1.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
2.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
3.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
4.
Arlington National Cemetery
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The United States Department of the Army, a component of the United States Department of Defense, controls the cemetery. The national cemetery was established during the Civil War on the grounds of Arlington House, like nearly all federal installations in Arlington County, it has a Washington, D. C. mailing address. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of Martha Washington, acquired the land now is Arlington National Cemetery in 1802. The estate passed to Custis daughter, Mary Anna, who had married United States Army officer Robert E. Lee. Custis will gave an inheritance to Mary Lee, allowing her to live at and run Arlington Estate for the rest of her life. Upon her death, the Arlington estate passed to her eldest son, on May 7, troops of the Virginia militia occupied Arlington and Arlington House. With Confederate forces occupying Arlingtons high ground, the capital of the Union was left in a military position. Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Lee believed her estate would soon be infested with federal soldiers, so she buried many of her family treasures on the grounds and left for her sisters estate at Ravensworth in Fairfax County, Virginia, on May 14. On May 3, General Winfield Scott ordered Brigadier General Irvin McDowell to clear Arlington, McDowell occupied Arlington without opposition on May 24. In May 1864, Union forces suffered large numbers of dead in the Battle of the Wilderness, Meigs ordered that an examination of eligible sites be made for the establishment for a large new national military cemetery. Within weeks, his staff reported that Arlington Estate was the most suitable property in the area, the property was high and free from floods, it had a view of the District of Columbia, and it was aesthetically pleasing. It was also the home of the leader of the forces of the Confederate States of America. The first military burial at Arlington, for William Henry Christman, was made on May 13,1864, however, Meigs did not formally authorize establishment of burials until June 15,1864. Arlington did not desegregate its burial practices until President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 on July 26,1948, the government acquired Arlington at a tax sale in 1864 for $26,800, equal to $410,000 today. Mrs. Lee had not appeared in person but rather had sent an agent, the government turned away her agent, refusing to accept the tendered payment. In 1874, Custis Lee, heir under his grandfathers will passing the estate in trust to his mother, sued the United States claiming ownership of Arlington. In December,1882, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in Lees favor in United States v. Lee, deciding that Arlington had been confiscated without due process. After that decision, Congress returned the estate to him, and on March 3,1883, the land then became a military reservation
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
7.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
8.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
9.
Major general (United States)
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In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general, a major general typically commands division-sized units of 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers. Major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army,61 for the Marine Corps, some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the President, through the Secretary of Defense for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, the nominee is promoted to rank on assuming a position of office that requires an officer to hold the rank. For positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, since the grade of major general is permanent, the rank does not expire when the officer vacates a two-star position. Tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, and/or when the officer receives a new assignment or a promotion, in the case of the Air National Guard, they may also serve as The Adjutant General for their state, commonwealth or territory. Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers, all major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise, all officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense may defer a general officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, because there are a finite number of General Officer positions, one officer must retire before another can be promoted. As a result, general officers typically retire well in advance of the age and service limits. The rank of general was abolished in the U. S. Army by the Act of March 16,1802. Major general has been a rank in the U. S. Army ever since, to address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976. The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to three stars according to General Order No.6 of March 13,1861
10.
36th Ohio Infantry
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The 36th Ohio Volunteer Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Recruited from several counties in southeastern Ohio, the 36th O. V. I, participated in several battles in the Eastern Theater before being transferred for a period to the Western Theater. In 1864, it returned to the East and participated in the Valley Campaigns of 1864, the 36th Ohio was raised at Marietta, Ohio, between July 30 and August 31,1861. After training and drilling, the new regiment moved to Summersville, Virginia in what is now West Virginia and it engaged in several raids and operations in the region and helped win a decisive victory at the Battle of Lewisburg. In August 1862 the regiment moved into the defenses of Washington, shortly thereafter, the 36th participated in the Northern Virginia Campaign and in the Second Battle of Bull Run. During the subsequent Maryland Campaign, the 36th, as part of the Army of the Potomac, attacked Confederate forces on South Mountain and then took part in the Battle of Antietam on September 17. In 1863, the regiment moved to Eastern Tennessee and participated in actions, including the Battle of Hoovers Gap. It then fought at Chickamauga in northern Georgia in September and it also was in action during the Chattanooga Campaign. When the regiments term of enlistment expired late in the year, the regiment was mustered out on July 27,1865. The 36th Ohio suffered 4 officers and 136 enlisted men killed in battle or died of wounds, the Salem Light Guard, Company G 36th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry Marietta Ohio, 1862-65. Another Day in Lincolns Army, The Civil War Journals of Sgt, crooks Regulars, The 36th Ohio in the War of Rebellion
11.
VIII Corps (Union Army)
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The VIII Corps was a corps of the Union Army during the American Civil War. It spent most of 1862 guarding the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad lines between Baltimore, Harpers Ferry, and Winchester, the corps, then led by Robert C. Schenck, played a role in the early stages of the Gettysburg Campaign. The badly battered corps withdrew to Harpers Ferry after that, playing no role in the campaign. The VIII Corps played a part in the defense of Washington from Jubal Early at Monocacy on July 9,1864 under the commander of Maj. Gen. Lew Wallace. The primary duty of the VIII Corps in 1864 was rear echelon duties in Maryland guarding the Baltimore, elements of the corps also battled Confederate cavalry as it raided across Maryland to the suburbs of Baltimore during Earlys Raid on Washington. The headquarters of the department was located in Baltimore, the VIII Corps is often confused with the Army of West Virginia which served in the Shenandoah Valley and western Virginia throughout 1864. It is furthermore confusing in the fact that the Army of West Virginia functioned as a corps within the Army of the Shenandoah, the result was references to the Army of West Virginia as the VIII Corps even though they were never officially synonymous. Eicher, John H. & Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press,2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
12.
Arizona Territory
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It was created from the western half of the New Mexico Territory during the American Civil War. These proposals arose from concerns about the ability of the government in Santa Fe to effectively administer the newly acquired southern portions of the territory. The first proposal dates from a conference held in Tucson that convened on August 29,1856. The conference issued a petition to the U. S. Congress, signed by 256 people, requesting organization of the territory, later a similar proposal was defeated in the Senate. In April 1860, impatient for Congress to act, a convention of 31 delegates met in Tucson, the delegates elected Lewis Owings as provisional governor. At the outbreak of the Civil War, sentiment in the territory was in favor of the Confederacy, the Confederacy regarded the territory as a valuable route for possible access to the Pacific Ocean, with the specific intention of capturing California. In July 1861, a small Confederate force of Texans under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John R. Baylor assaulted Fort Fillmore at Mesilla in the part of the territory. After the fort was abandoned by the Union garrison, Baylors force cut off the fleeing Union troops and forced them to surrender. On August 1, Baylor issued a Proclamation to the People of the Territory of Arizona, taking possession of the territory for the Confederacy, with Mesilla as the capital and himself as the governor. On August 28, a convention met again in Tucson and declared that the formed the previous year was part of the Confederacy. Granville H. Oury was elected as delegate to the Confederate Congress, Oury drafted legislation authorizing the organization of the Confederate Territory of Arizona. The legislation passed on January 13,1862, and the territory was created by proclamation of President Jefferson Davis on February 14. The following month, in March 1862, the U. S, the use of a north-south border rather than an east-west one had the effect of denying a de facto ratification of the Confederate Arizona Territory. The house bill stipulated that Tucson was to be the capital, the first capital was at Prescott, in the northern Union-controlled area. The boundaries for the territory, if they had kept their same size. However, in 1866, the section was annexed to the state of Nevada. The following year, the capital was moved to Tucson, the territory was admitted to the Union as the 48th state on February 14,1912. Proclamation To The People Of Arizona, the Worlds Work, A History of Our Time
13.
Department of the Platte
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With headquarters in Omaha, the district commander oversaw the armys role initially along the Overland route to Salt Lake City, then later the construction route of the Union Pacific Railroad. The district also included the Montana road through eastern Wyoming, the district was discontinued when the Armys command was reorganized in 1898. The Headquarters of the Department of the Platte was located in downtown Omaha, when the headquarters was transferred to Fort Omaha in 1878, the building it was located in was found unsuitable, and the headquarters were again transferred downtown. Brigadier General Philip St. George Cooke, March 5,1866 Major General Christopher C
14.
Department of the Missouri
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The Department of the Missouri was a command echelon of the United States Army in the 19th century and a sub division of the Military Division of the Missouri that functioned through the Indian Wars. In practice the Secretary of War and the heads of the armys staff agencies—who reported directly to him —exercised full authority, with a lack of central direction, policy and strategy were de facto developed by the commanders of the numbered geographical departments and three division headquarters. After October 31,1853 the division echelon was eliminated and the six western departments consolidated into four, whose department commanders employed their troops as they saw fit. The system returned to six departments in 1858 when the Department of Utah was created in January, Military activity affecting one department often originated in another department, preventing efficient use of limited manpower and coordination of efforts. The Department of Missouri resulted from the reorganization and breakup the Department of the West on November 9,1861, frémont when he would not rescind his order emancipating the slaves of Missouri and imposing martial law on the state. David Hunter served briefly as the last commander Department of the West, the new department included Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky west of the Cumberland River and at times, Kansas. It briefly merged with the Department of Mississippi in 1862, but was recreated September 19, now consisting of Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, colorado and Nebraska were added on October 11,1862, and the department became generally known as the Department of the Missouri. From 1862 to 1865 the department was concerned with fighting Confederates in Missouri. The Department of Kansas was created for a time on January 1,1864. The new commander of the Department of Kansas, Maj. Gen. Samuel R, Curtis created a new District of the Upper Arkansas, to wage the war but he was wholly incapable of locating his opponents. In his other District of Nebraska, the warfare was more intense. Henry W. Halleck Samuel R. Curtis John M. Schofield William S. Rosecrans Grenville M. St. Thian, Notes Illustrating the Military Geography of the United States, francis Paul Prucha, A Guide to the Military Posts of the United States, 1789-1895. Utley, Robert M. Frontiersmen in Blue, The United States Army, the Civil War Day by Day, An Almanac, 1861–1865, by E. B. Long With Barbara Long 1985 De Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-80255-4, page 138
15.
Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred across the North American continent from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. There was population pressure as settlers expanded their territory, generally pushing indigenous people northward and westward, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory. The United States gave up on the remainder, by then living defensively deep in the swamps, others were moved to reservations west of the Mississippi River, most famously the Cherokee whose relocation was called the Trail of Tears. For the Americans the American Revolutionary War was essentially two parallel wars, while the war in the east was a struggle against British rule, the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for control of the territory of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Some Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, as they hoped to win the opportunity to reduce settlement, the Revolutionary War was the most extensive and destructive Indian war in United States history. Some native communities were divided over which side to support in the war, while the Iroquois tried to avoid fighting directly against one another, the Revolution eventually forced intra-Iroquois combat. Both sides lost territory following the United States establishing its independence, the Crown aided the landless Iroquois by rewarding them with a reservation at Grand River in Ontario and some other lands
16.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
17.
Battle of South Mountain
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The Battle of South Mountain—known in several early Southern accounts as the Battle of Boonsboro Gap—was fought September 14,1862, as part of the Maryland Campaign of the American Civil War. Three pitched battles were fought for possession of three South Mountain passes, Cramptons, Turners, and Foxs Gaps. McClellan, commanding the Union Army of the Potomac, needed to pass through gaps in his pursuit of Confederate General Robert E. Lees precariously divided Army of Northern Virginia. Although the delay bought at South Mountain would allow him to reunite his army and forestall defeat in detail, South Mountain is the name given to the continuation of the Blue Ridge Mountains after they enter Maryland. It is an obstacle that separates the Hagerstown Valley and Cumberland Valley from the eastern part of Maryland. After Lee invaded Maryland, a copy of an order, known as order 191, from this, McClellan learned that Lee had split his forces, sending one wing under Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson to lay siege to Harpers Ferry. The rest of Lees army was posted at Boonsboro under command of Maj. Gen. James Longstreet. C, to counter the Confederate invasion, McClellan lead the Army of the Potomac west in an effort to force battle on the isolated parts of Lees divided force. McClellan temporarily organized his army into three wings for the attacks on the passes, Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside, the Right Wing, commanded the I Corps and IX Corps. The Right Wing was sent to Turners Gap and Foxs Gap in the north, the Left Wing, commanded by Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisting of his own VI Corps and Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couchs division of the IV Corps, was sent to Cramptons Gap in the south, the Center Wing, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, was in reserve. From Boonsboro, Lee had sent a column under Maj Gen. James Longstreet northward to respond to a threat from Pennsylvania. After learning of McClellans intelligence coup, Lee quickly recalled Longstreets forces to reinforce the South Mountain passes, on the day of the battle, the only Confederate force posted around Boonsboro was a five-brigade division under Maj. Gen. D. H. Hill. At the southernmost point of the battle, near Burkittsville, Confederate cavalry, franklin spent three hours deploying his forces. A Confederate later wrote of a lion making exceedingly careful preparations to spring on a little mouse. Franklin deployed the division of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum on the right and they seized the gap and captured 400 prisoners, mostly men who were arriving as late reinforcements from Brig. Gen. Howell Cobbs brigade. Confederate Maj. Gen. D. H. Hill, deploying 5,000 men over more than 2 miles, Burnside sent Hookers I Corps to the right and Turners Gap. The Union Iron Brigade attacked Colonel Alfred H. Colquitts brigade along the National Road, driving it back up the mountain, hooker positioned three divisions opposite two peaks located one mile north of the gap. Darkness and the terrain prevented the complete collapse of Lees line
18.
Battle of Antietam
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After pursuing the Confederate general Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan of the Union Army launched attacks against Lees army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers corps mounted an assault on Lees left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Millers Cornfield, and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church, Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides corps entered the action, capturing a bridge over Antietam Creek. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A. P. Hills division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a counterattack, driving back Burnside. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, during the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, despite having superiority of numbers, McClellans attacks failed to achieve force concentration, which allowed Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Therefore, despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan had halted Lees invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. McClellans refusal to pursue Lees army led to his removal from command by President Abraham Lincoln in November, although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia—about 55,000 men—entered the state of Maryland on September 3,1862, emboldened by success, the Confederate leadership intended to take the war into enemy territory. Lees invasion of Maryland was intended to run simultaneously with an invasion of Kentucky by the armies of Braxton Bragg and it was also necessary for logistical reasons, as northern Virginias farms had been stripped bare of food. They sang the tune Maryland, My Maryland, as they marched, but by the fall of 1862 pro-Union sentiment was winning out, especially in the western parts of the state. Civilians generally hid inside their houses as Lees army passed through their towns, or watched in cold silence, while the Army of the Potomac was cheered and encouraged. While McClellans 87, 000-man Army of the Potomac was moving to intercept Lee, the order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat if McClellan could move quickly enough. McClellan waited about 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence and reposition his forces, McClellans Army of the Potomac, bolstered by units absorbed from John Popes Army of Virginia, included six infantry corps. The I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of the divisions of, the II Corps, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Israel B. The V Corps, under Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter, consisted of the divisions of, the VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Maj. Gen. William F. Baldy Smith
19.
Battle of Hoover's Gap
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Following the Battle of Stones River, Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans, commanding the Union Army of the Cumberland, remained in the Murfreesboro, Tennessee, area for over five months. In an effort to block further Union progress, Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg, commander of the Army of Tennessee, on the Confederate right, infantry and artillery detachments guarded Liberty, Hoovers, and Bellbuckle Gaps through the Highland Rim. Rosecranss superiors, fearing that Bragg might detach large numbers of men to break the Siege of Vicksburg. On June 23,1863, Rosecrans deployed forces to feign an attack on Shelbyville while massing forces against Braggs right and his troops struck out toward the gaps. On June 24, Maj. Gen. George H. Thomass men, spearheaded by Colonel John T. Wilders Lightning Brigade, Wilders mounted infantry pushed ahead and reached the gap nearly 9 miles ahead of Thomass main body. Wilders men were armed with new Spencer repeating rifles and when attacked the Confederate 1st Kentucky Cavalry Regiment. As Butlers unit fell back the entire 7 mile length of Hoovers Gap, Wilder entrenched on the hills south of the gap and determined to hold this extremely advanced position. Bates brigade counterattacked throughout the day but could not dislodge the Federals, Wilder received orders from Thomas to fall back through the gap. Wilder refused claiming he could hold his ground. Meanwhile, Brig. Gen. Bushrod Johnsons brigade arrived and now Bate and this attack was also repulsed and by 7,00 p. m. units from Lovell Rousseau and John M. Brannans divisions of Thomass corps arrived at the gap. Just before noon on June 26, Stewart sent a message to Johnson and Bate stating that he was pulling back, although slowed by rain, Rosecrans moved on, forcing Bragg to retreat from his defensive line and fall back to Tullahoma. After reaching Tullahoma, Rosecrans sent Wilders Lightning Brigade ahead to hit the railroad in Braggs rear, arriving too late to destroy the Elk River railroad bridge, the Federals destroyed railroad track around Decherd. Bragg evacuated his forces from Middle Tennessee and withdrew to the city of Chattanooga, Rosecrans followed and captured that city on September 8,1863. Maneuvering then continued in the Chickamauga Campaign, national Park Service battle description Kennedy, Frances H. ed. 2nd ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.1998, CWSAC report update West Point Atlas map of Tullahoma Campaign
20.
Battle of Chickamauga
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The Battle of Chickamauga, fought September 18–20,1863, marked the end of a Union offensive in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia called the Chickamauga Campaign. The battle was the most significant Union defeat in the Western Theater of the American Civil War and it was the first major battle of the war that was fought in Georgia. After his successful Tullahoma Campaign, Rosecrans renewed the offensive, aiming to force the Confederates out of Chattanooga, in early September, Rosecrans consolidated his forces scattered in Tennessee and Georgia and forced Braggs army out of Chattanooga, heading south. The Union troops followed it and brushed with it at Daviss Cross Roads, Bragg was determined to reoccupy Chattanooga and decided to meet a part of Rosecranss army, defeat it, and then move back into the city. On September 17 he headed north, intending to attack the isolated XXI Corps, as Bragg marched north on September 18, his cavalry and infantry fought with Union cavalry and mounted infantry, which were armed with Spencer repeating rifles. Fighting began in earnest on the morning of September 19, Braggs men strongly assaulted but could not break the Union line. The next day, Bragg resumed his assault, in late morning, Rosecrans was misinformed that he had a gap in his line. Longstreets attack drove one-third of the Union army, including Rosecrans himself, Union units spontaneously rallied to create a defensive line on Horseshoe Ridge, forming a new right wing for the line of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, who assumed overall command of remaining forces. Although the Confederates launched costly and determined assaults, Thomas and his men held until twilight, Union forces then retired to Chattanooga while the Confederates occupied the surrounding heights, besieging the city. General-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck and President Abraham Lincoln were insistent that Rosecrans move quickly to take Chattanooga, seizing the city would open the door for the Union to advance toward Atlanta and the heartland of the South. Chattanooga was a rail hub, and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke. Situated between Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Raccoon Mountain, and Stringers Ridge, Chattanooga occupied an important, defensible position. Although Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee had about 52,000 men at the end of July, Buckner, into Braggs Department of Tennessee, which added 17,800 men to Braggs army, but also extended his command responsibilities northward to the Knoxville area. This brought a third subordinate into Braggs command who had little or no respect for him, Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee had already made their animosity well known. Buckners attitude was colored by Braggs unsuccessful invasion of Buckners native Kentucky in 1862, as well as by the loss of his command through the merger. A positive aspect for Bragg was Hardees request to be transferred to Mississippi in July, but he was replaced by Lt. Gen. D. H. Hill, a general who did not get along with Robert E. Lee in Virginia. The Confederate War Department asked Bragg in early August whether he could assume the offensive against Rosecrans if he were given reinforcements for Mississippi and he demurred, concerned about the daunting geographical obstacles and logistical challenges, preferring to wait for Rosecrans to solve those same problems and attack him. He was also concerned about a sizable Union force under Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside that was threatening Knoxville, Bragg withdrew his forces from advanced positions around Bridgeport, which left Rosecrans free to maneuver on the northern side of the Tennessee River
21.
Battle of Cloyd's Mountain
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The Battle of Cloyds Mountain was a Union victory in western Virginia on May 9,1864 that allowed the Union forces to destroy the last line connecting Tennessee to Virginia. Brigadier General George Crook commanded the Union Army of West Virginia, when Ulysses S. Grant launched his spring offensive of 1864, two Union armies marched towards Richmond and a third moved into the Shenandoah Valley. Crooks troops were involved in the offensive and began to march through the Appalachian Mountains into southwest Virginia. His objective was to destroy the Virginia & Tennessee Railroad, working in conjunction with William W. Averells offensive, brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins was in command of the few scattered Confederate units protecting the rail lines. He had only assumed command only the day before Crooks army began to approach the railroad, nevertheless, Jenkins was an experienced soldier. During the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign, Jenkins Brigade had formed the screen for Richard S. Ewells Second Corps. Jenkins led his men through the Cumberland Valley into Pennsylvania and seized Chambersburg and he accompanied Ewells column to Carlisle, briefly skirmishing with Union militia at the Battle of Sporting Hill near Harrisburg. During the Battle of Gettysburg, Jenkins was wounded on July 2 and he did not recover to rejoin his command until autumn. Jenkins spent the part of 1864 raising and organizing a large cavalry force for service in western Virginia. By May, he had been appointed Commander of the Department of Western Virginia with his headquarters at Dublin, Jenkins, having decided to make a stand at Cloyds Mountain, set up a strong defensive position. When Crook arrived, he decided against an assault, concluding that the Confederate works were too strong. The surrounding area was forested and Crook used this as cover to swing his brigades around to the Confederate right flank. Crook began the battle with a barrage, then sent in his brigade of green West Virginians under Colonel Carr B. White. Crooks remaining two brigades under Colonel Horatio G. Sickel and future president Colonel Rutherford B. Hayes were to launch an assault as soon as the West Virginians had gotten under way. Serving as a major under Hayes was another future U. S. President, whites brigade, in its first fight, advanced to within 20 yards before heavy casualties from its exposed position forced it back. Crook, moving with Hayes Ohio brigade, had to dismount, still wearing his jack boots, he sank in a small stream the troops were crossing and his boots filled with water. Nearby soldiers rushed back and pulled him out, Hayes brigade spearheaded the main assault around 11 a. m. The troops fought their way to the Confederate works and severe hand-to-hand fighting ensued, sparks from the musket fire ignited the thick blanket of leaves on the ground, and many men from Sickels and Hayes brigades were pinned down and burned alive
22.
Second Battle of Kernstown
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The Second Battle of Kernstown was fought on July 24,1864, at Kernstown, Virginia, outside Winchester, Virginia, as part of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 in the American Civil War. The confederate Army of the Valley under Lt. Gen. Jubal A, Early soundly defeated the Union Army of West Virginia under Brig. Gen. George Crook and drove it from the Shenandoah Valley back over the Potomac River into Maryland. On July 19, following a series of unsuccessful Union attacks on his flanks, the following two days were relatively quiet with both armies resting in their camps some 15 miles from each other. On July 23, Confederate cavalry attacked the Union advanced picket line at Kernstown, from prisoners caught in the skirmish Early learned of Wrights departure. In order to continue to be of service to Lee in the Valley, on the morning of July 24, Early marched his army north against Crook. Confederate cavalry encountered its Union counterpart south of Kernstown in the morning, couriers alerted Crook to the attack. Crook still believed Earlys infantry had left the Valley and sent only two of his division with cavalry support to meet the attack, in the early afternoon the infantry of both armies had arrived on the field. The Confederate position extended well to side of the Valley pike south of Kernstown, anchored on each flank on high ground. Gordons division formed the Confederate center along the Valley Turnpike, ramseurs division formed on his left with its flank resting on Sandy Ridge to the west of Kernstown, screened by Col. William Mudwall Jacksons cavalry. Whartons division, led by Maj. Gen. John C, Breckinridge, formed the Confederate right, with its flank screened by Brig. Gen. John C. To his right, Col. Joseph Thoburns division formed on Sandy Ridge, to his left, future president Rutherford B. Hayess brigade formed east of the Valley turnpike, Crook dispatched cavalry under Averell to ride around the Confederate right flank and get in its rear. As the two armies skirmishers encountered one another the battle got under way and it soon became apparent to the Federal divisional commanders that they were facing a superior Confederate force which they were hesitant to attack and relayed the information to Crook. Crook quickly became impatient by his divisional commanders hesitance to attack the Confederate position and he ordered Mulligan to attack the Confederates with Thorburns division in support. At 1 p. m. the Union infantry reluctantly moved out, Mulligans division bitterly held its ground at Opequon Church where its advance was halted by Gordons men. As Hayess brigade advanced in support, Breckinridge marched Whartons division to the northeast into a ravine that ran perpendicular to the Valley Turnpike. He turned the division into the ravine, which screened his movement from the Federals on the turnpike, as Hayes came up the road past the ravine, Breckinridge ordered a charge and the Confederates assaulted Hayess exposed flank and sent his division reeling in retreat, taking many casualties. Thoburn was supposed to support Mulligans right flank in the attack, Gordons Confederates exploited the gap in the Union line to get on Mulligans right and when Hayess division broke, Mulligan found himself caught between two Confederate divisions
23.
Battle of Opequon
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The Third Battle of Winchester, was fought in Winchester, Virginia, on September 19,1864, during the Valley Campaigns of 1864 in the American Civil War. As Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal A, Early raided the B&O Railroad at Martinsburg, WV, Union Maj. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan advanced toward Winchester along the Berryville Pike with the VI Corps and XIX Corps, crossing Opequon Creek. The Union advance was delayed long enough for Early to concentrate his forces to meet the main assault, the Confederate line was gradually driven back toward the town. Mid-afternoon, the VIII Corps and the cavalry turned the Confederate left flank, because of its size, intensity, serious casualties among the general officers on both sides, and its result, many historians consider this the most important conflict of the Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan was given command of the Army of the Shenandoah and sent to the Shenandoah Valley to deal with Earlys Confederate threat, for much of the early fall of 1864, Sheridan and Early had cautiously engaged in minor skirmishes while each side tested the others strength. Early mistook this limited action to mean that Sheridan was afraid to fight, Sheridan learned of Earlys dispersed forces and immediately struck out after Winchester, the location of two previous major engagements during the war, both Confederate victories. Early quickly gathered his army back together at Winchester just in time to meet Sheridans attack on September 19. The Union forces coming in from the east had to march on the road through Berryville Canyon. This delay allowed Early to further strengthen his lines, Gordons division arrived from the north and took up position on the Confederate left. The Sixth Corps was supported by well placed batteries but Emory had no artillery going into the due to the rugged and wooded nature of the terrain. After encountering heaving resistance from the Confederate divisions of Maj. Gen. Stephen D. Ramseur on the Berryville Pike, Gordons division in front of the XIX Corps, Sheridan succeeded in driving back the Confederates from their initial positions in confusion. Fortuitously for Jubal Early, Maj. Gen. Robert Rodes division arrived on the field and counterattacked into this gap. Ramseur and Gordon rallied their divisions and joined in the counterattack, shortly after Rodess troops advanced to the attack, he was struck by a shell fragment that mortally wounded him, robbing Early of his best subordinate general. Nevertheless, Rodess troops continued their attacking unaware of his fall, Sheridan, however, closed the breach by advancing the reserve divisions of the VI and XIX Corps. In the northern sector of the battlefield, Brig, Gen William Dwights division held the Union right flank after much bitter fighting against Gordon and elements of Rodess command. Sheridan also ordered Brig. Gen. James H. Wilsons cavalry division to advance toward Earlys right flank, wilson started late and did not succeed in his mission in spite of the weak nature of the Confederates in his front. Sheridan rode to his right flank where he found the hard pressed XIX Corps and vociferously assured General Emory that Crook was coming up and that the Union forces would whip the rebels. Crook decided to relieve the XIX Corps with Col. Joseph Thoburns division and then personally led Col. Isaac Duvals division on a march north of Red Bud Run
24.
Battle of Fisher's Hill
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The Battle of Fishers Hill was fought September 21–22,1864, near Strasburg, Virginia, as part of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 during the American Civil War. Despite its strong position, the Confederate army of Lt. Gen. Jubal Early was defeated by the Union Army of the Shenandoah. Sheridan had almost 35,000 men in the Shenandoah Valley opposing Early, Early, following the Third Battle of Winchester took a strong position. His right rested on the North Branch of the Shenandoah River, the left flank of his infantry was on Fishers Hill. Confederate cavalry was expected to hold the ground from there to Little North Mountain, Maj. Gen. George Crook advised Sheridan to flank this position. His command was assigned to move along the slopes of the mountain to attack the cavalry. Crooks attack began about 4 p. m. on September 22,1864, the infantry attack pushed the Confederate troopers out of their way. Maj. Gen. Stephen Dodson Ramseur tried refusing the left flank of his division, Crook and Brig. Gen. James B. Rickettss division, of Horatio G. Wrights VI Corps struck Ramseurs line, Wrights remaining divisions and XIX Corps broke the Southern line. The Confederates fell back to Waynesboro, Virginia, Brig. Gen. Alfred Torbert was sent into the Luray Valley with 6,000 cavalrymen to force his way through the 1,200 Confederate cavalrymen under Brigadier General Williams Wickham. Torbert was then supposed to move through the New Market and Luray Gap in Massanutten Mountain and come up behind Early, Torbert fell back after making a token effort against Wickhams force at Milford and Early escaped. Four Union Army enlisted men and one received the Medal of Honor in the action at Fishers Hill. A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for Independence in the Confederate States of America, columbia, University of South Carolina Press,2001. War Department, The War of the Rebellion, a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union, washington, DC, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901
25.
Battle of Cedar Creek
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The Battle of Cedar Creek, or Battle of Belle Grove, fought October 19,1864, was the culminating battle of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 during the American Civil War. Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal Early launched an attack against the encamped army of Union Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, across Cedar Creek, northeast of Strasburg. During the morning fighting, seven Union infantry divisions were forced to back and lost numerous prisoners. Early failed to continue his attack north of Middletown, and Sheridan, a Union counterattack that afternoon routed Earlys army. At the conclusion of this battle, the final Confederate invasion of the North was effectively ended, the Confederacy was never again able to threaten Washington, D. C. through the Shenandoah Valley, nor protect one of its key economic bases in Virginia. The stunning Union victory aided the reelection of Abraham Lincoln and won Sheridan lasting fame, at the beginning of 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of all Union armies. He chose to make his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and he left Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Therefore, scorched earth tactics would be required in some important theaters, the final coordinated offensive was to be conducted by Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel through the Shenandoah Valley. During the Civil War, the Valley was one of the most important geographic features of Virginia, by the conventions of local residents, the upper Valley referred to the southwestern end, which had a generally higher elevation than the lower Valley to the northeast. Moving up the Valley meant traveling southwest, for instance, between the North and South Forks of the Shenandoah River, Massanutten Mountain soared 2,900 feet and separated the Valley into two halves for about 50 miles, from Strasburg to Harrisonburg. During the 19th century, there was but a road that crossed over the mountain. The Valley offered two advantages to the Confederates. First, a Northern army invading Virginia could be subjected to Confederate flanking attacks pouring through the many wind gaps across the Blue Ridge, in contrast, the orientation of the Valley offered little advantage to a Northern army headed toward Richmond. But denying the Valley to the Confederacy would be a significant blow and it was an agriculturally rich area—the 2. If the Federals could capture Staunton in the upper Valley, they would threaten the vital Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, which ran from Richmond to the Mississippi River. Sigel, in command of the Department of West Virginia, had orders from Grant to move up the Valley with 10,000 men to destroy the center at Lynchburg. Sigels force was intercepted by 4,000 Confederate troops under Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge, and defeated at the Battle of New Market on May 15 and he retreated to Strasburg and was replaced by Maj. Gen. David Hunter
26.
Battle of Five Forks
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The battle was immediately preceded by two battles on March 31,1865. The V Corps blocked two important roads as well as taking a position for an attack on the Confederate line. At the Battle of Dinwiddie Court House, Sheridans cavalry tactically lost a battle to Picketts combined force but had fewer casualties, at nightfall, Sheridans troopers still held a defensive line 0.75 miles north of Dinwiddie Court House. On the night of the Battle of Dinwiddie Court House at about 10,00 p. m, V Corps infantry began to arrive near the battlefield to reinforce Sheridans cavalry. At Five Forks at the beginning of the Union attack about 1,00 p. m. This fire pinned down the Confederates while the massed V Corps of infantry, commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren, an acoustic shadow in the thick woods and heavy, humid atmospheric conditions prevented them from hearing the opening stage of the battle. Pickett and Lee had not told any of the ranking officers of their absence. The first division in the attack under Brigadier General Romeyn B, Ayres alone overran the short right angled line on the left side of the Confederate main line. Sheridans personal leadership helped encourage and focus the men, Brigadier General Charles Griffins division recovered from overshooting the Confederate left and helped roll up additional improvised Confederate defense lines. The Union cavalry was somewhat successful as much of the Confederate cavalry escaped while much of the Confederate infantry became casualties or prisoners. The Union Army held Five Forks and the road to the South Side Railroad at the end of the battle, Grant ordered an attack all along the line at Petersburg for the next day. After the Battle of Hatchers Run on February 5–7,1865 extended the lines another 4 miles, johnstons force opposing Major General William T. Shermans army in North Carolina. If the Confederates could quickly defeat Sherman, they turn back to oppose Grant before he could combine his forces with Shermans. Lee began preparations for the movement and informed Confederate President Jefferson Davis, breckinridge of his conclusions and plan. Gordon to launch an attack on Union Fort Stedman designed to break Union lines east of Petersburg or at least compel Grant to shorten the Union Army lines. If this were accomplished, Lee would have a chance to shorten the Confederate lines and send a substantial force, or nearly his whole army. The Union IX Corps under Major General John G. Parke promptly counterattacked, the IX Corps recaptured the fort and batteries, forced the Confederates to return to their lines and in places to give up their advance picket line. On March 24,1865, the day before the Confederate attack on Fort Stedman, the Battle of Fort Stedman had no effect on his plans
27.
Battle of Sailor's Creek
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The Battle of Sailors Creek was fought on April 6,1865, near Farmville, Virginia, as part of the Appomattox Campaign, near the end of the American Civil War. Lee and the Union Army under the direction of Union General-in-Chief Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant before Lees surrender of his army to Grant at Appomattox Court House three days later. The battle actually was a series of at least three separate actions, including a running battle, fought mostly simultaneously but over varying periods of time on the same day. The battleground was a rural area of several miles in both width and length with creeks and bluffs at its western edge. Large units of the Union Army had pursued the Confederates after the fall of Petersburg, Virginia and Richmond, Virginia and the flight of the Confederate forces after the Third Battle of Petersburg. The Confederates were trying to get past the Union pursuers and head south to North Carolina in order to combine with the Confederate army under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston. On April 6,1865 at Sailors Creek, some of the pursuing Union units caught up with elements of the Confederate army. Except for the archaic and superseded spelling Saylers Creek, the names for the battle are names for the separate actions rather than the entire days action. As the day developed, increasing numbers of men from Union forces overtook large numbers of Confederate soldiers with their equipment, the Confederates tried to avoid moving over the rain-soaked terrain off the roads. Delays caused by the need to cross the two bridges over Sailors Creek and Little Sailors Creek and the high bluffs on the far side of the creeks added to the delays. With wagons and equipment moving at different speeds, gaps in the Confederate columns also occurred, the gaps provided easy opportunities for Union Army attacks against parts of the Confederate columns in vulnerable positions. The terrain and choke points, especially at bridges, kept some Confederates on the side of the creeks as the Union forces. The terrain, especially high bluffs, slowed and temporarily confined Confederate units on the side of the creeks. The battle as a whole was a defeat for the Confederate States Army. At least one-fifth and perhaps as many as one-third of the effective soldiers of the Confederate force. Many were taken prisoner when large groups of the Confederates were surrounded or trapped in the unfavorable terrain, captain Tom Custer, brother of Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer, received a second Medal of Honor in four days for his actions in this battle. This followed his first medal for actions at the Battle of Namozine Church on April 3,1865, a review of the Appomattox Campaign before the Battle of Sailors Creek shows the increasingly desperate circumstances of the Confederate forces leading into the battle. Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grants Union Army broke the Confederate States Army defenses of Petersburg, Virginia at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, General Robert E. Johnstons army confronting the Union army group commanded by Major General William T. Sherman in North Carolina
28.
Battle of Appomattox Courthouse
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The Battle of Appomattox Court House, fought on the morning of April 9,1865, was one of the last battles of the American Civil War. It was the engagement of Confederate Army general Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia before it surrendered to the Union Army under Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee, having abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, after the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, retreated west, Union forces pursued and cut off the Confederates retreat at the village of Appomattox Court House. Lee launched an attack to break through the Union force to his front, when he realized that the cavalry was backed up by two corps of Union infantry, he had no choice but to surrender. The signing of the surrender documents occurred in the parlor of the owned by Wilmer McLean on the afternoon of April 9. On April 12, a ceremony marked the disbandment of the Army of Northern Virginia. This event triggered a series of surrenders across the South, signaling the end of the war, the final campaign for Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States, began when the Union Army of the Potomac crossed the James River in June 1864. The armies under the command of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant laid siege to Petersburg and Richmond, intending to cut the two cities supply lines and force the Confederates to evacuate. In the spring of 1865 Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee waited for an opportunity to leave the Petersburg lines, aware that the position was untenable, on April 1,1865, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridans cavalry turned Lees flank at the Battle of Five Forks. The next day Grants army achieved a breakthrough, effectively ending the Petersburg siege. With supply lines cut, Lees men abandoned the trenches they had held for ten months, Lees first objective was to reassemble and supply his men at Amelia Courthouse. His plan was to link up with Gen. Joseph E. Johnstons Army of Tennessee, when the troops arrived at Amelia on April 4, however, they found no provisions. Lee sent wagons out to the country to forage. The army then headed west to Appomattox Station, where a supply train awaited him, Lees army was now composed of the cavalry corps and two small infantry corps. En route to the station, on April 6 at Sailors Creek, nearly one fourth of the retreating Confederate army was cut off by Sheridans cavalry and elements of the II, two Confederate divisions fought the VI Corps along the creek. The Confederates attacked but were back, and soon after the Union cavalry cut through the right of the Confederate lines. Most of the 7,700 Confederates were captured or surrendered, including Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell and eight other general officers. The delay prevented Lee from reaching the station until late afternoon on April 8, allowing Sheridan to reach the station that evening, where he captured Lees supplies and obstructed his path
29.
Battle of Salt River Canyon
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It was part of the Yavapai War from 1871 to 1875. On December 28,1872 Crooks men encountered the Yavapai stronghold at Skeleton Cave located in Salt River Canyon, Crooks force composed of 130 troopers from the 5th Cavalry Regiment led by Captain William H. Brown and another thirty Apache Scouts. The army took up a position around the mouth of Skeleton Cave, surrounded, the warriors refused to surrender and the soldiers opened fire. Some of Browns men aimed for the roof of the cave, others, who were personally accompanied by Crook, rolled rocks and boulders down from the cliffs above. Seventy-six dead were found in the cave afterward, a few who were captured were taken to Camp Grant. Among the dead within the cave was Chief Nanni-chaddi, who had claimed that no soldier would ever find his stronghold there, Crook followed up this victory with another at Turret Peak several weeks later. The Apaches soon made peace at Camp Verde in 1873 though some skirmishing continued into 1875, encyclopedia of Indian Wars, Western Battles and Skirmishes, 1850–1890
30.
Battle of Turret Peak
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In June 1871, George Crook was assigned to the Southwest to help quell skirmishes between settlers and members of the Yavapai and Apache tribes in central Arizona Territory. He organized the Tonto Basin Campaign to track members of the tribes. On March 11,1873, a band of Tonto Apaches attacked and killed three white men, crooks men tracked the attackers to a Yavapai stronghold on Turret Peak in central Arizona. On March 27,1873, a group of soldiers and Apache Scouts under the command of Captain George M. Randall crept up Turret Peak around midnight, Randall had the men crawl on hands and knees to avoid making any noise or rattling any stones. Waiting until dawn, the charged and surprised a rancheria near the crest of the mountain. The natives were so startled and panic-stricken that many of them simply jumped from the mountain side falling to their death below, some resisted, fighting for a little while before being killed or surrendering. Fifty-seven natives died as result and several more were wounded and captured, unfortunately a few civilians were found in the cave after the fighting had stopped, killed accidentally by the covering fire or rolling rocks. The attack at Turret Peak proved demoralizing to the Yavapai and Apache people, two weeks after the battle, on April 6, many of the hostiles surrendered to Crook at Camp Verde. Several of the soldiers who fought at Turret Peak were later awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions, encyclopedia of Indian Wars, Western Battles and Skirmishes, 1850–1890. Archived from the original on July 14,2006, archived from the original on October 23,2007. Archived from the original on 19 February 2008
31.
Great Sioux War
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The cause of the war was the desire of the U. S. government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and that Indian victory notwithstanding, the U. S. leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under the presidencies of Ulysses S. Grant, the Agreement of 1877 officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations. The Cheyenne had migrated west to the Black Hills and Powder River Country before the Lakota, by the late 18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had begun expanding its territory west of the Missouri River. They pushed out the Kiowa and formed alliances with the Cheyenne, the Black Hills, located in present-day western South Dakota, became an important source to the Lakota for lodge poles, plant resources and small game. They are considered sacred to the Lakota culture, by the early 19th century, the Northern Cheyenne became the first to wage tribal-level warfare. Because European Americans used many different names for the Cheyenne, the military may not have realized their unity, the US Army destroyed seven Cheyenne camps before 1876 and three more that year, more than any other tribes suffered in this period. From 1860 on, the Cheyenne were a force in warfare on the Plains. No other group on the plains achieved such centralized tribal organization, the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, signed with the US by Lakota and Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Clouds War, set aside a portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation. This comprised the western one-half of South Dakota, including the Black Hills region for their exclusive use and it also provided for a large unceded territory in Wyoming and Montana, the Powder River Country, as Cheyenne and Lakota hunting grounds. On both the reservation and the territory, white men were forbidden to trespass, except for officials of the U. S. government. The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching in the Dakota Territory, however, the US government could not keep settlers out. The geographic uplift area suggested the potential for mineral resources, when a commission approached the Red Cloud Agency about the possibility of the Lakotas signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted that this was the only portion worth anything to them. He concluded that nothing short of their annihilation will get it from them, in 1874, the government dispatched the Custer Expedition to examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition, before Custers column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln, news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally. The presence of mineral resources was confirmed the following year by the Newton-Jenney Geological Expedition. Prospectors, motivated by the panic of 1873, began to trickle into the Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. This trickle turned into a flood as thousands of miners invaded the Hills before the rush was over
32.
Battle of Rosebud
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The Cheyenne called it the Battle Where the Girl Saved Her Brother, because of an incident during the fight involving Buffalo Calf Road Woman. General George Crooks offensive was stymied by the Indians, led by Crazy Horse, both areas were for the exclusive use of the Indians, and non-Indians were forbidden to trespass. In 1874, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills caused the US government to attempt to buy the Black Hills from the Indians. The US ordered all bands of Lakota and Cheyenne to come to the agencies on the reservation by January 31,1876 to negotiate the sale. A few bands did not comply and when the deadline of January 31 passed the US undertook to force Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, the first military expedition against the recalcitrant Indians in March 1876 was a failure, ending in the Battle of Powder River. In June 1876, the US military renewed the fight with an invasion of the Bighorn. Colonel John Gibbon led a force from the west, General Alfred Terry came from the east, the objective of the converging columns was to find and defeat the Indians and force them onto the reservation. Crooks much-valued chief scout was Frank Grouard, among the teamsters was Calamity Jane, disguised as a man. Crook left Fort Fetterman on the abandoned Bozeman Trail past the scene of battles during Red Clouds War ten years earlier. His force reached the Tongue River near present-day Sheridan, Wyoming on June 8, Crazy Horse had warned that he would fight if Three Stars crossed the Tongue and on June 9 the Indians launched a long distance attack, firing into the soldiers camp and wounding two men. Crook and his men waited near the Tongue for several days for Crow,175 Crow and 86 Shoshoni showed up on June 14 with Frank Grouard. They welcomed the opportunity to strike a blow against their old enemies although they warned Crook that the Lakota, the Shoshoni and Crow were well-armed. Each soldier carried four days rations and 100 rounds of ammunition, Crooks intention to make a quiet march was spoiled when the Crow and Shoshoni encountered a buffalo herd and shot many of them. Crook anticipated that he would find a large Indian village on Rosebud Creek to attack. Crook also underestimated the determination of his foe and he anticipated the usual Indian tactics of hit-and-run encounters and ambushes, not a pitched battle. The Indian force of almost 1,000 men set out from their village on June 16 in the middle of the night to seek out the soldiers on the Rosebud. They rode all night, rested their horses for a couple of hours, then continued, making contact with Crooks scouts at about 8,30 am, on June 17,1876, Crooks column marched northward along the south fork of Rosebud Creek. The holiday atmosphere that prevailed since the arrival of the Indian scouts on June 15 was suddenly absent, the soldiers, particularly the mule-riding infantry, were fatigued from the previous days 35 miles march and the early morning reveille at 3,00 am
33.
Battle of Slim Buttes
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The Battle of Slim Buttes was fought on September 9 and 10,1876, in the Great Sioux Reservation in the Dakota Territory, between the United States Army and the Sioux. The Battle of Slim Buttes was the first U. S. Army victory of the Great Sioux War of 1876 after George Armstrong Custers defeat at the Battle of Little Bighorn on June 25 and 26,1876. The American public was fixated on news of the Indian Wars after the defeat of Custer at the Little Bighorn, the Battle of Slim Buttes signaled a series of punitive blows that ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the Black Hills. Before Custers column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln, news of the discovery of gold in the Black Hills was telegraphed as a news event. At the news of gold the grizzled 49‘ers shook the dust of California from their feet, with an influx of thousands of immigrants, mining towns and settlements began to spring-up throughout the Black Hills and tensions increased between the Sioux and whites. The U. S. government was alarmed at reports of frequent Sioux attacks against miners and settlers, Captain Jack Crawford was appointed as chief of scouts of a special unit of about twelve experienced fighting men to look for Indian signs. When, as rarely happened, an Indian was killed, the settlement went wild with delight and his skull and scalp were paraded and sold to the highest bidder in the streets of Deadwood. ”Initially, the U. S. Army made bona fide efforts to enforce The Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868 and evicted encroaching miners. ”But after the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, U. S. Government policy and the role of the Army changed. “The presence of gold in the Black Hills left the government powerless, the government could not keep the gold hunters out. The Sioux were still not persuaded. ”Despite U. S. government pressure, in 1875, Sitting Bull created the Sun Dance alliance between the Lakota and the Cheyenne. On November 9,1875, Indian Inspector E. C. ”Many Agency Indians joined Sitting Bull’s camp for a seasonal hunt, Chief Sitting Bull took an active role in encouraging the unity camp and sent scouts to reservations to recruit warriors. The US agent at Standing Rock Agency expressed concern that this was insufficient time for the Lakota to respond and his request to extend the deadline was denied. General Sheridan considered the notification exercise a waste of time, the matter of notifying the Indians to come in is perhaps well to put on paper, he commented, but it will in all probability be regarded as a good joke by the Indians. Sheridan endorsement, February 4,1876, National Archives, the U. S. government knew the Indians could not or would not comply. “By the time this order got out to the Indian country it seemed to mean something else and it was not practical for them to pick up and move in midwinter. But apparently they though the order applied to them, whereupon their trend was toward Sitting Bull, “The deadline was completely unrealistic even if the bands had wanted to acquiesce. It barely allowed enough time to notify the widely scattered groups, let alone permit them to travel through the winter weather to the reservations. ”On February 8,1876, after the expiration of the January 31,1876. On February 8,1876, The Great Sioux War began when President Ulysses S. Grant ordered the U. S. Army to secure the Black Hills and force the submission of “hostile” Lakota. The Big Horn and Yellowstone Expedition was the largest field command to face Indian warriors in combat during the nineteenth century
34.
Apache Wars
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Its origins started a year before the first conflict when a fraction of Mexico became part of the United States in the aftermath of the Mexican-American War. Therefore the Native Mexicans had become Native Americans for the series of conflicts where a significant part of the Westward Expansion Trails in the American frontier. The Confederate Army participated in the wars during the early 1860s in Texas, before being diverted to action in the American Civil War in New Mexico, historically, the Apache had raided enemy tribes and sometimes each other, for horses, food or captives. They considered such raids different than warfare and they raided with small parties, for a specific purpose. However, other sub-nations of the Apache, usually clans or specialized warrior societies, in turn, this limited potential negotiated solutions as American responses failed to distinguish between Apache raiding parties and other groups. Consequently, American responses were sometimes heavy-handed, resulting in an escalation of the situation as other Apache were drawn into the conflict, the first United States Army campaigns specifically against the Apache began in 1849 and the last major battle ended with the surrender of Geronimo in 1886. This final phase lasted from 1886 until as late as 1906, as small Apache bands continued their attacks on settlements and fought United States Cavalry expeditionary forces, the fighters were mostly warrior groups, with small numbers of noncombatants. Nonetheless, not until 1906 were the last groups of Apache, because they resisted the militarys attempts, by force and persuasion, to relocate their people to various reservations they are usually regarded as national heroes by their own people. When the United States claimed the territories of Mexico in 1848, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty. The United States Congress never did ratify the treaty, an uneasy peace between the Apache and the Americans persisted until an influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains of present-day Arizona led to conflict. The Jicarilla War began in 1849 when a group of settlers were attacked and killed by a force of Jicarillas, a second massacre occurred in 1850, in which several mail carriers were massacred. It wasnt until 1853 that the army became involved, the army went on to fight at the Battle of Cieneguilla, a significant Apache victory, and later the Battle of Ojo Caliente Canyon, an American victory. In 1851, near the Piños Altos mining camp, Coloradas was attacked by a group of miners, they tied him to a tree, similar incidents continued in violation of the treaty, leading to Apache reprisals against European Americans. In December 1860, thirty miners launched an attack on an encampment of Bedonkohe on the west bank of the Mimbres River in retaliation for the theft of numerous livestock. According to the historian Edwin R. Sweeney, the miners. killed four Indians, wounded others, the Apache quickly retaliated with raids against U. S. citizens and property. In early February 1861, a group of unidentified Indians stole cattle and kidnapped the stepson of the rancher John Ward near Sonoita, Ward sought redress from the nearby American army. Lieutenant George N. Bascom was dispatched and Ward accompanied the detail, Bascom set out to meet with Cochise near Apache Pass and the Butterfield Overland Stagecoach station to secure the cattle and Wards son. Cochise was unaware of the incident, but he offered to seek those responsible, dissatisfied, Bascom accused Cochise of having been involved
35.
Montgomery County, Ohio
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Montgomery County is a county located in the U. S. state of Ohio. As of the 2010 census, the population was 535,153, the county was named in honor of Richard Montgomery, an American Revolutionary War general killed in 1775 while attempting to capture Quebec City, Canada. Montgomery County is part of the Dayton, Ohio Metropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 464 square miles, of which 462 square miles is land and 2.8 square miles is water. The population density was 1,211 people per square mile, there were 248,443 housing units at an average density of 538 per square mile. 1. 27% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,30. 40% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the family size was 2.96. In the county, the population was out with 24. 70% under the age of 18,9. 70% from 18 to 24,29. 00% from 25 to 44,22. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 92.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.60 males, the median income for a household in the county was $40,156, and the median income for a family was $50,071. Males had an income of $38,710 versus $27,297 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,743, about 8. 30% of families and 11. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 60% of those under age 18 and 8. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 535,153 people,223,943 households, the population density was 1,159.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 254,775 housing units at a density of 552.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 73. 9% white,20. 9% black or African American,1. 7% Asian,0. 2% American Indian,0. 8% from other races, and 2. 4% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2. 3% of the population, in terms of ancestry,24. 9% were German,12. 8% were Irish,9. 7% were American, and 8. 8% were English. The average household size was 2.33 and the family size was 2.94. The median age was 39.2 years, the median income for a household in the county was $43,965 and the median income for a family was $56,559. Males had an income of $45,680 versus $34,991 for females
36.
Dayton, Ohio
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Dayton is the sixth-largest city in the U. S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Montgomery County. A small portion of the city extends into Greene County, the Dayton-Springfield-Greenville Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,080,044 in 2010, making it the 43rd-largest in the United States. Dayton is within Ohios Miami Valley region, just north of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Dayton also hosts significant research and development in fields like industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering that have led to many technological innovations. Much of this innovation is due in part to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, with the decline of heavy manufacturing, Daytons businesses have diversified into a service economy that includes insurance and legal sectors as well as healthcare and government sectors. Other than defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton areas economy, hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. It is estimated that Premier Health Partners, a network, contributes more than $2 billion a year to the region through operating, employment. In 2011, Dayton was rated the No.3 city in the out of the top 50 cities in the United States by HealthGrades for excellence in health care. Many hospitals in the Dayton area are consistently ranked by Forbes, U. S. News & World Report, and HealthGrades for clinical excellence. Dayton is also noted for its association with aviation, the city is home to the National Museum of the United States Air Force and is the birthplace of Orville Wright, other well-known individuals born in the city include poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and entrepreneur John H. Patterson. Dayton is also known for its patents, inventions, and inventors that have come from the area. In 2008,2009, and 2010, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the No.1 mid-sized metropolitan area in the nation for economic development, also in 2010, Dayton was named one of the best places in the United States for college graduates to find a job. Dayton was founded on April 1,1796, by 12 settlers known as The Thompson Party and they traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among them was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valleys history, two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the city of Dayton was incorporated in 1805. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U. S, constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. Historically, Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s, according to the National Park Service, citing information from the U. S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U. S. city in 1890, the Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. Paul Laurence Dunbar – a famous African-American poet and novelist – penned his most famous works in the late 19th century, innovation led to business growth in the region
37.
United States Military Academy
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It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
38.
Robert Cumming Schenck
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Robert Cumming Schenck was a Union Army general in the American Civil War, and American diplomatic representative to Brazil and the United Kingdom. He was at battles of Bull Run and took part in Jacksons Valley Campaign of 1862, and the Battle of Cross Keys. His eldest brother, James Findlay Schenck, was an admiral in the United States Navy. Schenck was born in Franklin, Ohio to William Cortenus Schenck, William Schenck was descended from a prominent Dutch family and was born in Monmouth County, New Jersey. William Schenck was a speculator and an important early settler of Ohio who had also been in the War of 1812 and, like his son. He died when Robert was only twelve and the boy was put under the guardianship of General James Findlay and he began to study law under Thomas Corwin and was admitted to the bar in 1831. He moved to Dayton, Ohio and there rose to a position in his profession. He was in partnership with Joseph Halsey Crane in the firm of Crane, on August 21,1834, Schenck was married to Miss Renelsche W. Smith at Nissequogue, Long Island, New York. Six children were born to the union, all girls, three of them died in infancy. His wife died of tuberculosis in 1849 in Dayton, Ohio and his first foray into political life came in 1838 when he ran unsuccessfully for the State Legislature, he gained a term in 1841. In the Presidential campaign of 1840, he acquired the reputation of being one of the ablest speakers on the Whig side and he was elected to the United States Congress from his district in 1843, and re-elected in 1845,1847 and 1849. His first conspicuous work was to repeal the gag rule that had long been used to prevent antislavery petitions being read on the floor of the house. He opposed the Mexican-American War as a war of aggression to further slavery and he declined re-election in 1851, and, in March 1851, was appointed by President Millard Fillmore, Minister to Brazil and also accredited to Uruguay, Argentine Confederation, and Paraguay. He was directed by the Government to visit Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and Asunción, several treaties were concluded with these governments by which the United States gained advantages never accorded to any European nation. The Democratic victory in 1852 caused the treaty of commerce with Uruguay to fail to be ratified by the United States Senate, in 1854, Schenck returned to Ohio, and though sympathizing generally in the views of the Republican party, his personal antipathy to John C. Fremont was so strong, that he took no part in the election and he was building up a lucrative law practice, and was also President of the Fort Wayne Western Railroad Company. He became more in sympathy with the Republican party, and, in September 1859, in this speech, Schenck recommended that the Republican Party nominate Abraham Lincoln for the presidency. This was, perhaps, the first public endorsement of Lincoln for the presidency and he supported Lincoln with great ardor at the Chicago Convention in 1860 and in the campaign that followed
39.
U.S. 4th Infantry Regiment
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The U. S. 4th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment in the United States Army. It has served the United States for approximately two hundred years, the infantry of the Fourth Sub-Legion fought at Miami Rapids in 1794. In 1796, it was re-designated the Fourth Regiment of the Infantry, after ten years, due to a reduction in the army, the regiment was disbanded in 1802. See the lineage of the first 4th US Infantry below, in 1808 Regular Army was reorganized to meet the growing threat posed by the Indian nations living on the western boundaries of the United States. The first permanent Regular Army unit to bear the designation of 4th Infantry Regiment was constituted on 12 April 1808 in the Regular Army, and organized during May–June 1808 in New England. Under the leadership of General William H. Harrison, the 4th Infantry, commanded by Colonel John Parker Boyd, was sent into the Northwest Territories, which included Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Its mission was to eliminate the threat posed by a union of Indian tribes from the surrounding area, the hostile actions of these tribes were effectively stopping settlement of this vast area. General Harrison, who was later to become a United States President, led the 4th Infantry, during this battle, the American forces completely routed the Indians, bringing peace to the area, but at a cost of 188 dead. The regiment then returned to Fort Vincennes, and in 1812, after a march through the forests of Ohio. Within months of the Battle of Tippecanoe, the United States declared war against Great Britain and this required the increased manning of the Regular Army. On 12 July, General Hull crossed with his command into Canada, the regiment remained inactive for the rest of the month and grew restless. Then the Fourth was given a mission of escorting some supplies into Camp Detroit, before they could follow up on their success and complete the victory, the Fourth received orders from General Hull to return to Detroit. For this General Hull was tried and found guilty of Cowardliness, President Monroe, mitigating the court-martial sentence that General Hull be shot, ruled, The rolls of the army shall no longer be debased by having upon them the name of Brigadier General Hull. Along the walls of the Great Hall are replicas and they are currently in the Welch Regiment Museum. After remaining several months in Canada as prisoners of war, the officers and men were returned under parole to Boston, early in 1813 the exchange was effective and the regiment reassembled and recruited to strength. It fought at the second Battle of Lacolle Mills, Canada, on 21 August 1816 unspecified 4th Infantry Regiment companies were redesignated as Companies A and B, 4th Infantry Regiment. The original Companies A and B would become Headquarters and Headquarters Company 1st, for the next twenty years, the regiment fought almost constantly with the Creek Indians in Georgia, and the Seminoles in Florida under the command of General Andrew Jackson, a future president. In constant and long hardships the regiment marched through swamps, building cantonments and raking roads to open what now is the state of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida
Major General
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