitution. They created a trend-poetry and time-poetry – in other words, poetry that dealt with problems of the time, other writers of this trend and period were Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Franz Grillparzer. Whilst working on it Buchner always feared arrest and it only reached print in 1835 after being heavily cut and having the politics softened by sexual innuendo. Research for the play started in late 1834 and he completed a first version of the script in five weeks from mid January to mid February 1835. The same year saw a version published by Karl Gutzkow in the Literatur-Blatt of Eduard Dullers Phönix and this makes it the only one of Büchners plays to be published in his lifetime, albeit in a heavily censored version. For a long time no theatre would dare put on the play and this occurred on 5 January, in the Belle-Alliance-Theater in Berlin, in a production put on by the Vereins Neue Freie Volksbühne. Its use of historical sources and extensive quotations from original political speeches meant that the play was seen in the 20th century as the precursor to documentary theatre. The play follows the story of Georges Danton, a leader of the French Revolution, Georges Danton created the office of the Revolutionary Tribunal as a strong arm for the Revolutionary Government. With this, to be accused of anything real or imagined was to be condemned to death without trial, proofs, within months he knew this power was a terrible mistake and fought to have it ended. Robespierre stopped him and used the Tribunal to have Danton and all killed, consolidate his power and slaughter uncounted thousands of French men, women. Ultimately he followed Danton to the guillotine, witnesses describe Danton as dying bravely comforting other innocents executed with him. Dantons friends press him to fight or flee Robespierres supporters, but Danton does not see any need to do so, Danton confides the guilt he feels for the September Massacres in his wife Julie. Danton is imprisoned and led before the National Assembly, which is divided – it feels it has no choice, however, Robespierre and Saint-Just reverse its opinion. The prisoners discuss the existence of God and life, and an attempt to prove that God does not exist fails, Dantons supporters are transferred to the Conciergerie
7.
Leonce and Lena
–
Leonce and Lena is a play by Georg Büchner which is considered a comedy, but is actually a satire veiled in humor. It was written in the spring of 1836 for a competition for the best one- or two-act comedy in prose or verse sponsored by the Stuttgart publisher Cotta, however, Büchner missed the submission deadline and the play was returned to him unread. Erich Kästner considered Leonce and Lena to be one of the six most important classic comedies of the German language, there are two imaginary countries, the kingdom Popo and the kingdom Pipi. Prince Leonce of kingdom Popo and princess of kingdom Pipi have been arranged their political marriage, Prince Leonce is, in the garden, complaining about his own life as a “prince of Kingdom Popo”. He meets Valerio who is a lot different to him and will be his company later, King Peter of the Kingdom Popo is being dressed up by valets. He concerns more with his duties as a King than with his people, Leonce’s girl friend Rosetta is in his room and dances for him but he confesses he does not love her anymore, and so she goes out. The president of council comes in his room and reminds him of the ceremony with Lena tomorrow. Leonce decides to escape the Kingdom to avoid the wedding, Lena is in the garden with her governess. She tells governess that she not want to get married a man who she does not know. She decides to run away with governess’s help to escape her arranged marriage, Leonce and Valerio are in their way to Italy, and also Lena and governess are in their way to Italy. Leonce and Valerio arrive an inn, in a bit later, Lena and governess arrive in the same inn. Leonce hears Lena’s voice and falls in love with her, Lena and governess are in a room, but Lena goes out to go to garden. Leonce and Lena meet in the garden, Leonce confesses to Lena he falls in love with her and kisses her but she runs away. That makes Leonce wants to commit to suicide by jumping into the river, Leonce decides to get married with Lena and tells Valerio about it. Many people are in front of the palace to celebrate Leonce and this event is arranged and controlled by schoolmaster. King Peter and his followers try to figure out how to solve the problem that prince Leonce, finally, Leonce, Lena, Valerio and the governess arrive with masks on their faces. Valerio takes off the masks and presents the two world famous automatons, King Peter decides to make those two robots get married instead of prince Leonce and princess Lena. Therefore, the two robots get married and then take off their masks
8.
Woyzeck
–
Woyzeck is a stage play written by Georg Büchner. He left the work incomplete at his death, but it has been finished by a variety of authors, editors and translators. Woyzeck has become one of the most performed and influential plays in the German theatre repertory, Büchner probably began writing the play between June and September 1836. It remained in a state at the time of his early death in 1837. Woyzeck was first published in 1879 in a reworked version by Karl Emil Franzos. It was not performed until November 8,1913 at the Residenztheater, Munich, Woyzeck deals with the dehumanising effects of doctors and the military on a young mans life. It is often seen as working class tragedy, though it can also be viewed as having another dimension, the play was admired both by the German naturalist Gerhart Hauptmann and, subsequently, by expressionist playwrights. It is loosely based on the story of Johann Christian Woyzeck. In 1821, Woyzeck, in a fit of jealousy, murdered Christiane Woost, not only did he have to cope with Büchners microscopically small handwriting, but the pages had faded so badly that they had to be chemically treated to make the text decipherable at all. Franz Woyzeck, a soldier stationed in a provincial German town, is living with Marie. Woyzeck earns extra money for his family by performing menial jobs for the Captain, at one of these experiments, the Doctor tells Woyzeck that he must eat nothing but peas. It is obvious that Woyzecks mental health is breaking down and he begins to experience a series of apocalyptic visions. Meanwhile, Marie grows tired of Woyzeck and turns her attentions to a drum major who, in an ambiguous scene taking place in Maries bedroom. With his jealous suspicions growing, Woyzeck confronts the drum major, finally, Woyzeck stabs Marie to death by a pond. While a third act trial is claimed by some, notably A. H. J. Woyzeck is a comment on social conditions as well as an exploration of themes such as poverty. Woyzeck is considered as morally lacking by other characters of higher status, such as the Captain, the Captain links wealth and status with morality suggesting Woyzeck cannot have morals as he is poor. It is the exploitation of the character Woyzeck by the Doctor, the many adaptations of Woyzeck include, an opera by Alban Berg, completed 1922, premiered in Berlin in December 1925. An opera by Manfred Gurlitt, premiered in Bremen in April 1926, a 1966 TV movie directed by Rudolf Noelte
9.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
10.
Friedrich Schiller
–
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright. During the last seventeen years of his life, Schiller struck up a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and they frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works he left as sketches. This relationship and these led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents to their philosophical vision. Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg as the son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller. Schiller grew up in a religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible. His father was away in the Seven Years War when Friedrich was born and he was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while and his wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schillers father became an officer and was stationed in Schwäbisch Gmünd. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to nearby Lorch, although the family was happy in Lorch, Schillers father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him, in Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister, because his parents wanted Schiller to become a pastor, they had the pastor of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Pastor Moser was a teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die Räuber after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes, in 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württembergs principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schillers father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so, so Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the Schiller boy came to the attention of Karl Eugen and he entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart, in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates, the plays critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience
11.
Darmstadt
–
Darmstadt is a city in the state of Hesse in Germany, located in the southern part of the Rhine-Main-Area. Darmstadt has a population around 150,000, the Darmstadt Larger Urban Zone has 430,993 inhabitants. Darmstadt holds the official title City of Science as it is a centre of scientific institutions, universities. The existence of the elements were also confirmed at GSI Centre for Heavy Ion Research, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium. Darmstadt is also the seat of the worlds oldest pharmaceutical company, Merck, Darmstadt was formerly the capital of a sovereign country, the Grand Duchy of Hesse and its successor, the Peoples State of Hesse, a federal state of Germany. As the capital of an increasingly prosperous duchy, the city gained some international prominence, in the 20th century, industry, as well as large science and electronics sectors became increasingly important, and are still a major part of the citys economy. It is also home to the football club SV Darmstadt 98, Darmstadt, Indiana was named after Darmstadt and for the former Royal Family. The name Darmstadt first appears towards the end of the 11th century, the origins of the name are unknown. Dar-mund in Middle Low German is translated as Boggy Headlands, even locals often believe, incorrectly, that the name derives from the Darmbach. In fact, the received its current name much later, after the city. Darmstadt was chartered as a city by the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330, the city, then called Darmstait, became a secondary residence for the counts, with a small castle established at the site of the current, much larger edifice. When the house of Katzenelnbogen became extinct in 1479, the city was passed to the Landgraviate of Hesse, the city grew in population during the 19th century from little over 10,000 to 72,000 inhabitants. A polytechnical school, which became a Technical University now known as TU Darmstadt, was established in 1877. In the beginning of the 20th century, Darmstadt was an important centre for the art movement of Jugendstil, annual architectural competitions led to the building of many architectural treasures of this period. Also during this period, in 1912 the chemist Anton Kollisch, working for the pharmaceutical company Merck, Darmstadts municipal area was extended in 1937 to include the neighbouring localities of Arheilgen and Eberstadt, and in 1938 the city was separated administratively from the surrounding district. Darmstadt was the first city in Germany to force Jewish shops to close in early 1933, the shops were only closed for one day, for endangering communal order and tranquility. In 1942, over 3,000 Jews from Darmstadt were first forced into a camp located in the Liebigschule. Darmstadt was first bombed on 30 July 1940, and 34 other air raids would follow before the wars end, the old city centre was largely destroyed in a British bombing raid on 11 September 1944
12.
Gymnasium (school)
–
In its current meaning, it usually refers to secondary schools focused on preparing students to enter a university for advanced academic study. In the US, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of universities such as the University of Michigan as a model for their undergraduate college programs. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men, in the Polish educational system the gimnazjum is a middle school for pupils aged 13 to 16. The same applies in the Greek educational system, with the option of Εσπερινό Γυμνάσιο for adults. The gymnasium is a school which prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out at about the age of 10–13, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some gymnasiums provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro indicates that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. The term was derived from the classical Greek word gymnasion, which was applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with. This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, in 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered that all schools which had the right to send their students to the university should bear the name of gymnasia, by the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires. In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of three empires. In Albania a gymnasium education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with an aptitude test called Matura Shtetërore. The final test is standardized at the level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. There are both public and private schools in these countries. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, in Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin, the Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages
13.
Humanism
–
The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
14.
William Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
15.
Giessen
–
Giessen, spelled Gießen in German, is a town in the German federal state of Hesse, capital of both the district of Giessen and the administrative region of Giessen. The population is approximately 78,000, with roughly 24,000 university students, the name comes from Giezzen, as it was first referred to in 1197, which refers to the position of the town between several rivers, lakes and streams. The largest river in Giessen is the Lahn, which divides the town in two parts, roughly 50 kilometres north of Frankfurt am Main, in 1969, the town hosted the ninth Hessentag state festival. Giessen came into being as a castle in 1152 built by Count Wilhelm von Gleiberg, although the history of the community in the northeast. The town became part of Hesse-Marburg in 1567, passing to Hesse-Darmstadt in 1604, the University of Giessen was founded in 1607. Giessen was included within the Grand Duchy of Hesse created in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, after World War I, it was part of the Peoples State of Hesse. During World War II, a subcamp of the Buchenwald concentration camp was located in the Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Licher Straße, heavy bombing destroyed about 75% of Gießen in 1944, including most of the towns historic buildings. It became part of the state of Hesse after the war. In 1977, Giessen was merged with the neighbouring city Wetzlar to form the new city of Lahn, however, this attempt to reorganize the administration was reversed in 1979. It was bounded to Darmstadt between 1945 and 1981 until Giessen was founded on 1 January 1981, an American military base was located in Giessen after World War II. The U. S. Army Garrison of Gießen had a population of 500 Americans, the base is a converted German Army Air Field which is reflected in some of the buildings including the housing area. A theatre, known as the Keller Theatre, is a converted German army Officers Club, as of September 28,2007, the Giessen Depot and all other communities in the greater Giessen area were turned back over to the local German authorities. After the war, the city was twinned with Winchester, UK, Giessen is twinned with, Akademischer Forstgarten Gießen, botanical gardens Botanischer Garten Gießen, established in 1609, is the oldest botanical garden in Germany still at its original location. Old Cemetery, is the place of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. Liebig-Museum was established in 1920 to honor the chemist Justus von Liebig, mathematikum was established in 2002, offering a huge variety of mathematical hands-on exhibits. University of Giessen Rubber Island is an area near the Lahn River. Giessen is home to the basketball club Giessen 46ers, five time champion of the Basketball Bundesliga and its home games take place at the Sporthalle Gießen-Ost. Also, Giessen has a football team called Giessen Golden Dragons
16.
Strasbourg
–
Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
17.
French literature
–
This article is a general introduction to French literature. For detailed information on French literature in specific periods, see the separate historical articles in the template to the right. Literature written in French language, by citizens of nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, Morocco. As of 2006, French writers have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, France itself ranks first in the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country. French literature has been for French people an object of pride for centuries. The French language is a dialect derived from Latin and heavily influenced principally by Celtic. Today, French schools emphasize the study of novels, theater, the literary arts are heavily sponsored by the state and literary prizes are major news. The Académie française and the Institut de France are important linguistic and artistic institutions in France, Literature matters deeply to the people of France and plays an important role in their sense of identity. As of 2006, French literary people have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, a writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form. For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. M. G, le Clézio 2014 – Patrick Modiano Grand Prix de Littérature Policière – created in 1948, for crime and detective fiction. Grand Prix du roman de lAcadémie française – created 1918, Prix Décembre – created in 1989. Prix Femina – created 1904, decided each year by an exclusively female jury, Prix Goncourt – created 1903, given to the author of the best and most imaginative prose work of the year. Prix Goncourt des Lycéens – created in 1987, Prix Littéraire Valery Larbaud – created in 1957. Prix Médicis – created 1958, awarded to an author whose fame does not yet match their talent, Prix Renaudot – created in 1926. Prix Tour-Apollo Award – 1972–1990, given to the best science fiction published in French during the preceding year. Prix des Deux Magots – created in 1933, a short history of French literature Burgwinkle, William, Nicholas Hammond, and Emma Wilson, eds. The Cambridge history of French literature Cobb, Richard, Promenades, an appreciation of modern French literature Harvey, Paul. The Oxford companion to French literature Denis Hollier, ed, a New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press,1989,1150 pp. France, Peter
18.
Utopian socialism
–
Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Later socialists and critics of utopian socialism viewed utopian socialism as not being grounded in actual material conditions of existing society and these visions of ideal societies competed with Marxist-inspired revolutionary social democratic movements. A similar school of thought emerged in the early 20th century is ethical socialism. Utopians believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly, the thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. This distinction was made clear in Engels work Socialism, Utopian, Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie, in the history of Marxs thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and they want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they appeal to society at large, without distinction of class, nay, by preference. For how can people, when once they understand their system, Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development, at one time, almost half of the worlds population was governed by self-proclaimed Marxists. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism. Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More, who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book Utopia, the contemporary definition of the English word utopia derives from this work. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia was influenced by life in monasteries, saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. His ideas influenced Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Robert Owen was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. He wrote about his ideas in his book A New View of Society, which was published in 1813 and he also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off all the profits. Charles Fourier was by far the most utopian of socialists, rejecting the industrial revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it, he made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly - if indirectly - to the socialist movement and his writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation
19.
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon
–
Saint-Simon unlike Marx did not regard the prevalent form of ownership as being paramount issue in the economy but rather the form of management. Furthermore, Saint-Simon held no opposition to capitalists as a whole unlike Marx, later Saint-Simons views influenced sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen, including Veblens creation of institutional economics that has included prominent economists as adherents. Historian Alan Ryan states that by the 1950s it was clear that Saint-Simon had invented the modern understanding of industrial society, Saint-Simon and his secretary Auguste Comte developed what Comte would complete as sociology. Henri de Saint-Simon was born in Paris as a French aristocrat and his grandfathers cousin had been the Duke de Saint-Simon. When he was a man, being of a restless disposition. he went to America where he entered into American service. From his youth, Saint-Simon was highly ambitious and he ordered his valet to wake him every morning with, Remember, monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do. Among his early schemes was one to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans by a canal, at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, Saint-Simon quickly endorsed the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. In the early years of the revolution, Saint-Simon devoted himself to organizing an industrial structure in order to found a scientific school of improvement. He needed to raise funds to achieve his objectives, which he did by land speculation. During The Terror period, Saint-Simon was imprisoned on suspicion of engaging in counter-revolution activities and he was released in 1794 at the end of the Reign of Terror. After he recovered his freedom, Saint-Simon found himself immensely rich due to currency depreciation, thenceforth he decided to devote himself to political studies and research. When he was nearly 40 he went through a course of study and experiment to enlarge. One of these experiments was a marriage in 1801 to Alexandrine-Sophie Goury de Champgrand. After a years duration the marriage was dissolved by mutual consent, the result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the remainder of his life. The first of his numerous writings, mostly scientific and political, was Lettres dun habitant de Genève, in 1817 he began in a treatise entitled LIndustrie to propound his socialist views, which he further developed in LOrganisateur, a periodical on which Augustin Thierry and Auguste Comte collaborated. The first publication caused a sensation, though one that brought few converts, a couple of years later in his writing career, Saint-Simon found himself ruined, and was forced to work for a living. Diard died in 1810 and Saint-Simon found himself again. He was sent to a sanatorium in 1813, but with help from relatives he had time to recover his health
20.
Victor Hugo
–
Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers, outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables,1862, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,1831. In France, Hugo is known primarily for his collections, such as Les Contemplations. He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris and his legacy has been honoured in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency. Victor Hugo was the son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo and Sophie Trébuchet, his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo. He was born in 1802 in Besançon in the region of Franche-Comté. Hugos childhood was a period of political turmoil. Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French two years after Hugos birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his 13th birthday, since Hugos father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean. Though he was five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris, at the beginning of her marriage, Hugos mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy and Spain. Thereafter she dominated Hugos education and upbringing, as a result, Hugos early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the leading up to Frances 1848 Revolution. Young Victor fell in love and, against his mothers wishes, because of his close relationship with his mother, Hugo waited until after her death to marry Adèle in 1822. Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, on 28 August 1824, the couples second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 24 August 1830. Hugos eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died aged 19 in 1843, on 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts when a boat overturned. Her young husband also died trying to save her, the death left her father devastated, Hugo was travelling with his mistress at the time in the south of France, and first learned about Léopoldines death from a newspaper he read in a café
21.
University of Zurich
–
The University of Zurich, located in the city of Zürich, is the largest university in Switzerland, with over 26,000 students. It was founded in 1833 from the colleges of theology, law, medicine. Currently, the university has seven faculties, Philosophy, Human Medicine, Economic Sciences, Law, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Theology, the university offers the widest range of subjects and courses of any Swiss higher education institution. It was the first university in Europe to be founded by the rather than a monarch or church. Eventually, the authorities offered Strauss a pension before he had a chance to start his duties, the university allowed women to attend philosophy lectures from 1847, and admitted the first female doctoral student in 1866. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was added in 1901, the second-oldest such faculty in the world, in 1914, the university moved to new premises designed by the architect Karl Moser on Rämistrasse 71. The university is scattered all over the city of Zurich, members of the university can use several libraries, including the ETH-library, and the Zurich Central Library, with over 5 million volumes. In 1962, the faculty of science proposed to establish the Irchelpark campus on the Strickhofareal, the first stage the construction of the university buildings was begun in 1973, and the campus was inaugurated in 1979. The construction of the stage lasted from 1978 to 1983. The campus also houses the anthropological museum Anthropologisches Museum, and the cantonal Staatsarchiv Zürich, the Institute and Museum for the History of Medicine is part of the university. The University of Zurich as a whole also ranks in the top ten of Europe, notably in the fields of bioscience and finance, there is a close-knit collaboration between the University of Zurich and the ETH. Their faculty of medicine is six years. Shanghai Jiao Tong University Ranking 54th globally and 15th in Europe, THES – QS World University Rankings 61st globally and 14th in Europe. QS World University Rankings 2014 57th globally, professional Ranking of World Universities 32nd globally and 10th in Europe. University Ranking by Academic Performance 2010 52nd globally and 1st in Switzerland, according to Handelsblatt, the Department of Economics was ranked first in the German-speaking area and in 2009 the faculty of Business Administration was ranked third in the German-speaking area. Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss Standard German, but use of English is increasing in many faculties, the only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English Language and Literature program. All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English, in some highly competitive and international programs, such as the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance, all lectures are held in English. Associated with the university are 12 Nobel Prize recipients, primarily in Physics, corpus Córporum, digital library created and maintained by the University’s Institute for Greek and Latin Philology
22.
Oberstrass
–
Oberstrass is a quarter in the district 6 in Zurich. It was formerly a municipality of its own, having incorporated into Zurich in 1893. Built in 1901 as Rigiblick restaurant, the former Gastsaal was re-opened as Theater Rigiblick in 1984, the quarter has a population of 9,494 distributed on an area of 2.64 km². Media related to Oberstrass at Wikimedia Commons
23.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
24.
Karl Gutzkow
–
Karl Ferdinand Gutzkow was a German writer notable in the Young Germany movement of the mid-19th century. Gutzkow was born of a poor family, not proletarian. His father held a clerkship in the war office in Berlin, jacob Wittmer Hartmann speculates that Gutzkows later agnosticism was probably a reaction against the excessive religiosity of his early surroundings. After completing his studies, beginning in 1829 Gutzkow studied theology and philosophy at the University of Berlin. While still a student, he began his career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled Forum der Journalliteratur. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship of the Literaturblatt, at the same time he continued his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1835 he went to Frankfurt, where he founded the Deutsche Revue, while Gutzkow started out as a collaborator of Wolfgang Menzel, he ended up his adversary. Also in 1835, his novel Wally die Zweiflerin appeared, the work was directed specially against the institution of marriage and the belief in revelation. The book incorporates many ideas that Gutzkow had recently absorbed from French writers, notably Henri de Saint-Simon and this is usually taken as the starting point of the school known as Young Germany, literary reformers heralding the democratic upheaval of 1848. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim, Gutzkow wrote his treatise Zur Philosophie der Geschichte, on obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfurt, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch of his activity by bringing out his tragedy Richard Savage. Of his numerous other plays, the majority by c, in 1847, Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Meanwhile, he had not neglected the novel, seraphine was followed by Blasedow und seine Söhne, a satire on the educational theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared Die Ritter vom Geiste, which may be regarded as the point for the modern German social novel. Der Zauberer von Rom is a study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany. In 1864 he had a fit, and his theatrical powers began to diminish. Gutzkow was never a revolutionary, and he became more conservative with age and he was one of the first Germans who tried to make a living by writing. Works by Karl Gutzkow at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Karl Gutzkow at Internet Archive Works by Karl Gutzkow at LibriVox
25.
Sturm und Drang
–
The period is named for Friedrich Maximilian Klingers play Sturm und Drang, which was first performed by Abel Seylers famed theatrical company in 1777. The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is considered to be the ideologue of Sturm und Drang, with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, H. L. Wagner and Friedrich Maximilian Klinger also significant figures. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was also a proponent of the movement, though he. French neoclassicism, a movement beginning in the early Baroque, with its emphasis on the rational, was the target of rebellion for adherents of the Sturm und Drang movement. The term Sturm und Drang first appeared as the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, written for Abel Seylers Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft and this seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-late Classical period. Sturm und Drang came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion, there is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon of Sturm und Drang. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits. The literary topos of the Kraftmensch existed as a precursor to Sturm und Drang among dramatists beginning with F. M, Klinger, the expression of which is seen in the radical degree to which individuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered by rationalism. The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volume Von deutscher Art und Kunst, einige fliegende Blätter, a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi, and Justus Möser. The protagonist in a typical Sturm und Drang stage work, poem, or novel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, goethes unfinished Prometheus exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposing humanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality. The literature of Sturm und Drang features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, Friedrich Schillers drama, Die Räuber, provided the groundwork for melodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate an investigation of good. Both of these works are examples of Sturm und Drang in German literature. The principal themes tend to be angular, with large leaps, tempos and dynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsing rhythms and syncopation are common, as are racing lines in the soprano or alto registers, writing for string instruments features tremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents. Musical theater became the place of the literary and musical strands of Sturm und Drang. The obligato recitative is a prime example, here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solo recitative
26.
Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz
–
Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz was a Baltic German writer of the Sturm und Drang movement. Lenz was born in Sesswegen, Governorate of Livonia, Russian Empire, now Latvia, when Lenz was nine, in 1760, the family moved to Dorpat, now Tartu, where his father had been offered a ministers post. His first published poem appeared when he was 15, from 1768 to 1770 he studied theology on a scholarship, first at Dorpat and then at Königsberg. While there, he attended lectures by Immanuel Kant, who encouraged him to read Jean-Jacques Rousseau and he began increasingly to follow his literary interests and to neglect theology. His first independent publication, the long poem Die Landplagen appeared in 1769 and he also studied music, most likely with either the Ukrainian virtuoso lutanist Timofey Belogradsky, then resident in Königsberg, or his student Johann Friedrich Reichardt. In 1771 Lenz abandoned his studies in Königsberg, once there, he came into contact with the actuary Johann Daniel Salzmann, around whom had formed the literary group of the Société de philosophie et de belles lettres. This was frequented also by the young Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who at this time happened to be in Strasbourg, Goethe now became Lenzs literary idol, and through him he made contact with Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Kaspar Lavater, with whom he corresponded. In the following year,1772, Lenz accompanied his masters to the garrisons of Landau, Fort Louis and he also fell in love with Friederike Brion, once the beloved of Goethe, but his feelings were not reciprocated. In 1773 Lenz returned to Strasbourg and resumed his studies, the following year he gave up his position with the von Kleist brothers and lived as a freelance writer, earning his living by private tutoring. His relations with Goethe became friendlier, while the two of them were visiting Emmendingen, Goethe introduced Lenz to his sister Cornelia and her husband Johann Georg Schlosser, in April 1776 Lenz followed Goethe to the court of Weimar, where he was at first amicably received. But in early December, on Goethes instigation, he was expelled, the exact circumstances are not recorded, Goethe, who broke off all personal contact with him after this, refers only vaguely in his diary to Lenzs asininity. Lenz then returned to Emmendingen, where the Schlossers took him in, from there he made a number of journeys into Alsace and Switzerland, including one to Lavater in Zürich in May 1777. The news of Cornelia Schlossers death, which reached him there in June of that year, had an effect on him. He returned to Emmendingen, and then went back to Lavater, in November, while staying in Winterthur with Christoph Kaufmann, he suffered an attack of paranoid schizophrenia. In January 1778 Kaufmann sent Lenz to the philanthropist, social reformer and clergyman Johann Friedrich Oberlin in Waldersbach in Alsace, despite the care of Oberlin and his wife, Lenzs mental condition grew worse. He returned to Schlosser at Emmendingen, where he was lodged with a shoemaker, Lenz was unable to establish himself professionally in Riga. An attempt to make him director of the school came to nothing. Nor did he have any success in St. Petersburg
27.
Karl Emil Franzos
–
Karl Emil Franzos was a popular Austrian novelist of the late 19th century. His works, both reportage and fiction, concentrate on the corner of Galicia, Podolia and Bukovina, now largely in Ukraine. This area became so associated with his name that one critic called it Franzos country. A number of his books were translated into English, and Gladstone is said to have been among his admirers, Karl Emil Franzos was born near the town of Czortkow in the eastern, Podolian region of the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia. His family came from Sephardi Spanish Jews who fled the Inquisition to Holland, in the 1770s his great-grandfather established a factory for one of his sons in East Galicia, part of the Habsburg Monarchy since the First Partition of Poland in 1772. When the Austrian administration required Jews to adopt surnames, Franzos became his grandfathers name, from his French background, Franzoss father Heinrich was a highly respected doctor in Czortkow. His German identity at the time had mainly linguistic and cultural meaning, there being no state called Germany and he was steeped in the humanistic ideals of the German Enlightenment as expressed by Kant, Lessing and, especially, Schiller. This brought a certain isolation, for local Poles and Ukrainians he was German, for Germans a Jew and for Jews a renegade and it is ironic that by the time Franzos, who shared his fathers ideals, went to university, the German student fraternities had dejudaised themselves. His father died when he was ten and his moved to the Bukovina capital Czernowitz. The citys multiculturalism, representative of the Habsburg Empire, strongly influenced his youth, in Czernowitz he attended the German gymnasium, passing the Matura exam with honours in 1867. By now the family was in reduced circumstances and he supported himself by giving lessons, later, as a student and he would have liked to study classical philology with the aim of becoming a teacher, but no scholarship was forthcoming. Jews were not eligible for teaching posts, and even though he was non-religious and he studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, that being a shorter course. When he graduated, he himself in a similar situation, he did not want to become an advocate. In 1877 he married Ottilie Benedikt, a relative of editor Moriz Benedikt, from 1886 he lived in Berlin, capital of the German Empire. Franzos had acclaimed the 1871 German unification under Prussian leadership and advocated a Greater Germany including the Austrian territories, however, the move to the German capital was caused as much by the greater opportunities for publishing there as by his Germanic tendencies. More and more under Jew-hatred attacks, Franzos suffering from heart trouble died at the age of 55 in Berlin, Franzos showed the attitudes of the 19th-century assimilated Jew in their best light. His conviction that Germanisation was the way forward was based on the strain in German culture. Jews made up some 12% of the population, the largest proportion of any province, besides being mostly poor, the shtetl Jews were strict, conservative Hasidim, shutting themselves off as far as possible from their Christian neighbours, who responded in kind
28.
Naturalism (theatre)
–
Naturalism is a movement in European drama and theatre that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It refers to theatre that attempts to create an illusion of reality through a range of dramatic, zola’s term for naturalism is la nouvelle formule. The three primary principles of naturalism are first, that the play should be realistic, and the result of a study of human behavior. The characters should be flesh and blood, their motivations and actions should be grounded in their heredity, the presentation of a naturalistic play, in terms of the setting and performances, should be realistic and not flamboyant or theatrical. The single setting of Miss Julie, for example, is a kitchen, second, the conflicts in the play should be issues of meaningful, life-altering significance — not small or petty. And third, the play should be simple — not cluttered with complicated sub-plots or lengthy expositions, darwinian understandings pervade naturalistic plays, especially in the determining role of the environment on character, and as motivation for behavior. Naturalism was first advocated explicitly by Émile Zola in his 1880 essay entitled Naturalism on the Stage, Naturalistic writers were influenced by the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin. They believed that ones heredity and social environment determine ones character, whereas realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism also attempts to determine scientifically the underlying forces influencing the actions of its subjects. Naturalistic works are opposed to romanticism, in subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic. They often include uncouth or sordid subject matter, for example, Émile Zolas works had a frankness about sexuality along with a pervasive pessimism, Naturalistic works exposed the dark harshness of life, including poverty, racism, sex, prejudice, disease, prostitution, and filth. As a result, Naturalistic writers were frequently criticized for being too blunt
29.
Expressionism
–
Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism, An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself. Immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures, in 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, a few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinskys Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903, among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913, though mainly a German artistic movement initially and most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement were not German. Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it overlapped with other major isms of the modernist period, with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, more explicitly, that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. The term refers to a style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions. It is arguable that all artists are expressive but there are examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon, according to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that Expressionism doesnt shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific fuck yous, Baroque doesnt, brazil, Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar Segall. Estonia, Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt Finland, Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä, there were a number of groups of expressionist painters, including Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally in Dresden, Die Brücke was active for a longer period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year. The Expressionists had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and they were also aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionisms tendency toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions
30.
Arnold Zweig
–
Arnold Zweig was a German writer and anti-war and antifascist activist. He is best known for his cycle on World War I. Zweig was born in Glogau, Prussian Silesia. After attending a gymnasium in Kattowitz, he made studies in history, philosophy and literature at several universities – Breslau, Munich, Berlin, Göttingen, Rostock. He was especially influenced by Friedrich Nietzsches philosophy and his first literary works, Novellen um Claudia and Ritualmord in Ungarn, gained him wider recognition. Zweig volunteered for the German army in World War I and saw action as a private in France, Hungary and he was stationed in the Western Front at the time when Judenzählung was administered in the German army. Shaken by the experience, he wrote in his letter dated February 15,1917 to Martin Buber, The Judenzählung was a reflection of unheard sadness for Germanys sin, if there was no antisemitism in the army, the unbearable call to duty would be almost easy. He began to revise his views on the war and to realize that it pitted Jews against Jews, later he described his experiences in the short story Judenzählung vor Verdun. The war changed Zweig from a Prussian patriot to an eager pacifist, by the end of the war he was assigned to the Press department of the German Army Headquarters in Kaunas and there he was first introduced to the East European Jewish organizations. This was a blatant effort to at least gain sympathy among German-speaking Jews for the plight of their eastern European brethren, with the help of many simple sketches of faces, Zweig supplied interpretations and meaning behind them. After World War I he was an active socialistic Zionist in Germany, after Hitlers attempted coup in 1923 Zweig went to Berlin and worked as an editor of a newspaper, the Jüdische Rundschau. In the 1920s, Zweig became attracted to the theories of Sigmund Freud. In March 1927 Zweig wrote to Freud asking permission to dedicate his new book to Freud, Freud returned this ardent letter with a warm letter of his own, and the Freud-Zweig correspondence continued for a dozen years – momentous years in Germanys history. This correspondence is extensive and interesting enough to have published in book form. In 1927 Zweig published the anti-war novel The Case of Sergeant Grischa, from 1929 he was a contributing journalist of anti-Nazi newspaper Die Weltbühne. That year, Zweig would attend one of Hitlers speeches and he told his wife that the man was a Charlie Chaplin without the talent. Zweig would later witness the burning of his books by the Nazis and he remarked that the crowd would have stared as happily into the flames if live humans were burning. He decided to leave Germany that night, when the Nazis took power in Germany in 1933, Zweig was one of many Jews who immediately went into voluntary exile. Zweig went first to Czechoslovakia, then Switzerland and France, after spending some time with Thomas Mann, Lion Feuchtwanger, Anna Seghers and Bertolt Brecht in France, he set out for Palestine, then under British rule
31.
Alban Berg
–
Alban Maria Johannes Berg was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with twelve-tone technique, Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900 and he was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. In late February or early March 1902 he fathered a child with Marie Scheuchl and his daughter, Albine, was born on December 4,1902. Berg had little formal education before he became a student of Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. With Schoenberg he studied counterpoint, music theory, and harmony, by 1906, he was studying music full-time, by 1907, he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas and he also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs, three of which were Bergs first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenbergs pupils in Vienna that year. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Bergs Piano Sonata, Op.1, Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Berg admired him as a composer and mentor, and they remained lifelong friends. Among Schoenbergs teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a basic idea. The Piano Sonata is a whole composition is derived from the works opening quartal gesture. Berg was a part of Viennas cultural elite during the fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. In 1906, Berg met the singer Helene Nahowski, daughter of a family, despite the outward hostility of her family. In 1913, two of Bergs Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg were premièred in Vienna, settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted, the full score remained unpublished until 1966. From 1915 to 1918, Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army and during a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, after the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to several works
32.
Atonality
–
Atonality in its broadest sense is music that lacks a tonal center, or key. The repertory of atonal music is characterized by the occurrence of pitches in novel combinations, erialism arose partly as a means of organizing more coherently the relations used in the preserial free atonal music. Thus many useful and crucial insights about even strictly serial music depend only on such basic atonal theory, the term atonality was coined in 1907 by Joseph Marx in a scholarly study of tonality, which was later expanded into his doctoral thesis. Their music arose from what was described as the crisis of tonality between the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in classical music. The connections between harmonies were uncertain even on the lowest—chord-to-chord—level, on higher levels, long-range harmonic relationships and implications became so tenuous that they hardly functioned at all. At best, the probabilities of the style system had become obscure, at worst. The first phase, known as free atonality or free chromaticism, Works of this period include the opera Wozzeck by Alban Berg and Pierrot Lunaire by Schoenberg. This period included Bergs Lulu and Lyric Suite, Schoenbergs Piano Concerto, his oratorio Die Jakobsleiter and numerous smaller pieces, however, actual analysis of Weberns twelve-tone works has so far failed to demonstrate the truth of this assertion. One analyst concluded, following an examination of the Piano Variations. 27, that while the texture of this music may superficially resemble that of serial music. None of the patterns within separate nonpitch characteristics makes audible sense in itself, the point is that these characteristics are still playing their traditional role of differentiation. Twelve-tone technique, combined with the parametrization of Olivier Messiaen, would be taken as the inspiration for serialism, Atonality emerged as a pejorative term to condemn music in which chords were organized seemingly with no apparent coherence. In Nazi Germany, atonal music was attacked as Bolshevik and labeled as degenerate along with music produced by enemies of the Nazi regime. Many composers had their works banned by the regime, not to be played until after its collapse after World War II, after Schoenbergs death, Igor Stravinsky used the twelve-tone technique. The twelve-tone technique was preceded by Schoenbergs freely atonal pieces of 1908–1923, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Additionally George Perle explains that, the free atonality that preceded dodecaphony precludes by definition the possibility of self-consistent, in other words, reverse the rules of the common practice period so that what was not allowed is required and what was required is not allowed. This is what was done by Charles Seeger in his explanation of dissonant counterpoint, kostka and Payne list four procedures as operational in the atonal music of Schoenberg, all of which may be taken as negative rules. Equal-interval chords are often of indeterminate root, mixed-interval chords are often best characterized by their interval content, Perle also points out that structural coherence is most often achieved through operations on intervallic cells
33.
Wozzeck
–
Wozzeck is the first opera by the Austrian composer Alban Berg. It was composed between 1914 and 1922 and first performed in 1925, the opera is based on the drama Woyzeck, which was left incomplete by the German playwright Georg Büchner at his death. Berg attended the first production in Vienna of Büchners play on 5 May 1914, from the fragments of unordered scenes left by Büchner, Berg selected fifteen to form a compact structure of three acts with five scenes each. He adapted the libretto himself, retaining the character of the play, with its many short scenes, its abrupt and sometimes brutal language. The plot depicts the life of soldiers and the townspeople of a rural German-speaking town. Prominent themes of militarism, callousness, social exploitation, and a casual sadism are brutally and uncompromisingly presented, toward the end of act 1, scene 2, the title character murmurs, Still, all is still, as if the world died. With his fellow soldier Andres uttering, Night, seemingly oblivious to Wozzecks previous words. The dialogue is concluded and a funeral march begins, only to transform into the song of the military marching band in the next scene. Musicologist Glenn Watkins considers this, as vivid a projection of impending doom as any to come out of the Great War. Bergs experience of the war had a impact on the compositional direction of Wozzeck. His correspondence and notebooks dating from the war years reveal a painful obsession with completing Wozzeck, in a draft page of the act 1, scene 2 libretto, Berg included notations in the dialogue that refer to Austrian army bugle calls. These military signals were later inserted into the score in a modified slightly atonal form, the scene of snoring soldiers in the barracks during act 2, scene 5 was influenced by Bergs similar such experience. This polyphonic breathing, gasping, and groaning is the most peculiar chorus Ive ever heard and it is like some primeval music that wells up from the abysses of the soul. In 1916, however, he devoted himself to attaining the rank of Einjährig-Freiwillige Korporal, during this period, as Berg wrote to his wife, For months I havent done any work on Wozzeck. Finishing act 1 by the summer of 1919, act 2 in August 1921, for the climactic section, Berg used one of his old student pieces in D minor. A typical performance of the work takes slightly over an hour, erich Kleiber, who programmed on his own initiative, conducted the world premiere at the Berlin State Opera on 14 December 1925. He spent a deal of his time through the 1920s and 30s travelling to attend performances. The American premiere of the opera was given by the Philadelphia Grand Opera Company on 19 March 1931 at the Philadelphia Metropolitan Opera House with Leopold Stokowski conducting
34.
Werner Herzog
–
Werner Herzog is a German screenwriter, film director, author, actor, and opera director. Herzog is considered one of the greatest figures of the New German Cinema, along with Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Margarethe von Trotta, Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Schröter, and Wim Wenders. Herzogs films often feature heroes with impossible dreams, people with unique talents in obscure fields, French filmmaker François Truffaut once called Herzog the most important film director alive. American film critic Roger Ebert said that Herzog has never created a film that is compromised, shameful, made for pragmatic reasons. He was named one of the 100 most influential people on the planet by Time magazine in 2009, Herzog was born Werner Stipetić in Munich, to Elizabeth Stipetić, an Austrian of Croatian descent, and Dietrich Herzog, who was German. When Werner was two old, his mother took refuge in the remote Bavarian village of Sachrang, after the house next to theirs was destroyed during a bombing raid in World War II. In Sachrang, Herzog grew up without running water, a flushing toilet and he never saw films, and did not even know of the existence of cinema until a traveling projectionist came by the one-room schoolhouse in Sachrang. When Herzog was 12, he and his moved back to Munich. His father had abandoned the early in his youth. Werner later adopted his fathers surname Herzog, which he thought sounded more impressive for a filmmaker, the same year, Herzog was told to sing in front of his class at school, and he adamantly refused, and was almost expelled. Until he was age eighteen, Herzog listened to no music, sang no songs and he later said that he would easily give ten years from his life to be able to play the cello. At an early age, he experienced a phase in which he converted to Catholicism. He started to embark on long journeys, some of them on foot, in the commentary for Aguirre, the Wrath of God, he says, I dont consider it theft. I had some sort of right for a camera, a tool to work with. He won a scholarship to Duquesne University and lasted only a few days, after graduating from high school, he was intrigued by the Congo after its independence, but only reached the south of the Sudan where he fell seriously ill. While already making films, he had a stint at Munich University. He earned money by participating in preproduction of a documentary for NASA with KQED, summoned to the immigration office because of a violation of his visa status, he chose to flee to Mexico. Before leaving school, he bought a house in the UK, there he learned to speak English
35.
Woyzeck (1979 film)
–
Woyzeck is a 1979 German drama film written, produced and directed by Werner Herzog and starring Klaus Kinski and Eva Mattes. It is an adaptation of the unfinished play Woyzeck by German dramatist Georg Büchner, franz Woyzeck, a lowly soldier stationed in a mid-nineteenth century provincial German town, is the father of an illegitimate child by his mistress Marie. Woyzeck earns extra money for his family by performing menial jobs for the Captain, as one of these experiments, the Doctor tells Woyzeck he must eat nothing but peas. It is obvious that Woyzecks mental health is breaking down and he begins to experience a series of apocalyptic visions. Meanwhile, Marie grows tired of Woyzeck and turns her attentions to a drum major. After some time, and with his jealous suspicions growing, Woyzeck confronts the drum major, finally and at the verge of mental breakdown, Woyzeck stabs Marie to death by a pond. Woyzeck disposes of the knife in the pond, and while trying to wash the blood off, he hallucinates that he is swimming in blood and apparently drowns himself and dies. While recovering the corpses, the townspeople relish on the fact that a murder has taken place. As critics disagree upon the order Büchner intended the surviving fragments of his work to be played and he kept to the overall plot, but of necessity, his was an interpretation of how best the scenes should be pieced together to portray it. Herzog used the same exhausted crew and star, the scenes were accomplished mostly in a single take, which allowed the filming to be completed in only 18 days, it was edited in just four. Herzog had planned to use Bruno S. in the title role, to compensate Bruno for this disappointment, Herzog wrote the leading role in the film Stroszek especially for him. At the 1979 Cannes Film Festival, Eva Mattes won the award for Best Supporting Actress for her part in this film, Herzog was nominated for the Golden Palm. In 1981, the won the Silver Guild Film Award from the Guild of German Art House Cinemas. The music during the scene before the credits is Beethoven Piano Sonata Op. 81a. The opening credits music is performed by the Fidelquartett Telč. The performance seems to have created for the movie since no further reference is available. The last song of the credits is the second movement of Antonio Vivaldis concerto for lute. Woyzeck at the Internet Movie Database Woyzeck at AllMovie Woyzeck at Rotten Tomatoes
36.
Friedrich Ludwig Weidig
–
Friedrich Ludwig Weidig was a German Protestant theologian, pastor, activist, teacher and journalist. Initially working as a teacher in Butzbach, he spent a short time as a pastor in Ober-Gleen. In what is now Hesse and the Middle Rhine, he was one of the figures of the Vormärz. Weidig was born in the Oberkleen district, Langgöns, northwest of Wetterau, the son of a chief forester and his wife, her maiden name being Liebknecht. He went to Butzbach in 1803 to go to school, during his theological studies in the Ludoviciana in Gießen he was a member of the fränkischen Landsmannschaft. In 1812 he became headmaster at the school in Butzbach. In 1832 he thus travelled to south-west Germany and helped in the preparations for the Hambach Festival, in 1833 Weidig was arrested for the first time, but in 1834 he still published four illegal issues of Leuchter und Beleuchter für Hessen. The same year saw his first meeting with Georg Büchner, with whom he worked on a manuscript that Weidig then published against Büchners wishes as Hessischen Landboten, Weidig and his students also organised the printing and distribution of illegal pamphlets. On 5 April 1834 Weidig was suspended from his teaching post and demoted to a village called Ober-Gleen, now in Kirtorf. When the Hessischen Landboten project was betrayed in summer 1834, Büchner fled to Straßburg, ill and desperate, he had written letters to his wife from prison, which were retained by his questioners for state-political reasons for many years after his death. His friends noted on his gravestone that he was a freedom fighter, the Weidigschule gymnasium-school in Butzbach is named after him, as is the Weidigsporthalle in Oberkleen. Darmstadt 1987 Ernst Weber, Ein antiabsolutistisches Programm in Versen, Friedrich Ludwig Weidigs Liederbüchlein aller Teutschen. - In, Georg Büchner Jahrbuch 8, S. 126-209 Harald Braun, diss. sport. wiss. Köln, Ahrensburg 1977 Friedrich Ludwig Weidig, 1791-1837, neue Beiträge zur 200. Hrsg. vom Magistrat der Stadt Butzbach in Verbindung mit dem Butzbacher Geschichtsverein, Butzbach 1991 Bodo Heil, Weidigs Nachleben. In, Wetterauer Geschichtsblätter 35, S. 73-126 Thomas Michael Mayer, Büchner und Weidig - Frühkommunismus und revolutionäre Demokratie, in, Heinz Ludwig Arnold, Georg Büchner I/II. München,1979, S. 16-298 Thomas Michael Mayer u. a, unter Mitwirkung von Bettina Bischoff u. a. bearb. von Thomas Michael Mayer, Marburg 1985 Karl Mihm, ÄÄAlex. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des vormärzlichen Liberalismus, in, Archiv für Hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, Neue Folge 15, S. 348-384 u. 574-608 Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, Der Tod des Pfarrers Dr. Friedrich Ludwig Weidig. Ein aktenmäßiger und urkundlich belegter Beitrag zur Beurteilung des geheimen Strafprozesses und der politischen Zustände Deutschlands, literarisches Comptoir, Der Landbote, Zürich und Winterthur 1843 Arthur Wyß, Weidig, Friedrich Ludwig
37.
Pietro Aretino
–
Pietro Aretino was an Italian author, playwright, poet, satirist and blackmailer who wielded immense influence on contemporary art and politics and invented modern literate pornography. Born out of wedlock in Arezzo, very educated and then banished from his native city, Aretino spent a formative decade in Perugia, before being sent, highly recommended. There Agostino Chigi, the banker and patron of Raphael. When Hanno the elephant, pet of Pope Leo X, died in 1516, Aretino penned a pamphlet entitled The Last Will. The fictitious will cleverly mocked the leading political and religious figures of Rome at the time, the pamphlet was such a success that it started Aretinos career and established him as a famous satirist, ultimately known as the Scourge of Princes. After Leos death in 1521, his patron was Cardinal Giulio de Medici, the installation of the Dutch pope Adrian VI instead encouraged Aretino to seek new patrons away from Rome, mainly with Federico II Gonzaga in Mantua, and with the condottiero Giovanni de Medici. He was a lover of men, having declared himself a sodomite since birth, in his comedy Il marescalco, the lead man is overjoyed to discover that the woman he has been forced to marry is really a page boy in disguise. While at court in Mantua he developed a crush on a man called Bianchino. Safe in Venice, Aretino became a blackmailer, extorting money from men who had sought his guidance in vice and he kept all that was famous in Italy in a kind of state of siege, in Jakob Burckhardts estimation. Francis I of France and Charles V pensioned him at the same time, the rest of his relations with the great is mere beggary and vulgar extortion, according to Burckhardt. Addison states that he laid half Europe under contribution, —Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,1855. The first English translations of some of Aretinos racier material have been coming onto the market recently, La cortigiana is a brilliant parody of Castigliones Il Cortegiano, and features the adventures of a Sienese gentleman, Messer Maco, who travels to Rome to become a cardinal. He would also like to win himself a mistress, but when he falls in love with a girl he sees in a window, Aretino was a close friend of Titian, who painted his portrait at least three times. The early portrait is a study of alarming modernity. Clement VII made Aretino a Knight of Rhodes, and Julius III named him a Knight of St. Peter, in his strictly-for-publication letters to patrons Aretino would often add a verbal portrait to Titians painted one. The English traveller Sir John Reresby visited the obscene profane poet Aretinos grave in San Luca, Venice in the mid-1650s. He relates that the epitaph had been removed by the inquisitors, Qui jace Aretin, poeta Tusco, qui dice mal dogni uno fuora di Dio, scusandosi dicendo. This he translates as Here Aretin, the Tuscan poet, lies, who all the world abused but God, in 2007, the composer Michael Nyman set Aretinos Sonetti lussuriosi to music under the title 8 Lust Songs
38.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
Project Gutenberg
–
Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
40.
Internet Archive
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
41.
LibriVox
–
On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
