1.
Aquatint
–
Aquatint is an intaglio printmaking technique, a variant of etching. In intaglio printmaking, the artist makes marks on the plate that are capable of holding ink, the inked plate is passed through a printing press together with a sheet of paper, resulting in a transfer of the ink to the paper. This can be repeated a number of times, depending on the particular technique, like etching, aquatint uses the application of a mordant to etch into the metal plate. Where the engraving uses a needle to make lines that print in black. The rosin is acid resistant and typically adhered to the plate by controlled heating, the tonal variation is controlled by the level of mordant exposure over large areas, and thus the image is shaped by large sections at a time. Another tonal technique, mezzotint, begins with a surface that is evenly indented so that it will carry a fairly dark tone of ink. The mezzotint plate is then smoothed and polished to make areas carry less ink, alternatively, beginning with a smooth plate, areas are roughened to make them darker. Occasionally these two techniques are combined, the painter and printmaker Jan van de Velde IV invented the aquatint technique in Amsterdam, around 1650. The cartographer Peter Perez Burdett later introduced his secret aquatint technique to England in the 1770s, an aquatint requires a metal plate, an acid, and something to resist the acid. Traditionally copper or zinc plates were used, the artist applies a ground that will resist acid. Ground is applied by either dissolving powdered resin in spirits, applying the powder directly to the surface of the plate, in all forms of etching the acid resist is commonly referred to as the ground. An aquatint box is used to apply resin powder, the powder is at the bottom of the box, a crank or a bellows is used to blow the powder up into the air of the box. A window allows the engraver to see the density of flowing powder, when the powder covers the plate, it can be extracted from the box for the next operations. The plate is then heated, if the plate is covered with powder, the resin melts forming a fine and even coat, if it is in spirits, the spirits evaporate and the result is essentially the same. Now the plate is dipped in acid, producing an even, at this point, the plate is said to carry about a 50% halftone. This means that, were the plate printed with no further biting, at some point the artist will then etch an outline of any aspects of the drawing s/he wishes to establish with line, this provides the basis and guide for the later tone work. S/he may also have applied an acid-resistant stop out if s/he intends to keep any areas totally white and free of ink, the artist then begins immersing the plate in the acid bath, progressively stopping out any areas that have achieved the designed tonality. These tones, combined with the limited line elements, give aquatints a distinctive, also, aquatints, like mezzotints, provide ease in creating large areas of tone without laborious cross-hatching, but aquatint plates, it is noted, are generally more durable than mezzotint plates
2.
Baroque music
–
Baroque music is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750. This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key, during the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite, while the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers. During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate ornamentation, made changes in musical notation. Many musical terms and concepts from this era, such as toccata, fugue, dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously, was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. The word baroque comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning misshapen pearl, the term Baroque is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of approximately 150 years. The systematic application by historians of the baroque to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflins theory of the Baroque systematically to music, all of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer, nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding and following periods of musical history, the Baroque period is divided into three major phases, early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical musical drama that valued discourse, the early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peris Dafne and LEuridice, marked the beginning of opera, which were a catalyst for Baroque music. Concerning music theory, the widespread use of figured bass represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony. Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as players or pipe organists. The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the player what intervals she should play above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note and this led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality
3.
Composer
–
A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers
4.
Multi-instrumentalist
–
A multi-instrumentalist is a musician who plays two or more musical instruments at a professional level. Multi-instrumentalists who play closely related instruments, a known as doubling are common in orchestra, in jazz, in music theatre pit orchestras. Popular music composers and songwriters are often multi-instrumentalists, some musicians unions or associations specify a higher rate of pay for musicians who double on two or more instruments for a performance or recording. The European Piffari, Stadtpfeifer and Waits were multi-instrumentalists, who played trumpet, sackbut, shawm, cornett, recorder, musicians with an education of a Stadtpfeifer were Gottfried Reiche, Johann Joachim Quantz, Johann Christof Pezel and Sigmund Theophil Staden. Also many European church musicians of the 17th and 18th centuries were multi-instrumentalists, georg Philipp Telemann for example played violin, viola da gamba, recorder, flauto traverso, oboe, shawm, sackbut and double bass. Some famous classical composer-performers could play multiple instruments at a level, such as Mozart. Music written for symphony orchestra usually calls for a section featuring a number of musicians who might each play a variety of different instruments during a performance. Orchestras will also often, but not always, call for members of the woodwind section to be multi-instrumentalists. This is sometimes referred to as doubling, typically, for example, one flute player in the orchestra will switch to playing the piccolo or alto flute when called to by the score. Similarly, clarinet players may double on clarinet, oboe players on cor anglais. Trumpet players may switch to piccolo trumpet for certain Baroque literature, organ players are also commonly expected to master the harpsichord as well. Doubling elsewhere in the orchestra is rare, with musical theatre pit orchestras, woodwind players are expected to play a large number of woodwind instruments. Many professional jazz musicians have become multi-instrumentalists, in the swing big band era, woodwind players were expected to be able to play multiple woodwind instruments. Some jazz saxophonists are offered gigs where they are required to play clarinet. So they spend time learning the differences and then continue to develop their ability over the rest of musical careers, dolphy was also frequently recorded on bass clarinet. In the early years of jazz, when the genre was linked to the marching band genre. From the 1950s onwards and particularly since the development of fusion in the late 1960s. Notable examples of bassists who are virtuosi on both instruments include Stanley Clarke and John Patitucci, many jazz instrumentalists whose main instrument is a horn or bass also play jazz piano, because piano is an excellent instrument for composing, arranging, and developing greater harmonic knowledge
5.
Autodidacticism
–
Autodidacticism or self-education is the education without the guidance of masters or institutions. Generally, an autodidact is an individual who chooses the subject they will study, their studying material, an autodidact may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to it. Many notable contributions have made by autodidacts. The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education, various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia, others are self-directed learning, in the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of his or her own learning. Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern education, as a complement to education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners, before the 20th century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his report on industry dated from 1853. However, even in the US, most children were not completing high school, high school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine. For many professions or for personal knowledge, however, formal education is not so necessary today due to the availability of free information on the Internet. Whereas in the past, one of the benefits of going to college was to gain access to their superior libraries, today access to facts. Financial analyst and author Peter Schiff, for one, says that never before in history has it been so easy to be self-educated, collegiate teaching was based on the classics until the early 19th century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800, institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, prior to the 19th century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who had typically received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training, james Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being largely self-educated. Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society, academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training. Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early 20th century and this phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor
6.
Magdeburg
–
Magdeburg is the capital city and the second largest city of the state of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Magdeburg is situated on the Elbe River and was one of the most important medieval cities of Europe, Emperor Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor, founder of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, was buried in the towns cathedral after his death. Magdeburgs version of German town law, known as Magdeburg rights, spread throughout Central, the city is also well known for the 1631 Sack of Magdeburg, which hardened Protestant resistance during the Thirty Years War. Prior to it Magdeburg was one of the largest German cities, Magdeburg was destroyed twice in its history. Magdeburg is the site of two universities, the Otto-von-Guericke University and the Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, nowadays Magdeburg is a traffic junction as well as an industrial and trading centre. In 2005 Magdeburg celebrated its 1200th anniversary, in June 2013 Magdeburg was hit by record breaking flooding. Founded by Charlemagne in 805 as Magadoburg, the town was fortified in 919 by King Henry I the Fowler against the Magyars and Slavs. Edith loved the town and often lived there, at her death she was buried in the crypt of the Benedictine abbey of Saint Maurice, in 937, Magdeburg was the seat of a royal assembly. Otto I repeatedly visited Magdeburg and was buried in the cathedral. He granted the abbey the right to income from various tithes, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg was founded in 968 at the synod of Ravenna, Adalbert of Magdeburg was consecrated as its first archbishop. The archbishopric under Adalbert included the bishoprics of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Merseburg, Meissen, the archbishops played a prominent role in the German colonisation of the Slavic lands east of the Elbe river. In 1035 Magdeburg received a patent giving the city the right to hold exhibitions and conventions. These laws were adopted and modified throughout Central and Eastern Europe, visitors from many countries began to trade with Magdeburg. In the 13th century, Magdeburg became a member of the Hanseatic League, with more than 20,000 inhabitants Magdeburg was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. The town had a maritime commerce on the west, with the countries of the North Sea. The citizens constantly struggled against the archbishop, becoming independent from him by the end of the 15th century. In about Easter 1497, the then twelve-year-old Martin Luther attended school in Magdeburg, in 1524, he was called to Magdeburg, where he preached and caused the citys defection from Catholicism. The Protestant Reformation had quickly found adherents in the city, where Luther had been a schoolboy, Emperor Charles V repeatedly outlawed the unruly town, which had joined the Alliance of Torgau and the Schmalkaldic League
7.
Zellerfeld
–
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the part of the Harz mountains. Clausthal-Zellerfeld was the seat of the former Samtgemeinde Oberharz, altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz Buntenbock Clausthal-Zellerfeld Wildemann Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers, Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge. Mining in the began in the 16th century. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914, the large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. Mining activity halted in 1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted, today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976, the former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today. The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers, today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering. Tower dating from 1637. de Clausthal-Zellerfeld at DMOZ Clausthal
8.
Hildesheim
–
Hildesheim is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany with almost 100,000 inhabitants. It is located in the district of Hildesheim, about 30 km southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste River, the settlement around the cathedral very quickly developed into a town and was awarded market rights by King Otto III in 983. Originally the market was held in a street called Old Market which still exists today, the first market place was laid out around the church St. Andreas. When the city grew further, a market place became necessary. The present market place of Hildesheim was laid out at the beginning of the 13th century when the city had about 5,000 inhabitants, when Hildesheim obtained city status in 1249, it was one of the biggest cities in Northern Germany. For four centuries the clergy ruled Hildesheim, before a city hall was built, construction of the present City Hall started in 1268. In 1367 Hildesheim became a member of the Hanseatic League, a war between the citizens and their bishop cost dearly in 1519-1523 when they engaged in a feud. Hildesheim became Lutheran in 1542, and only the cathedral and a few buildings remained in imperial hands. Several villages around the city remained Catholic as well, in 1813, after the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Kingdom of Hanover, which was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia as a province after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. In 1868 a highly valuable trove of about 70 Roman silver vessels for eating and drinking, the city was heavily damaged by air raids in 1945, especially on 22 March. 28. 5% of the houses were destroyed and 44. 7% damaged. 26. 8% of the houses remained undamaged, the centre, which had retained its medieval character until then, was almost levelled. As in many cities, priority was given to building of badly needed housing. Fortunately, most of the churches, two of them now UNESCO World Heritage Sites, were rebuilt in the original style soon after the war. During the war, valuable world heritage materials had been hidden in the basement of the city wall, in 1978, the University of Hildesheim was founded. In the 1980s a reconstruction of the centre began. Some of the concrete buildings around the market place were torn down. In the fall of 2007, a decision was made to reconstruct the Umgestülpter Zuckerhut, in 2015 the town celebrates 1200 years from 815 to 2015 with the Day of Lower Saxony
9.
Leipzig University
–
Leipzig University, in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the worlds oldest universities and the second-oldest university in Germany. Famous alumni include Leibniz, Goethe, Ranke, Nietzsche, Wagner, Angela Merkel, Raila Odinga, Tycho Brahe, and nine Nobel laureates are associated with the university. The university was founded on December 2,1409 by Frederick I, Elector of Saxony and his brother William II, Margrave of Meissen, since its inception, the university has engaged in teaching and research for over 600 years without interruption. The university was modelled on the University of Prague, from which the German-speaking faculty members withdrew to Leipzig after the Jan Hus crisis, the Alma mater Lipsiensis opened in 1409, after it had been officially endorsed by Pope Alexander V in his Bull of Acknowledgment on. Its first rector was Johann von Münsterberg, from its foundation, the Paulinerkirche served as the university church. After the Reformation, the church and the buildings were donated to the university in 1544. As many European universities, the university of Leipzig was structured into colleges responsible for organising accommodation, among the colleges of Leipzig were the Small College, the Large College, the Red College, the College of our Lady and the Pauliner-College. There were also private residential halls, the colleges had jurisdiction over their members. The college structure was abandoned later and today only the names survive, during the first centuries, the university grew slowly and was a rather regional institution. This changed, however, during the 19th century when the university became an institution of higher education. At the end of the 19th century, important scholars such as Bernhard Windscheid, Leipzig University was one of the first German universities to allow women to register as guest students. At its general assembly in 1873, the Allgemeiner Deutscher Frauenverein thanked the University of Leipzig and this was the year that the first woman in Germany obtained her JD, Johanna von Evreinov. Many of the alumni became important scientists. Under Nazi rule many Jews degrees were cancelled, some were reinstated as Karl-Marx University degrees by the GDR. The university was open throughout World War II, even after the destruction of its buildings. After the destruction of most of the buildings and the majority of its libraries and this is what must be preserved as the great repository of value in the university. By the end of the war 60 per cent of the buildings and 70 per cent of its books had been destroyed. The university reopened after the war on February 5,1946, in 1948 the freely elected student council was disbanded and replaced by Free German Youth members
10.
Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
11.
Eisenach
–
Eisenach is a town in Thuringia, Germany with 42,000 inhabitants, located 50 kilometres west of Erfurt,70 km southeast of Kassel and 150 km northeast of Frankfurt. It is the urban centre of western Thuringia and bordering northeastern Hessian regions. A major attraction is Wartburg castle, which has been a UNESCO world heritage site since 1999, Eisenach was an early capital of Thuringia in the 12th and 13th centuries. St. Elizabeth lived at the court of the Ludowingians here between 1211 and 1228, later, Martin Luther came to Eisenach and translated the Bible into German. In 1685, Johann Sebastian Bach was born here, during the early-modern period, Eisenach was a residence of the Ernestine Wettins and was visited by numerous representatives of Weimar classicism like Johann Wolfgang Goethe. In 1869, the SDAP, one of the two precursors of the Social Democratic Party of Germany was founded in Eisenach, car production is an important industry in Eisenach. The Automobilwerk Eisenach was founded in 1896, in the German Democratic Republic, the Wartburg was produced here. Eisenach is situated on the Hörsel river, a tributary of the Werra between the Thuringian Forest in the south, the Hainich mountains in the north-east and the East Hesse Highlands in the north-west, Eisenachs origin and early history is unknown. An 8th century Frankish settlement near Petersberg hill is regarded as the nucleus of Eisenach, however, there are no written sources about that early period. According to legend, Louis the Springer began in 1067 to establish Wartburg castle above the settlement, in 1080, the castle was first mentioned in a Saxon chronicle. Eisenach itself followed in a document dating to 1150 where it was referred to as Isinacha, during the 1180s, the town was established by the construction of three independent market settlements around the Saturdays market, the Wednesdays market and the Mondays market. During the second half of the 12th century, the walls were erected and Eisenach got a planned grid of streets. In 1207, the legendary Sängerkrieg supposedly took place at Wartburg castle, in 1221, St. Elizabeth married Landgrave Louis IV and she lived in Eisenach or at Wartburg castle until 1228. Later, she became the patroness of Thuringia and Hesse, in 1247, the Ludowingians died out which led to the War of the Thuringian Succession between the Wettins and Duchess Sophie of Brabant. As a consequence, the landgraviate was divided, Eisenach and the eastern parts went to the Wettins and Kassel, Marburg and the western parts went to Sophie. Eisenach kept a position among the Wettins Thuringian cities by becoming their Oberhof, so that their law had to be derived from Eisenachs municipal law. The confident citizens of Eisenach fought against the Wettins rule to become an imperial city between 1306 and 1308, but lost. In the 14th century various crises followed, in 1342, a big fire destroyed all the buildings
12.
Frankfurt
–
The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
13.
Hamburg
–
Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
14.
Work of art
–
A work of art, artwork, art piece, piece of art or art object is an aesthetic physical item or artistic creation. The term objet dart is reserved to describe works of art that are not paintings, prints, drawings or large or medium-sized sculptures, the term oeuvre is used to describe the complete body of work completed by an artist throughout a career. A work of art in the arts is a physical two- or three- dimensional object that is professionally determined or otherwise considered to fulfill a primarily independent aesthetic function. A singular art object is seen in the context of a larger art movement or artistic era, such as. It can also be seen as an item within a body of work or oeuvre. The term is used by, museum and cultural heritage curators, the interested public, the art patron-private art collector community. Physical objects that document immaterial or conceptual art works, but do not conform to artistic conventions can be redefined and reclassified as art objects, some Dada and Neo-Dada conceptual and readymade works have received later inclusion. Also, some architectural renderings and models of projects, such as by Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci, Frank Lloyd Wright. Legal definitions of work of art are used in copyright law, Marcel Duchamp critiqued the idea that the work of art should be a unique product of an artists labour, representational of their technical skill or artistic caprice. Artist Michael Craig-Martin, creator of An Oak Tree, said of his work - Its not a symbol, I have changed the physical substance of the glass of water into that of an oak tree. The actual oak tree is present, but in the form of a glass of water. Some art theorists and writers have made a distinction between the physical qualities of an art object and its identity-status as an artwork. For example, a painting by Rembrandt has an existence as an oil painting on canvas that is separate from its identity as a masterpiece work of art or the artists magnum opus. Many works of art are initially denied museum quality or artistic merit, works by the Impressionists and non-representational abstract artists are examples. Some, such as the Readymades of Marcel Duchamp including his infamous urinal Fountain, are reproduced as museum quality replicas. Contemporary and archeological indigenous art, industrial design items in limited or mass production, the term has been consistently available for debate, reconsideration, and redefinition. The classic philosophical enquiry into what a work of art is
15.
Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
16.
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
–
His second name was given in honor of his godfather Georg Philipp Telemann, a friend of Johann Sebastian Bach. C. P. E. Bach was a composer working at a time of transition between his fathers baroque style and the classical and romantic styles that followed it. His personal approach, an expressive and often turbulent one known as empfindsamer Stil or sensitive style, applied the principles of rhetoric, Bachs dynamism stands in deliberate contrast to the more mannered galant style also then in vogue. To distinguish him from his brother Johann Christian, the London Bach, Bach was known as the Berlin Bach during his residence in that city, and later as the Hamburg Bach when he succeeded Telemann as Kapellmeister there. He was known simply as Emanuel to his contemporaries, C. P. E. Bach was born on 8 March 1714 in Weimar to Johann Sebastian Bach and his first wife, Maria Barbara. He was the third son. The composer Georg Philipp Telemann was his godfather, when he was ten years old, he entered the St. Thomas School at Leipzig, where his father had become cantor in 1723. He was one of four Bach children to professional musicians. In an age of patronage, father and son alike knew that a university education helped prevent a professional musician from being treated as a servant. Carl, like his brothers, pursued advanced studies in jurisprudence at the University of Leipzig in 1731, in 1738, at the age of 24, he obtained his degree but never practiced law, instead turning his attention immediately to music. Upon Fredericks accession in 1740, Bach became a member of the royal orchestra and he was by this time one of the foremost clavier players in Europe, and his compositions, which date from 1731, include about thirty sonatas and concert pieces for harpsichord and clavichord. In Berlin, Bach continued to write pieces for solo keyboard, including a series of character pieces. His reputation was established by the two sets of sonatas which he published with dedications to Frederick the Great and to Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg. In 1746, he was promoted to the post of chamber musician and served the king alongside colleagues like Carl Heinrich Graun, Johann Joachim Quantz, the composer who most influenced Bachs maturing style was unquestionably his father. He drew creative inspiration from his godfather Georg Philipp Telemann, then working in Hamburg, Bachs interest in all types of art led to influence from poets, playwrights and philosophers such as Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Moses Mendelssohn and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Bachs work itself influenced the work of, among others, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, but his main work was concentrated on the clavier, for which he composed, at this time, nearly two hundred sonatas and other solos, including the set Mit veränderten Reprisen. Both Haydn and Beethoven swore by it, by 1780, the book was in its third edition and laid the foundation for the keyboard methods of Clementi and Cramer. The essay lays out the fingering for each chord and some chord sequences, Bachs techniques continue to be employed today
17.
George Frideric Handel
–
George Frideric Handel was a German, later British baroque composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. Handel received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712 and he was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Within fifteen years, Handel had started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera, musicologist Winton Dean writes that his operas show that Handel was not only a great composer, he was a dramatic genius of the first order. As Alexanders Feast was well received, Handel made a transition to English choral works, after his success with Messiah he never composed an Italian opera again. Almost blind, and having lived in England for nearly fifty years, he died in 1759 and his funeral was given full state honours, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey in London. Handel was born in 1685 in Halle-on-Saal, Duchy of Magdeburg, to Georg Händel and his father,63 when George Frideric was born, was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Georg Händel was the son of a coppersmith, Valentin Händel who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching and they were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Hapsburg possession as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years War. Halle was a prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry. Even the smaller churches all had able organists and fair choirs, and humanities, the Thirty Years War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished. But since the middle of the war the city was under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, the arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata, which did not describe Handels family. Handel was the child of this marriage, the first son died still born. Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric, Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687 and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690. Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the gymnasium in Halle, Mainwaring is the source for almost all information of Handels childhood, and much of that information came from J. C. Smith, Jr. Handels confidant and copyist. Whether they came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation and it is from Mainwaring that the portrait of Handels father as implacably opposed to any musical education comes. This did nothing to dampen young Handels inclination, in fact, Mainwaring tells the story of Handels secret attic spinnet, Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep, but Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training. Somehow Handel made his way to the organ, where he surprised everyone with his playing. Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction, Handels father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel
18.
Classical period (music)
–
The dates of the Classical period in Western music are generally accepted as being between about the year 1730 and the year 1820. This article is about the period in most of the 18th century to the early 19th century, though overlapping with the Baroque. The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the Romantic periods, Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly homophonic, using a melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment. It also makes use of style galant which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroques dignified seriousness, variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before and the orchestra increased in size, range, and power. The harpsichord was replaced as the keyboard instrument by the piano. Instrumental music was considered important by Classical period composers, vocal music, such as songs for a singer and piano, choral works, and opera were also important during this period. Ludwig van Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic composer or a Classical period composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic era, Franz Schubert is also a transitional figure, as were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Luigi Cherubini, and Carl Maria von Weber. The period is referred to as the era of Viennese Classic or Classicism, since Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Salieri. In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and this style sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity, especially those of Classical Greece. Classical music was still linked to aristocratic Court culture and supported by absolute monarchies. Classical music used formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, in contrast with the richly layered music of the Baroque era, Classical music moved towards simplicity rather than complexity. In addition, the size of orchestras began to increase. The remarkable development of ideas in natural philosophy had already established itself in the public consciousness, in particular, Newtons physics was taken as a paradigm, structures should be well-founded in axioms and be both well-articulated and orderly. This move meant that chords became a more prevalent feature of music. As a result, the structure of a piece of music became more audible. The new style was encouraged by changes in the economic order. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter
19.
Sack of Magdeburg
–
The siege lasted from November 1630 until 20 May 1631. The Thirty Years War had been raging for a dozen years by the time that the city of Magdeburg rose up against the Holy Roman emperor. His army consisted primarily of his Swedish countrymen, but the armies of the Holy Roman emperor were a mix of Hungarians, Croats, Spaniards, Poles, Italians, Frenchmen, Germans, and others. In a matter of months, imperial forces under the command of the Count of Tilly laid siege to the city. On the last day of the siege Magdeburgs councilors were convinced that it was time to sue for peace, the siege was ended and Imperial Field Marshal Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, and Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, attacked Magdeburg for its rich stores of goods. The citys fortifications were breached and imperial forces were able to overpower armed opposition, the city was dealt another blow when Colonel Dietrich von Falkenberg, a nobleman sent by King Gustavus to direct Magdeburgs military affairs, was shot dead by Catholic imperials. When the city was almost lost, the garrison mined various places, after the city fell, the Imperial soldiers went out of control and started to massacre the inhabitants and set fire to the city. The invading soldiers had not received payment for their service and took the chance to loot everything in sight, otto von Guericke, an inhabitant of Magdeburg, claimed that when civilians ran out of things to give the soldiers, the misery really began. For then the soldiers began to beat, frighten, and threaten to shoot, skewer, hang and it took only one day for all of this destruction and death to transpire. Of the 30,000 citizens, only 5,000 survived, for fourteen days, charred bodies were carried to the Elbe River to be dumped to prevent disease. In a letter, Pappenheim wrote of the Sack, I believe that over twenty thousand souls were lost and it is certain that no more terrible work and divine punishment has been seen since the Destruction of Jerusalem. All of our soldiers became rich, after Magdeburgs capitulation to the imperial forces, there was much bickering between the residents who had favored resistance against the emperor and those who had been against such an action. Even Adolphus joined in the pointing, claiming that the citizens of Magdeburg had not been willing to pay the necessary funds for their defense. The imperial treatment of defeated Magdeburg helped persuade many Evangelical Christian rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to stand against the Roman Catholic emperor. At the time of the Peace of Westphalia, ending the war in 1648, the devastation was so great that Magdeburgisieren became an oft-used term signifying total destruction, rape, and pillaging for decades. The terms Magdeburg justice, Magdeburg mercy and Magdeburg quarter also arose as a result of the sack, cathedral of Magdeburg Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Thirty Years War Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor Brzezinski, Richard. Firoozi, Edith, and Ira N. Klein, universal History of the World, The Age of Great Kings. The History of the Thirty Years War, new York, Cambridge University Press,2000
20.
Duchy of Magdeburg
–
The Duchy of Magdeburg was a province of Brandenburg-Prussia from 1680 to 1701 and a province of the German Kingdom of Prussia from 1701 to 1807. It replaced the Archbishopric of Magdeburg after its secularization by Brandenburg, the duchys capitals were Magdeburg and Halle, while Burg was another important town. Dissolved during the Napoleonic Wars in 1807, its territory was part of the Province of Saxony in 1815. The Roman Catholic Archbishopric of Magdeburg began to be administered by princes, mostly Lutheran. The city of Magdeburg was also required to pay homage to the prince-electors of Brandenburg, in 1666, Elector Frederick William used his developing army to install a permanent Brandenburger garrison in the city. The Halle region, an exclave of the province, was surrounded by the Principality of Anhalt, the County of Mansfeld, against the wishes of the duchys Lutheran nobility, a Calvinist chancellor was appointed to govern the duchy. Through the leadership of August Hermann Francke, Halle became the center of Pietism in Brandenburg-Prussia, when Elector Frederick III crowned himself Frederick I, King in Prussia, in 1701, the Duchy of Magdeburg became part of the new Kingdom of Prussia. King Frederick William Is allodification of the fiefs, or efforts to modernize feudal land ownership laws, was opposed by the duchys Junker nobility, the nobles received judgements from the imperial court in Vienna protecting their rights in 1718 and 1725. Justus Henning Böhmer became chancellor of the province in 1743, a state-capitalized agricultural credit union was created in the duchy in 1780 for the exclusive use of the nobility. Control over the Magdeburg lands gave the monarchy a lucrative monopoly over the Stassfurt, the estates of Pomerania voluntarily raised 5,000 troops for the Prussian Army during the Seven Years War, their initiative was duplicated by the nobility of Magdeburg and neighboring provinces. In the War of the Fourth Coalition, Prussia was defeated by Napoleon in 1806, in the Treaty of Tilsit the following year, the Duchy of Magdeburg was dissolved. The ducal territory west of the Elbe River, including the cities Magdeburg and Halle, were part of the Kingdom of Westphalia. The ducal territory east of the Elbe remained in a drastically reduced Kingdom of Prussia, Prussia reacquired the Magdeburg and Halle territories during the War of the Sixth Coalition. In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, the territories of the Duchy of Magdeburg, the Altmark, iron Kingdom, The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600–1947. The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia to 1786, Revised Edition, new York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. A History of Modern Germany, 1648-1840, new York, Barnes & Noble Books. Stier, Erich, Ernst Kirsten, Wilhelm Wühr, Heinz Quirin, Werner Trillmilch, Gerhard Czybulka, Hermann Pinnow, westermanns Atlas zur Weltgeschichte, Vorzeit / Altertum, Mittelalter, Neuzeit. Map of the Duchy of Magdeburg in 1789
21.
Brandenburg-Prussia
–
Brandenburg-Prussia is the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. Another consequence of the intermarriage was the incorporation of the lower Rhenish principalities of Cleves, Mark, the Thirty Years War was especially devastating. The Elector changed sides three times, and as a result Protestant and Catholic armies swept the land back and forth, killing, burning, seizing men, upwards of half the population was killed or dislocated. Berlin and the major cities were in ruins, and recovery took decades. By the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War in 1648, Brandenburg gained Minden and Halberstadt, also the succession in Farther Pomerania and the Duchy of Magdeburg. With the Treaty of Bromberg, concluded during the Second Northern War, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye expanded Brandenburgian Pomerania to the lower Oder. The second half of the 17th century laid the basis for Prussia to become one of the players in European politics later on. Brandenburg-Prussia also established a navy and German colonies in the Brandenburger Gold Coast, Frederick William also started to centralize Brandenburg-Prussias administration and reduce the influence of the estates. In 1701, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, succeeded in elevating his status to King in Prussia, from 1701 onward, the Hohenzollern domains were referred to as the Kingdom of Prussia, or simply Prussia. Legally, the union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. However, by time the emperors overlordship over the empire had become a legal fiction. Hence, after 1701, Brandenburg was de facto treated as part of the Prussian kingdom, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had been the seat of the main branch of the Hohenzollerns, who were prince-electors in the Holy Roman Empire, since 1415. In 1525, by the Treaty of Krakow, the Duchy of Prussia was created through partial secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order. It was a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland and was governed by Duke Albert of Prussia, on behalf of her mother Elisabeth of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollern, Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg became Alberts second wife in 1550, and bore him his successor Albert Frederick. In 1563, the Brandenburgian branch of the Hohenzollern was granted the right of succession by the Polish crown, Albert Frederick became duke of Prussia after Alberts death in 1568. His mother died in the year, and thereafter he showed signs of mental disorder. Because of the illness, Prussia was governed by Alberts nephew George Frederick of Hohenzollern-Ansbach-Jägersdorf. In 1573, Albert Frederick married Marie Eleonore of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, with whom he had several daughters, in 1594, Albert Fredericks then 14-year-old daughter Anna married the son of Joachim Frederick of Hohenzollern-Brandenburg, John Sigismund
22.
Deacon
–
Deacon is a ministry in Christian Churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. In many traditions the diaconate, the term for an office, is a clerical office. The word deacon is derived from the Greek word diákonos, which is a standard ancient Greek word meaning servant, waiting-man, minister, or messenger. One commonly promulgated speculation as to its etymology is that it literally means through the dust, female deacons are mentioned by Pliny the Younger in a letter to the emperor Trajan dated c. The title deaconess is not found in the Bible, however, a woman, Phoebe, is mentioned at Romans 16, 1–2 as a deacon of the church in Cenchreae. Nothing more specific is said about her duties or authority, the exact relationship between male and female deacons varies. A biblical description of the qualities required of a deacon, and of his household, can be found in 1 Timothy 3, prominent historical figures who played major roles as deacons and went on to higher office include Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, Thomas Becket and Reginald Pole. On June 8, A. D.536 a serving Roman deacon was raised to Pope and his father, Pope Agapetus, had died and the office had been vacant for over a month. The title is used for the president, chairperson, or head of a trades guild in Scotland. The diaconate is one of the orders in the Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox. The other major orders are those of bishop and presbyter, the diaconate continued in a vestigial form as a temporary, final step along the course toward ordination to priesthood. In Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches, deacons assist priests in their pastoral and administrative duties and they have a distinctive role in the liturgy of the Eastern and Western Churches. In the Eastern Church, deacons have a profound presence in the Divine Liturgy. In the Western Church, Pope St. Today, deacons are also granted permission to preach, beginning around the fifth century, there was a gradual decline in the permanent diaconate in the Latin church. It has however remained a part of the Eastern Catholic Churches. These men are known as permanent deacons in contrast to those continuing their formation, there is no sacramental or canonical difference between the two, however, as there is only one order of deacons. The permanent diaconate formation period in the Roman Catholic Church varies from diocese to diocese as it is determined by the local ordinary, although they are assigned to work in a parish by the diocesan bishop, once assigned, deacons are under the supervision of the parish pastor. Unlike most clerics, permanent deacons who also have a profession have no right to receive a salary for their ministry
23.
St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig
–
The St. Nicholas Church is one of the major churches of central Leipzig, Germany. Construction started in Romanesque style in 1165, but in the 16th century, Baroque elements like the tower were added in the 18th century. In the 18th century, several works by Johann Sebastian Bach, the Neoclassical interior dates to the late 18th century. The church rose to fame in 1989 with the Monday Demonstrations when it became the centre of peaceful revolt against communist rule. By capacity, it is one of the largest churches in Saxony, construction of the church began about 1165. It is named after St. Nicholas, patron of travelers and it was built originally in the Romanesque style but was extended and enlarged in the early 16th century in Gothic style. The Baroque main tower was added in 1730, the dates from 1759. Notable philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, was baptized here as an infant on 3 July 1646, in 1784-97 the interior was remodeled by German architect Johann Carl Friedrich Dauthe in the Neoclassical style. The church has been a Protestant seat since 1539 after the Protestant Reformation, cabaret artist Bernd-Lutz Lange said about the events which started in the St. Nicholas Church, There was no head of the revolution. The head was the Nikolaikirche and the body the centre of the city, There was only one leadership, Monday,5 pm, St. Nicholas Church. More recently the church has been struggling to find the funds for interior restorations which have been ongoing since 1968, the church organ was renovated from mechanical action to pneumatic action in the early 20th century. The current pastor for this church is Bernhard Stief, Nikolaikirche has a capacity of over 1,400 seats
24.
St. Thomas Church, Leipzig
–
St. Thomas Church is a Lutheran church in Leipzig, Germany. It is most famous as the place where Johann Sebastian Bach worked as a Kapellmeister from 1723 until his death in 1750, the Thomanerchor, the choir of the Thomaskirche, is still a well-known choir today. There has been a church at the current site of the Thomaskirche since the 12th century, between 1212 and 1222 the preceding church became the new St. Thomas Monastery of the Augustinian order. In 1217, The Minnesinger, or troubadour, Heinrich von Morungen bequeathed to the church a relic of St. Thomas as he entered the order of canons after a trip to India. After several reconstructions, the current building, an example of late Gothic architecture, was consecrated by Thilo of Trotha, the reformer Martin Luther preached here on Pentecost Sunday in 1539. Today, it is a Lutheran church, the tower was first built in 1537 and reconstructed in 1702, leading to its current height of 68 meters. The composer Johann Sebastian Bach was choir director at St. Thomas Church from 1723 until his death in 1750, a statue of Johann Sebastian Bach by the Leipzig sculptor Carl Seffner that stands next to the church was dedicated in 1908. On 4 December 1943, the tower was damaged in an Allied bombing raid on Leipzig, the roof of the church above the Gothic rib vaulted ceiling is one of the steepest in Germany, with a roof pitch of 63 degrees. After the destruction of the Leipzig Johanneskirche in World War II, the current altar, installed in 1993, is the former Gothic altar of the Paulinerkirche, the church of the University of Leipzig, destroyed in 1968 by the Communist authorities. In addition, the structure suffered from damage due to insects. For these reasons, the church was listed in the 2000 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, repairs were swiftly undertaken with financial support from the Fund and from American Express. The 6-meter statue depicts the former Gewandhaus Orchestra director and composer in bronze, celebratory speeches were given by Kurt Masur, also a former Gewandhaus Orchestra director, and Burkhard Jung, mayor of Leipzig. The original statue designed by Werner Stein was first dedicated on 26 May 1892 and it had been located on the east side of the Gewandhaus until 9 November 1936, when it was taken down by the Nazis because of the composer’s Jewish background. Since 1950, the bones of Johann Sebastian Bach are buried in the Thomaskirche, after his death on 28 July 1750, Bach was laid to rest in the hospital cemetery of the Johanniskirche in Leipzig. With the start of the Bach renaissance in the 19th century, so, in 1894, the anatomy professor Wilhelm His was commissioned to identify the composer’s remains amongst disinterred bones from the cemetery where Bach had been buried. On 16 July 1900 the bones were placed into a sarcophagus underneath the Johanniskirche. Following the bombardment of the Johanniskirche on 4 December 1943, the bones were transferred to the Thomaskirche, the new grave was inaugurated on 28 July 1950,200 years after the death of the composer, who is now buried in the sanctuary of the church. The Thomanerchor, the choir of the Thomaskirche, was founded in 1212 and is one of the oldest and most famous choirs in Germany
25.
Germanicus (opera)
–
Germanicus is a German-language opera by Georg Philipp Telemann, to a libretto by the poet Christine Dorothea Lachs, fourth daughter of Nicolaus Adam Strungk of Dresden. The opera was written in 1704 and revised in 1710 and it is supposedly one of the twenty operas that Telemann wrote for the opera house in the Leipzig Brühl. The plot concerns the Roman general Germanicus, the opera was believed lost until 45 arias were discovered in a Frankfurt archive by Dr. Michael Maul. The opera was premiered with spoken text between arias at the Bachfest Leipzig 2007 and at the 2010 Magdeburg Telemann Festival under conductor Gotthold Schwarz, a recording was released by cpo in 2011. Gotthold Schwarz, Germanicus, Label, CPO, DDD,2010,3 CDs, with Olivia Stahn, Elisabeth Scholl, Matthias Rexroth, Henryk Böhm, Tobias Berndt, Sächsisches Barockorchester, ASIN, B005UU066S
26.
Johann Kuhnau
–
Much of his music, including operas, masses, and other large-scale vocal works, is lost. His reputation today rests on a set of keyboard sonatas published in 1700. After his death, Kuhnau was succeeded as Thomaskantor by Johann Sebastian Bach, much of the biographical information on Kuhnau is known from an autobiography published by Johann Mattheson in 1740 in his Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte. Kuhnaus Protestant family was originally from Bohemia, and their name was Kuhn, Kuhnau was born in Geising, present-day Saxony. His musical talents were apparent early, and at around 1670 he was sent to Dresden to study with court musicians there, during the next decade, he studied keyboard playing and music composition, as well as languages, Italian and French. In 1680 an offshoot of the Great Plague of Vienna reached Dresden and he subsequently studied music at the Johanneum at Zittau, and then law at the Leipzig University. Exceptionally active as composer and performer during his university years, he was appointed organist of Leipzigs Thomaskirche in 1684, in 1688 Kuhnau completed his dissertation and began practicing law. He was still working as organist and continued composing, in 1689 he published his first collection of keyboard works, followed by three more in 1692,1696, and 1700. In 1701 he succeeded Johann Schelle as Kantor of Thomaskirche, unfortunately, although he was successful in directing the many musical activities at Thomaskirche and teaching at Thomasschule, Kuhnau started suffering from bad health. Scholar Willi Apel noted that the job was as vexatious and difficult for him as for his successor, Kuhnau died in Leipzig on 5 June 1722. He was survived by three daughters, from a marriage of 1689 and his pupils included not only Fasch, but also Johann David Heinichen and Christoph Graupner. See, List of music students by teacher, K to M#Johann Kuhnau, Kuhnaus reputation today rests on four collections of music for keyboard, which he published in 1689–1700. Particularly important is the last volume, titled Musicalische Vorstellung einiger biblischer Historien and these devices are not limited to changes of texture or harmony, but also include quotations from Protestant chorales and imitations of operatic arias. The other keyboard works by Kuhnau show an approach to form. The two parts of Clavier-Übung both include 7 suites, the first only in major mode, and the only in minor mode. The suites almost always begin with a prelude, and continue through the order of dances – allemande, courante, sarabande. Kuhnaus preludes are almost always in two sections, a prelude and a fugue, complete with countersubjects Kuhnau mentions in the preface, Kuhnaus Sonata in B-flat major, appended to the Neuer Clavier-Übung, anderer Theil, was for some time considered to be the earliest known keyboard sonata. Later research has shown that it was rather the first keyboard sonata published in Germany, the composer himself commented on the issue in the preface, I have also appended a Sonata in B-flat major, which should also be pleasing to the amateurs
27.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
28.
Great Northern War
–
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway. George I of Great Britain and of Brunswick-Lüneburg joined the coalition in 1714 for and for Hanover in 1717, Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński, the Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I. The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, the Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russias position. After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it, the remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Riga, falling in 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg, Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front, but was killed in Fredriksten in 1718. The war ended with Swedens defeat, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region, by these treaties Sweden ceded her exemption from the Sound Dues, and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended her alliance with Holstein-Gottorp, Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary, Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened her position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII. Between the years of 1560 and 1658, Sweden created a Baltic empire centred on the Gulf of Finland and comprising the provinces of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. During the Thirty Years War Sweden gained tracts in Germany as well, including Western Pomerania, Wismar, the Duchy of Bremen, during the same period Sweden conquered Danish and Norwegian provinces north of the Sound. However, the Swedish state ultimately proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. The cost of the proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could fund, and Swedens coffers. The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo, the treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the secret Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, Charles XII of Sweden succeeded Charles XI of Sweden in 1697, aged 14. From his predecessor, he took over the Swedish Empire as an absolute monarch, Charles XI had tried to keep the empire out of wars, and concentrated on inner reforms such as reduction and allotment, which had strengthened the monarchs status and the empires military abilities
29.
John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach
–
John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach, was a duke of Saxe-Eisenach. He was the son of John George I, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach. His twin brother, Maximilian, died at the age of two years and he succeeded his brother John George II as duke of Saxe-Eisenach when his brother died in 1698. In Oranjewoud on 28 November 1690, John William married with Amalie and they had two children, Wilhelm Heinrich, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach. In Wolfenbüttel on 27 February 1697 — two years of the death of his first wife — John William married secondly with Christine Juliane of Baden-Durlach and they had seven children, Johannette Antoinette Juliane, married on 9 May 1721 to Duke Johann Adolf II of Saxe-Weissenfels. Karoline Christine, married on 24 November 1725 to Landgrave Charles I of Hesse-Philippsthal and they had three children, Johanna Magdalene Sophie. Christiane Wilhelmine, married on 26 November 1734 to Prince Charles of Nassau-Usingen
30.
Domenico Scarlatti
–
Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti was an Italian composer who spent much of his life in the service of the Portuguese and Spanish royal families. Like his renowned father Alessandro Scarlatti, he composed in a variety of musical forms, Domenico Scarlatti was born in Naples, Kingdom of Naples, belonging to Spanish Crown, in 1685, the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel. He was the sixth of ten children of the composer and teacher Alessandro Scarlatti, domenicos older brother Pietro Filippo was also a musician. He probably first studied music under his father, other composers who may have been his early teachers include Gaetano Greco, Francesco Gasparini, and Bernardo Pasquini, all of whom may have influenced his musical style. He was appointed as composer and organist at the chapel in Naples in 1701. In 1704, he revised Carlo Francesco Pollarolos opera Irene for performance at Naples, soon afterwards, his father sent him to Venice. After this, nothing is known of Scarlattis life until 1709, later in life, he was known to cross himself in veneration when speaking of Handels skill. In Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimires private theatre and he was Maestro Di Cappella at St. Peters from 1715 to 1719. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera Narciso at the Kings Theatre, according to Vicente Bicchi, Domenico Scarlatti arrived in Lisbon on 29 November 1719. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess Maria Magdalena Barbara and he left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728. In 1729 he moved to Seville, staying for four years, in 1733 he went to Madrid as music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. The Princess later became Queen of Spain, Scarlatti remained in the country for the remaining twenty-five years of his life, and had five children there. After the death of his first wife in 1742, he married a Spaniard, among his compositions during his time in Madrid were a number of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known. Scarlatti befriended the castrato singer Farinelli, a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid, the musicologist and harpsichordist Ralph Kirkpatrick commented that Farinellis correspondence provides most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day. Domenico Scarlatti died in Madrid, at the age of 71 and his residence on Calle Leganitos is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, in Madrid, only a small fraction of Scarlattis compositions were published during his lifetime, Scarlatti himself seems to have overseen the publication in 1738 of the most famous collection, his 30 Essercizi. These were well received throughout Europe, and were championed by the foremost English writer on music of the eighteenth century, the many sonatas which were unpublished during Scarlattis lifetime have appeared in print irregularly in the two and a half centuries since. Scarlattis 555 keyboard sonatas are single movements, mostly in form, and some in early sonata form
31.
Amor d'un'ombra e gelosia d'un'aura
–
Amor dunombra e gelosia dunaura, also known as Narciso, is an opera in three acts composed by Domenico Scarlatti to a libretto by Carlo Sigismondo Capece. It premiered in Rome in January 1714 at the theatre of Maria Casimira of Poland who had commissioned the work. The libretto is based on two fables from Ovids Metamorphoses, Echo and Narcissus and Cephalus and Procris, queen Maria Casimira had taken up residence in Rome in 1699 following the death of her husband Jan III Sobieski and her subsequent exile from Poland. Once in Rome she set up a court and became a figure the citys musical life. In 1709, Domenico Scarlatti succeeded his father Alessandro as her court composer and his librettist, Carlo Capece, was her private secretary and court poet. Five months after the premiere, she departed for France, leaving a string of debts behind her, in addition to Scarlattis opera, the 1714 Carnival opera season in Rome saw the premieres of Caldaras Tito e Berenice and Gasparinis Lucio Papirio. These two were the result of a set by Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, a prominent patron of the arts in Rome. Two rival academies, the Accademia degli Arcadi and the Accademia dei Quirini, were each to sponsor an opera to be performed in the newly renovated Teatro Capranica, Ottoboni would give a generous gift to the academy which had produced the best one. A revised version of the opera with the addition of two arias and two duets composed by Thomas Roseingrave opened at the Haymarket Theatre in London on 30 May 1720 under the title Narciso. Roseingrave also published the overture and arias of the opera, the vocal music of Scarlatti that was printed in his lifetime. Capeces original libretto was adapted for the London performance by Paolo Antonio Rolli who eliminated the role of Nicandro. While the cast for the Rome premiere is unknown, the roles in the London performance were taken by Margherita Durastanti, Anastasia Robinson, Benedetto Baldassari. The Haymarket Theatre Narciso proved to be the last time one of Scarlattis operas was performed in his lifetime, the discovery of a copy of the manuscript score in the library of Friedrich Chrysander led to several late 20th and early 21st century revivals. A version using the voices of opera singers but with the characters portrayed on stage by marionettes was produced in 2002 at the Besançon International Music Festival, the Musical Times, Vol.126, No. Antonio de Rossi Franchi, Saverio and Sartori, Orietta
32.
Viola concerto
–
A viola concerto is a concerto contrasting a viola with another body of musical instruments such as an orchestra or chamber music ensemble. Early examples of viola concertos include Telemanns concerto in G major and several concertos by Carl Stamitz, the first concertante work to use the viola without caution was Mozarts violin and viola Sinfonia Concertante. The viola, as with the cello, suffers problems of projection against an orchestral ensemble. Viola players were often originally violinists and so until recently there were few viola soloists, william Walton, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Paul Hindemith were among the first composers to write solo viola works for new, more capable players. These players in turn arranged works originally composed for other instruments, Viola sonata String instrument repertoire Viola website, hosting information about the viola. Michael Haydn page with Many Classical and Early-Romantic Worklists Viola Fan Club, information, description of works, videos, free sheet music, MIDI files, RSS update
33.
Brockes Passion
–
The Brockes Passion was much admired and set to music numerous times in Baroque Germany, although to other ages and in other countries some of Brockes poetry has seemed in poor taste. In Brockes version of a passion, a tenor Evangelist narrates, in recitative passages, events from all four Gospels accounts of Jesus suffering, some of the arias are for the persons of the Passion, Jesus himself, Peter, etc. The most famous setting of Brockes text is that by George Frideric Handel. Other composers who set this text are Reinhard Keiser, Georg Philipp Telemann, Johann Mattheson, Johann Friedrich Fasch, Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel, Johann Caspar Bachofen, and several others. Four at that time known settings, by Keiser, Telemann, Händel and Mattheson, were performed over four evenings in 1719,1722,1723, since 1712 the German-born Handel had been resident in London. It is not known exactly why or when Handel set the text of the Brockes Passion, already used by other composers, to music. It is a lengthy and contemplative work for soloists, choir and instrumental ensemble with some passages of great beauty, such as the duet for Mary. Johann Sebastian Bach took the trouble to copy out large portions of Handels Brockes Passion in his own hand and was influenced by the work in his own St John Passion, Handels Brockes Passion is an entirely worthy contribution to the repertory of its genre. It was first performed in the Barfüßerkirche in Frankfurt/Main on 10 April 1716, according to Telemanns 1718 autobiography, its performance was repeated during Lent in 1717 or 1718 in Hamburg or Augsburg. Further, on 26 March 1717 at the Neukirche Leipzig, which was the first documented performance of a Passion Oratorio in Leipzig, later again on 4 April 1719 at the Reventher Dom Hamburg,21 March 1720 at the Hamburger Drillhaus. In 1722 the composition was revised and, in 60 movements in a Pastiche performed on 22,26,28, again performed in the Lenten Season 1723 in Hamburg 27 March 1739 it was performed at the Nikolaikirche Leipzig. A modern edition of the score is published by Bärenreiter, Telemanns Brockes Passion was recorded by McGegan in 1994, and by Jacobs in 2009. Bachs St John Passion uses text of the Brockes Passion for several arias and its influence is also felt in his St Matthew Passion, for instance in the dialogue of the opening chorus, and use of its poetry in one movement. Bach also performed Handels and Telemanns settings of the Brockes Passion In Leipzig, and included arias from Handels setting in a St Mark Passion pasticcio
34.
Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums
–
The Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums is a Gymnasium in Hamburg, Germany. It is Hamburgs oldest school and was founded in 1529 by Johannes Bugenhagen, the school´s focus is on the teaching of Latin and ancient Greek. It is proud of having educated some of Germanys political leaders as well as some of Germanys notable scientists, the school is operated and financed by the city of Hamburg. The school is twinned with the two London schools Latymer Upper School and Godolphin and Latymer School, in Jules Vernes novel, Journey to the Centre of the Earth, one of the main characters, Otto Lidenbrock is a professor at the Johanneum. Hödhütte is the house of the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums. Leased by the school since 1970, it is located in the Radstädter Tauern, all pupils are required to spend 11 days at Hördhütte during their seventh year of schooling. This is believed to build community spirit and strengthen character, the students will also learn how to ski. Students from all years have the opportunity to spend their holidays in Hödhütte, the school feels that every student should have the opportunity of experiencing the sites of classical antiquity at first hand. The Verein zur Förderung von Schulreisen an klassische Stätten e. V. was formed fund this activity, the library of the school is called Bibliotheca Johannei. It has 55,000 books written in Latin, Ancient Greek, English, French, the library prides itself in having the first editions of many of the milestones of European literature. The oldest book is a Latin bible dating from 1491, the school has an alumni society called Verein ehemaliger Schüler der Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums zu Hamburg e. V. One of its tasks is to provide money for school activities
35.
Thomaskantor
–
Thomaskantor is the common name for the musical director of the Thomanerchor, now an internationally known boys choir founded in Leipzig in 1212. The official historic title in Latin, Cantor et Director Musices describes the two functions of cantor and director, as the cantor, he had to prepare the choir for service in four Lutheran churches, Thomaskirche, Nikolaikirche, Neue Kirche and Peterskirche. As director, he had to music for city functions such as town council elections. Functions related to the university took place at the Paulinerkirche, Johann Sebastian Bach was the most famous Thomaskantor, from 1723 to 1750. Leipzig has a university dating back to 1409, and is a commercial center and it was mostly Lutheran since the Reformation. The position of Thomaskantor at Bachs time has been described as one of the most respected, the services in Lutheran Leipzig, their readings and required music were regulated in detail. The Church Book lists the prescribed reading, repeated every year, the church year began with the First Sunday in Advent and was divided in feast days, fasting periods and the feast-less time after Trinity Sunday. In music, there was no concert music such as a cantata during the fasting times of Advent and Lent. Modest music was performed during the half of the church year. Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were celebrated three days each, and many other feast days were observed, the library of St. Thomas contained works in vocal polyphony from the fifteenth century onward. The official historic title in Latin of the Thomaskantor is Cantor et Director Musices, the Thomaskantor had to report to the city council, the rector of the Thomasschule and the church superintendent. He had the duty to prepare the choir for service in the citys four Lutheran churches, the main churches Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche, but also the Neue Kirche, as cantor, the Thomaskantor had to compose and take care of copying, rehearsals and performances. He also had to teach, both music and general subjects and he had to take part in the admission process for new students to the school. On high holidays, the cantata was performed in churches, in a morning service in one, in a vespers service in the other. The choir performed also for weddings and funerals, to additional funding. As director of music, the Thomaskantor was Leipzigs senior musician, responsible for the music on official occasions such as town council elections, functions related to the university took place at the Paulinerkirche. Today, the Thomaskantor leads the music in services at the Thomaskirche and he also conducts the choir in recordings and on tours. The following table shows the names of the people in the position
36.
Christoph Graupner
–
Christoph Graupner was a German harpsichordist and composer of high Baroque music who was a contemporary of Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann and George Frideric Handel. Born in Hartmannsdorf near Kirchberg in Saxony, Graupner received his first musical instruction from his uncle, Graupner went to the University of Leipzig where he studied law and then completed his musical studies with Johann Kuhnau, the cantor of the Thomasschule. In 1705 Graupner left Leipzig to play the harpsichord in the orchestra of the Hamburg Opera under the direction of Reinhard Keiser, alongside George Frideric Handel, then a young violinist. In addition to playing the harpsichord, Graupner composed six operas in Hamburg, some of them in collaboration with Keiser, in 1709 Graupner accepted a post at the court of Hesse-Darmstadt and in 1711 became the court orchestra’s Hofkapellmeister. Graupner spent the rest of his career at the court in Hesse-Darmstadt and he wrote music for nearly half a century, from 1709 to 1754, when he became blind. Graupner inadvertently played a key role in the history of music, precarious finances in Darmstadt during the 1710s forced a reduction of musical life. The opera house was closed, and many court musicians salaries were in arrears, after many attempts to have his salary paid, and having several children and a wife to support, in 1723 Graupner applied for the Cantorate in Leipzig. Telemann had been the first choice for this position, but withdrew after securing an increase in Hamburg. Graupners audition Magnificat, set in the style of his teacher, mentor and predecessor, Kuhnau, however, Graupners patron would not release him from his contract. Graupners past due salary was paid in full, his salary was increased, with such favorable terms, Graupner remained in Darmstadt, thus clearing the way for Bach to become the kantor in Leipzig. There are about 2,000 surviving works in his catalog, nearly all of Graupners manuscripts are housed in the ULB in Darmstadt, Germany. Graupner wrote for exotic combinations of instruments, including the oboe damore, flute damore, and viola damore. Over half of his sinfonias require brass and timpani, with about 25 sinfonias requiring 3 to 4 timpani, one 5 timpani, after he died, Graupners works fell into obscurity for a number of reasons. His manuscripts became the object of a legal battle between his heirs and the rulers of Hesse-Darmstadt. A final court decision denied the Graupner estate ownership of the music manuscripts, the heirs were unable to obtain permission to sell or publish his works and they remained inaccessible to the public. Dramatic changes in music styles had reduced the interest in Graupners music, on the positive side however, the Landgraves seizure of Graupners musical estate ensured its survival in toto. Fate was not so kind to J. S. Bachs musical legacy, another factor that contributed to Graupners posthumous obscurity was that, unlike Bach, Graupner had very few pupils other than Johann Friedrich Fasch to carry on his musical legacy. Graupners music is enjoying a revival, due in part to the research efforts of many musicologists, performers
37.
Castor et Pollux
–
Castor et Pollux is an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau, first performed on 24 October 1737 by the Académie royale de musique at its theatre in the Palais-Royal in Paris. The librettist was Pierre-Joseph-Justin Bernard, whose reputation as a salon poet it made and this was the third opera by Rameau and his second in the form of the tragédie en musique. Rameau made substantial cuts, alterations and added new material to the opera for its revival in 1754, experts still dispute which of the two versions is superior. Whatever the case, Castor et Pollux has always regarded as one of Rameaus finest works. Dill notes that in contrast, the 1754 version begins with more background behind the story of Telaires love for Castor. The events in Act I of the 1737 version appear in Act II of the 1754 version, Dill claims that Voltaire was more interested in music than action in opera. Moreover, Dill notes a difference in the plots between in the two versions, in the 1737 version, the main concern is for the moral dilemma between love and duty that Pollux faces, should he pursue his love of Telaira or rescue his brother. Of course, he chooses the latter, while some scholars have assumed that the 1754 version was superior, Dill argues that Rameau made the changes of 1754 at a different point in his career. In 1737, he was testing the limits of tragedie lyrique, thus, Dill proposes that there may have been some commercial concerns behind the change in aesthetic in 1754, as the revised version conformed more to the traditional Lullian aesthetic. He comments that many see the revision as more innovative. Castor et Pollux appeared in 1737 while the controversy ignited by Rameaus first opera Hippolyte et Aricie was still raging, conservative critics held the works of the father of French opera, Jean-Baptiste Lully, to be unsurpassable. They saw Rameaus radical musical innovations as an attack on all they held dear and this controversy ensured that the premiere of Castor would be a noteworthy event. Rameau had not altered the structure of Lullys tragédie lyrique genre. He had simply expanded the resources available to French opera composers. While some welcomed Rameaus new idiom, more conservative listeners found it unappealing, on the one hand, Rameaus supporter Diderot remarked, Old Lulli is simple, natural, even, too even sometimes, and this is a defect. Young Rameau is singular, brilliant, complex, learned, too learned sometimes, on the other hand, the complaint of the Lullistes was that Rameaus musical idiom was far more expressive that Lullys and went so far as to call it distastefully Italianate. For example, where Lully has contained musical expression, Rameaus recitative style included much wider melodic leaps in contrast to Lullys more declamatory style. This can be heard clearly, for example, in the opening recitative between Phoebe and Cleone in Act I, scene 1 of the 1754 revised version, additionally, he added a richer harmonic vocabulary that included ninth chords
38.
Jean-Philippe Rameau
–
Jean-Philippe Rameau was one of the most important French composers and music theorists of the Baroque era. He replaced Jean-Baptiste Lully as the dominant composer of French opera and is considered the leading French composer for the harpsichord of his time. He was almost 50 before he embarked on the career on which his reputation chiefly rests today. His debut, Hippolyte et Aricie, caused a stir and was fiercely attacked by the supporters of Lullys style of music for its revolutionary use of harmony. Rameaus music had gone out of fashion by the end of the 18th century, today, he enjoys renewed appreciation with performances and recordings of his music ever more frequent. The details of Rameaus life are obscure, especially concerning his first forty years. He was a man, and even his wife knew nothing of his early life. Rameaus early years are particularly obscure and he was born on 25 September 1683 in Dijon, and baptised the same day. His father, Jean, worked as an organist in churches around Dijon. The couple had children, of whom Jean-Philippe was the seventh. Rameau was taught music before he could read or write and he was educated at the Jesuit college at Godrans, but he was not a good pupil and disrupted classes with his singing, later claiming that his passion for opera had begun at the age of twelve. Initially intended for the law, Rameau decided he wanted to be a musician, and his father sent him to Italy, on his return, he worked as a violinist in travelling companies and then as an organist in provincial cathedrals before moving to Paris for the first time. Here, in 1706, he published his earliest known compositions, the works that make up his first book of Pièces de clavecin. In 1709, he moved back to Dijon to take over his fathers job as organist in the main church, the contract was for six years, but Rameau left before then and took up similar posts in Lyon and Clermont. During this period, he composed motets for church performance as well as secular cantatas, in 1722, he returned to Paris for good, and here he published his most important work of music theory, Traité de lharmonie. This soon won him a reputation, and it was followed in 1726 by his Nouveau système de musique théorique. In 1724 and 1729, he published two more collections of harpsichord pieces. Rameau took his first tentative steps into composing music when the writer Alexis Piron asked him to provide songs for his popular comic plays written for the Paris Fairs
39.
Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg
–
Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg was a German music critic, music theorist and composer. He was friendly and active with many figures of the Enlightenment of the 18th century, little is known of Marpurgs early life. According to various sources, he studied philosophy and music and it is clear that he enjoyed a strong education and was friendly with various leading figures of the Enlightenment, including Winckelmann and Lessing. In 1746, he travelled to Paris as the secretary for a General named either Rothenberg or Bodenberg, there, he became acquainted with important intellectual luminaries, such as the writer and philosopher Voltaire, the mathematician dAlembert and the composer Jean-Philippe Rameau. After 1746, he returned to Berlin where he was more or less independent, Marpurgs offer to write exclusively for Breitkopf & Härtel was declined by the firm in 1757. In 1760, he received an appointment to the Royal Prussian Lotteries, whose director he became in 1763 and his son, Johann Friedrich Marpurg, who later became a celebrated violinist, was born in 1766. Marpurgs quarrelsome disposition and his enthusiasm for public polemics made him many enemies, contemporaries also described him, however, as courteous and open-hearted. Marpurg published the bulk of his writings on music between 1750 and 1763, after he had attained his lottery position in 1763, he penned two works on this topic but continued to write on wider areas of music. One of the first works of Marpurg was his tract on the Fugue which is considered one of the oldest sources for the practice of J. S. His Handbuch bey dem Generalbasse und der Composition and the translation of dAlemberts Elémens de musique stand at the beginning of Rameau reception in German harmonic theory, other works treat questions of instrumental performance, vocal music, music history and mathematical music theory. His manuscript work on the ancient water organ remained unfinished, oder ausführliche Nachricht von der italienischen, und nach Art derselben zu Berlin, Paris und Brüssel etc. Yves Préfontaine, clavecin d’après Hemsch par Yves Beaupré, allgemeine deutsche Real-Encyklopädie für die gebildeten Stände
40.
Johann Mattheson
–
Johann Mattheson was a German composer, singer, writer, lexicographer, diplomat and music theorist. Mattheson was born and died in Hamburg and he was a close friend of George Frideric Handel, although he nearly killed him in a sudden quarrel, during a performance of Matthesons opera Cleopatra in 1704. Handel was saved only by a button which turned aside Matthesons sword. The son of a tax collector, Mattheson received a broad liberal education and, aside from general musical training, took lessons in keyboard instruments, violin, composition. By age nine he was singing and playing organ in church and was a member of the chorus of the Hamburg opera. He made his debut with the Hamburg opera in 1696 in female roles and, after his voice changed, sang tenor at the opera, conducted rehearsals. He was cantor at St. Marys Cathedral from 1718 until increasing deafness led to his retirement from that post in 1728, Matthesons chief occupation from 1706 was as a professional diplomat. He had studied English in school and spoke it fluently and he became tutor to the son of the English ambassador Sir John Wich and then secretary to the ambassador. He went on missions abroad representing the ambassador. In 1709 he married an English woman, after his death in 1764, Johann Mattheson was buried in the vault of Hamburgs St. Michaelis Church where his grave can be visited. Mattheson is mainly famous as a music theorist and he was the most abundant writer on performance practice, theatrical style, and harmony of the German Baroque. However his books raise more and more attention and suspicion because Mattheson was a brilliant polemist and his theories on music are often full of pedantry, the bulk of his compositional output was vocal, including eight operas, and numerous oratorios and cantatas. He also wrote a few sonatas and some music, including pieces meant for keyboard instruction. All of his music, except for one opera, one oratorio, and a few collections of music, went missing after World War II. This includes four operas and most of the oratorios, the manuscripts are now located at the Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, the former Hamburg Stadtbibliothek. Letters and writings of George Frideric Handel Notes Bibliography Johann Mattheson, Rhetoric and music from The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ISBN 1-56159-174-2 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era. ISBN 0-393-09745-5 Free scores by Johann Mattheson at the International Music Score Library Project
41.
Johann Joachim Quantz
–
Johann Joachim Quantz was a German flutist, flute maker and Baroque music composer. He composed hundreds of flute sonatas and concertos, and wrote On Playing the Flute, Quantz was born as Hanß Jochim Quantz in Oberscheden, near Göttingen, in the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. His father, Andreas Quantz, was a blacksmith who died when Hans was not yet 11, on his deathbed, from 1714 on, Quantz studied composition extensively and pored over scores of the masters to adopt their style. In 1716 he joined the band in Dresden, where in 1717 he studied counterpoint with Jan Dismas Zelenka. In March 1718 he was appointed oboist in the newly formed Dresden Polish Chapel of August II, Elector of Saxony and he became good friends with Johann Georg Pisendel, concertmaster of the Royal Orchestra, who greatly influenced his style. Between 1724 and 1727 Quantz completed his education by doing a Grand Tour of Europe as a flutist. He studied counterpoint with Francesco Gasparini in Rome, met Alessandro Scarlatti in Naples, befriended the flutist Michel Blavet in Paris, in 1728 Quantz accompanied August II on a state visit to Berlin. The Queen of Prussia was impressed and wanted to hire him, though August II refused, he allowed Quantz to travel to Berlin as often as he was asked to. That year the Crown Prince, Frederick II of Prussia, decided to study the flute, Quantz later told writer Friedrich Nicolai that he once had to hide in a closet during an outburst of Fredericks domineering father, who disapproved of his sons musical studies. Until 1741 Quantz remained at the Saxon Court in Dresden and he married Anna Rosina Carolina Schindler in 1737, the marriage was not happy, and it was generally known in Berlin that Quantzs wife tyrannized him. When Frederick II became King of Prussia in 1740, Quantz finally accepted a position as flute teacher and he joined that court in December 1741 and stayed there for the rest of his career. He made flutes from at least 1739 and was an innovator in design, adding a second key to help with intonation. It is a source of reference regarding performance practice and flute technique in the 18th century. Quantz remained at Fredericks court at Potsdam until his death in 1773, a biography appeared in 1755 in Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurgs Historisch-kritischen Beyträgen zur Aufnahme der Musik, another, in Italian, followed in 1762. His grandnephew, Albert Quantz, published a biography in 1877. Few of Quantzs works were published during his lifetime, most of them are for transverse flute, including more than 200 sonatas, around 300 concertos,45 trio sonatas, and various flute duets, trios, and quartets. The works list was established by Horst Augsbach, QV stands for Quantz Verzeichnis, and Anh. for Anhang when the authenticity of the works is spurious. Quantz and his Versuch, three studies, Quantz heute, Der Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen als Lehrbuch für unser Musizieren
42.
Johann Adolf Scheibe
–
Johann Adolph Scheibe was a German-Danish composer and significant critic and theorist of music. Johann Adolf Scheibe was born in Leipzig as the son of Johann Scheibe, an organ builder, gottscheds writings, which were primarily targeted toward the reform of German poetry and drama, greatly informed Scheibes formulation of his philosophy of music. Due to financial difficulties, Scheibe was unable to finish his university studies, in 1729 he applied unsuccessfully for the post of organist at St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, where Johann Sebastian Bach was the cantor. Scheibe was active in the scene of Leipzig until 1735. In 1736, he moved to Hamburg where he made influential friends including Johann Mattheson, encouraged by both, Scheibe published the magazine Der Critische Musikus between 1737 and 1740. The magazine received widespread attention and remains significant today for its discussion of significant contemporary composers, in 1739, Margrave Friedrich Ernst of Brandenburg-Culmbach named Scheibe his kapellmeister. The next year, upon the invitation of the Margraves sister, Scheibe rapidly became the most significant musical figure in Copenhagen. After the kings death in 1746, his successor Frederick V affected a move away from the pietism of the previous monarchs, Theatre and opera were once again allowed, and the Royal Danish Theatre opened in 1749. Musical taste turned to Italian opera and French comic opera, Scheibe was strongly opposed to this new style, and his employment was terminated in 1748. Scheibe moved to Sønderborg where he opened a school for children while continuing to write, compose. During this time, he maintained contact with life in Copenhagen, often visiting to lead performances of works composed for royal occasions. The funeral cantatas for King Friedrich V and Queen Luisa are among his finest works and he published a collection of New Freemasons Songs with Easy Melodies in 1749, having been a member of the Lodge of Zorobabel since 1746. In 1762, Scheibe returned to Copenhagen, where he remained until his death 14 years later. Though most of his music is now lost, he composed over 150 church pieces and oratorios, some 200 concertos, Scheibe translated and wrote a biography of Baron Ludvig Holberg, whose works on natural and common law remained significant for 200 years. He published an edition of the Critische Musikus in 1745. His other large works are the Treatise on the Age and Origin of Music, Scheibe held Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Frideric Handel as the finest composers of keyboard music, citing structure and ornamentation as of primary importance. He considered Bach to be the finest contemporary player of the organ, harpsichord and clavichord, Bachs Italian Concerto, published in 1735, was for Scheibe a perfect example of a well-constructed concerto. Scheibes often-quoted objections to the music of Bach derive from a letter from 1737 in the Critischer Musikus
Works written by or about Georg Philipp Telemann at Wikisource