1.
List of kings of Greece
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This is a list of kings of the modern state of Greece. Only the first king, Otto I, was actually styled King of Greece and his successor, George I, was styled King of the Hellenes, as were all other modern monarchs. A republic was established from 1924 to 1935. The restored monarchy was abolished following a referendum in 1973 conducted under the auspices of the military regime. Its finding was confirmed by a referendum in 1974, after the restoration of democratic rule. The London Conference of 1832 was a conference convened to establish a stable government in Greece. Negotiations between the three Great Powers resulted in the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece under a Bavarian Prince, the decisions were ratified in the Treaty of Constantinople later that year. The convention offered the throne to the Bavarian Prince, Otto and they also established the line of succession which would pass the crown to Ottos descendants, or his younger brothers should he have no issue. It was also decided that in no case there would be a union of the crowns of Greece. In October 1862, King Otto was deposed in a popular revolt, the London Conference of 1832, however, had prohibited any of the Great Powers ruling families from accepting the crown of Greece, and in any event, Queen Victoria was adamantly opposed to the idea. Nevertheless, the Greeks insisted on holding a referendum on the issue of the head of state in November 1862 and it was the first referendum ever held in Greece. Prince Alfred turned down the Kingship and Prince William of Denmark, Greek Crown Jewels Greek Royal Family List of Greek regents List of Greek royal consorts List of heads of state of Greece
2.
Constantine I of Greece
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Constantine I was King of Greece from 1913 to 1917 and from 1920 to 1922. He succeeded to the throne of Greece on 18 March 1913 and his disagreement with Eleftherios Venizelos over whether Greece should enter World War I led to the National Schism. Constantine forced Venizelos to resign twice, but in 1917 he left Greece, after threats of the Entente forces to bombard Athens, his son, Alexander. After Alexanders death, Venizelos defeat in the 1920 legislative elections, and he abdicated the throne for the second and last time in 1922, when Greece lost the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, and was succeeded by his eldest son, George II. Constantine died in four months later, in Sicily. Born on 2 August 1868 in Athens, Constantine was the eldest son of King George I and his birth was met with an immense wave of enthusiasm, the new heir apparent to the throne was the first Greek-born member of the family. As the ceremonial cannon on Lycabettus Hill fired the salute, huge crowds gathered outside the Palace shouting what they thought should rightfully be the newborn princes name. He was inevitably christened Constantine on 12 August, and his style was the Diádochos. An additional nickname adopted mainly by the royalists for Constantine was the son of the eagle, on 30 October 1882 he enrolled in the Hellenic Military Academy. After graduation he was sent to Berlin for further military education, Constantine also studied political science and business in Heidelberg and Leipzig. In 1890 he became a Major General, and assumed command of the 3rd Army Headquarters in Athens, in January 1895, Constantine caused political turmoil when he ordered army and gendarmerie forces to break up a street protest against tax policy. Constantine had previously addressed the crowd and advised them to submit their grievances to the government, Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis asked the King to recommend that his son avoid such interventions in politics without prior consultation with the government. King George responded that the Crown Prince was, in dispersing protesters, merely obeying orders. The incident caused a debate in Parliament, and Trikoupis finally resigned as a result. In the following elections Trikoupis was defeated, and the new Prime Minister, Theodoros Deligiannis, the organization of the first modern Olympics in Athens was another issue which caused a Constantine-Trikoupis confrontation, with Trikoupis opposed to hosting the Games. After Deligiannis electoral victory over Trikoupis in 1895, those who favored a revival of the Olympic Games, including the Crown Prince, coubertin assured that the King and the Crown Prince will confer their patronage on the holding of these Games. Constantine later conferred more than that, he assumed the presidency of the 1896 organizing committee. At the Crown Princes request, wealthy businessman George Averoff agreed to pay one million drachmas to fund the restoration of the Panathinaiko Stadium in white marble
3.
Second Hellenic Republic
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The Second Hellenic Republic is the historiographical term for the political regime of Greece between 1924 and 1935. It followed from the period of the monarchy under the monarchs of the House of Glücksburg. The Second Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, in the aftermath of Greeces defeat by Turkey in the Asia Minor Campaign, during its brief existence, the Second Republic proved unstable. The cleavage in society extended to cultural and social issues such as differences over the use of Greek language to architectural styles, to this polarization was added the destabilizing involvement of the military in politics which resulted in several coups and attempted coups. The economy was in following a decade of warfare and was unable to support the 1.5 million refugees from the population exchange with Turkey. Despite the efforts of the reformist government of Eleftherios Venizelos in 1928–1932, the electoral victory of the Peoples Party in 1933, and two failed Venizelist coups, paved the way to the restoration of the reign of King George II. After the defeat of Greece by the Turkish National Movement of 1922, under Venizelist officers like Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas, King Constantine I was again forced to abdicate, and died in exile in 1923. His eldest son and successor, King George II, was soon asked by the parliament to leave Greece so the nation could decide what form of government it should adopt. In a 1924 plebiscite, Greeks voted to create a republic and these events marked the culmination of a process that had begun in 1915 between King Constantine and his political nemesis, Eleftherios Venizelos. The first President of the Hellenic Republic was Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis and he was succeeded by the coups leader, General Theodoros Pangalos, who was likewise deposed by the military five months later after embroiling Greece in the War of the Stray Dog. Kountouriotis was reinstated and reelected to the office in 1929, but was forced to resign for health reasons later that year and he was succeeded by Alexandros Zaimis, who served until the restoration of the monarchy in 1935. As the prospect of the return of the monarchy became more likely, Venizelist officers launched a coup in March 1935, which was suppressed by General Georgios Kondylis. On October 10,1935, the chiefs of the Armed Forces overthrew the government of Panagis Tsaldaris, later that day, Kondylis forced Zaimis himself to resign, declared himself regent and abolished the republic. A heavily rigged plebiscite occurred on 3 November which resulted in an implausible 98 percent supporting the return of the monarchy, King George II returned to Athens on 23 November, with Kondylis as prime minister. History of the Hellenic Republic Hellenic Parliament - Constitutional History of Greece Greece during the Interwar Period, 1923-1940, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World
4.
Anastasios Charalambis
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Anastasios Charalambis was a Greek Lieutenant General and interim Prime Minister of Greece for one day in 1922. Anastasios Charalambis was born in Kalavryta on 22 September 1862, after studying in the Hellenic Army Academy, he was commissioned as 2nd Lieutenant of Artillery on 25 July 1884. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1888 and Captain in 1895 and he was again promoted to Major in 1908, Lt. Colonel in 1910 and Colonel in 1913. In 1914 he was placed as Chief of Staff to II Army Corps, from 26 April to 19 May and from 22 May to 14 June 1917 he served as Minister of Military Affairs, and then from 26 June as Chief of the Armys Staff Service until November. In early 1918 he was placed in command of II Army Corps and he was promoted to Major General in 1917 and Lt. General in 1918. Following the defeat against Turkey in Anatolia, the government of Petros Protopapadakis fell, a military revolt, led by Venizelist officers, erupted in September 1922, and demanded the resignation of King Constantine I and of Prime Minister Nikolaos Triantafyllakos. Their demands were met, and the revolutionary committee installed a new government, with Alexandros Zaimis as Prime Minister, as Zaimis was out of the country, Sotirios Krokidas was appointed as interim Prime Minister. Until Krokidas could reach Athens to be sworn in, Charalambis was sworn in as temporary Prime Minister and Minister for Military Affairs on 16 September, serving for one day. After Krokidas arrived, he assumed the posts of Prime Minister and Interior Minister and he was recalled from retirement in 1927 to serve as chairman of the military council for the re-admission of officers purged for political reasons over the previous years. Charalambis died on 11 March 1949
5.
Sotirios Krokidas
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Sotirios G. Krokidas was an interim Prime Minister of Greece in 1922. He was a law professor in Athens, when the Greek army was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War and the government of Petros Protopapadakis fell, Greece was plunged into a political crisis. In September,1922, Nikolaos Triantaphillakos was Prime Minister as the military revolted in Thessaloniki, the revolutionary committee selected Alexandros Zaimis as Prime Minister, but as he was out of the country, Krokidas was appointed as interim Prime Minister. Until Krokidas could reach Athens to be sworn in, the Minister of the Army, Charalambis was sworn in as Prime Minister on September 29, on September 30,1922, Krokidas became Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior. The politicians and General were executed on November 15,1922
6.
Stylianos Gonatas
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Stylianos Gonatas was a Greek military officer and Venizelist politician and the 40th Prime Minister of Greece from 27 November 1922 to 11 January 1924. He entered the Military Academy in 1892 and graduated in 1897, as a Lieutenant, he participated in the Macedonian Struggle, and became aide-de-camp to Colonel Nikolaos Zorbas immediately following the 1909 Goudi Revolt. He also participated in the 1912-13 Balkan Wars and in the Allied Expedition to the Ukraine in 1919, subsequently, he took part in the Asia Minor Campaign with the rank of Colonel, first as a staff officer and later as divisional commander. In August 1922, the Greek Army suffered a defeat at the hands of the Turks. The revolutionary movement swiftly spread to other centres of old and new Greece, aided by the Fleet, which had joined their cause. The cabinet immediately resigned, and on September 27 King Constantine abdicated for the time in the course of his career. On September 28 the revolutionary troops, headed by their leaders, Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Gonatas, the revolutionary committee which took charge selected Alexandros Zaimis as Prime Minister, but as he was out of the country, Sotirios Krokidas was appointed as interim Prime Minister. The British government, through its minister in Athens, Lindley, on November 27,1922, a new cabinet, composed exclusively of members of the Revolutionary Committee and of the republican group which formed the committees most active supporters, was appointed. Colonel Gonatas was appointed premier, and Konstantinos Rentis, one of the leaders of the republican group, the Gonatas government served until 11 January 1924, when it resigned in favor of fellow-liberal Eleftherios Venizelos, who had returned from exile in Paris. For his service, Gonatas was given the Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, on 31 May 1924, the National Assembly promoted him and Plastiras to the rank of Lieutenant General. After his service as Prime Minister, Gonatas resigned his commission in the army, in the same year, a Republic was proclaimed and the legislature expanded to include a second house, the Senate. Gonatas ran for and was elected to the Senate as a Liberal in the 1929 election representing Attica and he was re-elected and later served as President of the Senate from 1932 to its dissolution in 1935. During the Nazi Occupation of Greece, Gonatas was imprisoned in the Haidari concentration camp for four months, after the German withdrawal, Gonatas was freed and re-entered political life. Gonatas party elected 30 members of Parliament, having joined forces with the monarchist party, Gonatas committed himself to support the restoration of the monarchy in the 1946 plebiscite, which restored King George II to the throne. In the Konstantinos Tsaldaris government from 1946–1947, he served as Minister for Public Works, in this election, for the first time in his political career, Gonatas was not elected. He never sought office again, continuing only to serve as former Prime Ministers did on the Crown Council advising the King until his death on March 29,1966
7.
Georgios Kafantaris
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Georgios Kafantaris was a Greek politician, born in Anatoliki Fragkista, Evrytania. On 9 January 1919, Kafantaris joined the Cabinet of Greece under Prime Minister of Greece Eleftherios Venizelos as Minister of Agriculture and he went on to disagree with him as far as holding the Greek legislative election,1920 while the Hellenic Army was still involved in the Greco-Turkish War. Venizelos accepted his resignation on 4 February 1920, in the elections that ensued, Venizelos Liberal Party was ousted. Kafantaris left the country for French Third Republic and the Kingdom of Italy and he only returned following the defeat of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War and was named Minister of Justice. On 19 February 1924, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos resigned due to health reasons, Kafantaris served as Prime Minister for almost a month and then resigned himself on 12 March 1924 after a failed assassination attempt. He was succeeded by Alexandros Papanastasiou, Kafantaris opposed the dictatorship of Theodoros Pangalos and, after its overthrow, took part in several more governments as Minister of Finance. He died in Athens in 1946, and is buried in the First Cemetery of Athens, listing of Greek Ministers of Agriculture since 1917, including Kafantaris
8.
Paul of Greece
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King Paul of the Hellenes reigned as King of Greece from 1947 until his death in 1964. Paul was born in Athens, the son of King Constantine I of Greece and his wife. He trained as an officer at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and later at the Hellenic Military Academy in Kypseli. Paul was an officer cadet in the Coldstream Guards and Lieutenant with the Evzones. From 1917 to 1920, Paul lived in exile with his father, from 1923 to 1935, he lived in exile again in England, this time with his brother, George II. He worked briefly in a factory under an alias, and through Viscount Tredegar met and befriended notorious literary muse Denham Fouts. As Fouts life is clouded by myth, the truth of this is uncertain, on 9 January 1938, Paul married Princess Frederica of Hanover, his first cousin once removed, at Athens. They had three children, Sophia, Queen of Spain, Constantine II, King of the Hellenes. Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, during most of World War II, from 1941 to 1946, when Greece was under German occupation, Paul was with the Greek government-in-exile in London and Cairo. From Cairo, he broadcast messages to the Greek people, Paul returned to Greece in 1946. He succeeded to the throne in 1947, on the death of his childless brother, King George II. In 1947 he was unable to attend the wedding of his first cousin, Prince Philip, by 1949 the Civil War was effectively over, with the Communist insurgents ceasing the majority of their operations, and the task of rebuilding the shattered north of the country began. In the 1950s Greece recovered economically, and diplomatic and trade links were strengthened by Paul’s state visits abroad and he became the first Greek Monarch to visit a Turkish Head of State. However, links with Britain became strained over Cyprus, where the majority Greek population favored union with Greece, eventually, Cyprus became an independent state in 1960. In December 1959, Prince Maximillian of Bavaria presented King Ottos coronation regalia to King Paul and it had been almost a century since they were last in Greece. Meanwhile, republican sentiment was growing in Greece, both Paul and Frederica attracted criticism for their interference in politics, frequent foreign travels, and the cost of maintaining the Royal Family. Paul responded by economising and donated his estate at Polidendri to the State. In 1959, he had an operation for a cataract, in late February 1964, he underwent a further operation for stomach cancer, and died about a week later in Athens
9.
Georgios Kondylis
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Georgios Kondylis was a general of the Greek army and Prime Minister of Greece. He was nicknamed Keravnos, Greek for Thunder or Thunderbolt and he enlisted in the army as a volunteer in 1896, and fought with the Greek expeditionary corps in Crete. He was later commissioned and participated in the Macedonian Struggle leading his own guerrilla band and he supported the Movement of National Defence of Eleftherios Venizelos during the First World War, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel. A firm Venizelist, he opposed the restoration of King Constantine I in 1920, fleeing to Constantinople together with other Venizelist officers and organizing there the Democratic Defence. He returned after the 1922 Revolution as a general, suppressed the royalist revolt of 1923, retired from the army. He was war minister from March to June 1924, on August 24,1926, he overthrew the dictatorship of Theodoros Pangalos in a bloodless coup and formed a government, proclaiming elections for November. Notably, his party did not participate in these, in the elections of August 1928, voters elected nine of his partys candidates as MPs, and he was elected in Kavala. During this time, Kondylis began moving rightward, in 1932 he became war minister again in return for his support of the Populist government, a post he retained after the Populists were reelected in 1933. From this post he was instrumental in crushing the March 1935 Venizelist revolt, in the period immediately following the revolt, Kondylis became the real power in the country. He sacked numerous pro-republican soldiers and civil servants, and condemned Venizelos to death in absentia, by now, Kondylis was one of the strongest proponents of restoring the monarchy. However, he opposed Prime Minister Panagis Tsaldaris call for a referendum, on October 10,1935, Kondylis and several other officers called on Tsaldaris and forced him to resign. Kondylis forced President Alexandros Zaimis to name him the new premier, later that day, Kondylis forced Zaimis to resign, declared himself Regent, abolished the Republic and staged a plebiscite on November 3 for the return of the monarchy. The official tally showed that 98 percent of the supported the return of George II—an implausibly high total that could have only been obtained through massive fraud. Indeed, the took place under less-than-secret conditions. Voters were given the choice of dropping a piece of paper in the ballot box if they supported the monarchy. Those who supported the republic risked being beaten up, under those circumstances, it took a brave Greek to vote no. By this time, Kondylis had turned so far to the right that he now openly sympathized with fascism and he hoped to echo Benito Mussolinis example in Italy, in which Victor Emmanuel III had been reduced to a puppet. George returned to Greece on 25 November, and retained Kondylis as prime minister, Kondylis soon quarreled with the king, who was not content to be a mere puppet, and resigned five days later
10.
Ioannis Metaxas
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Ioannis Metaxas was a Greek soldier and politician, serving as Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. He governed constitutionally for the first four months of his tenure, born in Ithaca, Metaxas was a career military officer, first seeing action in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. Following studies in Germany, he returned to join the General Staff and was part of the process of the Greek Army before the Balkan Wars. He was appointed Chief of the Greek General Staff in 1913, a staunch monarchist, Metaxas supported Constantine I and opposed Greek entry into World War I. Eleftherios Venizelos, the minister, resigned over the refusal of Metaxas to aid the Allies unsuccessful Dardanelles campaign. When Venizelos won the May 1915 elections, he mobilised the army to aid Serbia and this dismissal solidified the rift between monarchists and Venizelists, creating the National Schism that would plague Greek politics for decades. In August 1916 Venizelist officers launched a revolt in Greeces northern city of Thessaloniki, the new government, with the Allies support, expanded its control over half the country and entered the war on the Allies side. In June 1917, with Allied support, King Constantine was deposed and Venizelos came to power, Metaxas followed the king into exile in Corsica. Both returned, however, in 1920 with the defeat of Eleftherios Venizelos. Metaxas was one of the few who opposed the ongoing Asia Minor Campaign, citing military considerations. He was head of the forces during the Noemvriana and later was exiled by the Venizelists to Corsica. Following the defeat of Greek forces in Asia Minor, King Constantine was again forced into exile by a revolution, Metaxas moved into politics and founded the Freethinkers Party on 12 October 1922. However, his association with the failed royalist Leonardopoulos-Gargalidis coup attempt in October 1923 forced him to flee the country, soon after, King George II was also forced into exile. The monarchy was abolished, and the Second Hellenic Republic proclaimed, Metaxas returned to Greece soon after, publicly stating his acceptance of the regime change. Despite a promising start, and his status as one of the most prominent royalist politicians, Metaxas foray into politics was not very successful. In the 1926 elections, his Freethinkers Party claimed 15. 78% of the vote and 52 seats in Parliament, putting it almost on a par with the main royalist party. As a result, Metaxas became Communications Minister in the government formed under Alexandros Zaimis. However, infighting within the party and the departure of many members plunged the party to 5. 3% and a single seat in the 1928 elections
11.
Alexandros Koryzis
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Alexandros Koryzis was the Prime Minister of Greece briefly in 1941. He assumed this role on January 29,1941, when his predecessor, prior to this, he was governor of the Bank of Greece. Although largely powerless, as the government was controlled by King George II. Less than two weeks later, on April 18, as German troops marched towards Athens and the city was placed under martial law, the cause of his death was initially reported to be a heart attack, probably to avoid causing mass panic in Athens. He was originally from the island of Poros in Greece
12.
Emmanouil Tsouderos
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Emmanouil Tsouderos was a political and financial figure of Greece. During World War II he served briefly as Prime Minister of Greece in 1941, emmanuel Tsouderos was born in 1882 in Rethymno in Crete. He studied law at Athens University, and economics in Paris, in 1928, when the Central Bank of Greece was established, Tsuderos was appointed its first vice-Governor, and in 1931 its Governor. See Marguarita Dritsas, Hellenic Open University, for her biography of Tsourderos. In 1941 during World War II the Greek Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis committed suicide as the Nazi army advanced towards Athens, after assuming power Tsouderos fled with King George II to Crete, where he organised Greek forces to face the coming German invasion. Tsouderos fled again during the Battle of Crete and he went to the Middle East and later Egypt. Tsouderos headed the Greek government in exile from 29 April 1941 until 13 April 1944 and this government was initially located in London, but subsequently moved to Cairo. He served in the subsequent government in exile under Sofoklis Venizelos, after the end of World War II Tsouderos served in different capacities, until his death at the age of 74 in Nervi, Genoa, Italy on February 10,1956
13.
Sophoklis Venizelos
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Sofoklis Venizelos was a Greek politician, who three times served as Prime Minister of Greece – in 1944,1950 and 1950–1951. Venizelos was born on 3 November 1894 in Chania, in Crete and he was the second-born son of the politician Eleftherios Venizelos. During World War I he served with distinction in the Greek Army and in the phases of the Asia Minor campaign. He resigned from the Army and was elected as a MP with his fathers Liberal Party in the 1920 elections, in 1941, after the Axis occupation of Greece, he became ambassador to the United States, representing the Greek government in exile based in Cairo. He became a minister of government in 1943 under Prime Minister Emmanuel Tsuderos. After the end of the war, he returned to Greece, where he became Vice President of the Liberal Party, in 1954 his longtime friendship with Georgios Papandreou was shaken, and he formed the rival Liberal Democratic Union coalition. The rift was bridged in 1958, and in 1961 he became a member of Papandreous Center Union party. Venizelos died on the passenger ship Hellas in the Aegean Sea and his grave lies next to his fathers on the island of Crete. His wife Kathleen died in 1983 aged 86. Venizelos was a bridge player of international stature during the 1930s. He played for France in the European IBL Championships, France won the 1935 tournament and a version of the team traveled to New York City late that year for a match against the Four Aces, an unofficial world championship match that the Aces won. Venizelos was second in skill to Pierre Albarran among contemporary French players, LCCN 33-38010 Albarran, Aron, and Venizelos were three of six players on the 1935 European champion team. Sophocles Venizelos at Library of Congress Authorities, with 1 catalogue records
14.
Nikolaos Plastiras
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Nikolaos Plastiras was a Greek general and politician, who served thrice as Prime Minister of Greece. A distinguished soldier and known for his bravery, he was known as The Black Rider during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922. After the Greek defeat in the war, along with other Venizelist officers he staged a coup against King Constantine I of Greece, the military-led government ruled until January 1924, when power was handed over to an elected National Assembly, which later declared the Second Hellenic Republic. In the interwar period, Plastiras remained a devoted Venizelist and republican, trying to avert the rise of the royalist Peoples Party and the restoration of the monarchy, he led two coup attempts in 1933 and 1935, both of which failed, forcing him to exile in France. During the Axis Occupation of Greece in the Second World War he was the leader of the EDES resistance group. After the occupation, he returned to Greece and served as a centrist Prime Minister three times, often in coalition with the Liberal Party, in his last two governments, he tried to heal the rift caused in Greek society by the Greek Civil War, but was unsuccessful. He was born in 1883, in Karditsa, Greece, Plastiras parents were originally from Morfovouni, a village in the Agrafa mountains of southwestern Thessaly. The municipality was renamed for General Plastiras and Morfovouni is the present capital of Plastiras Municipality, the family moved to Karditsa before Plastiras was born. After finishing school in Karditsa, he joined the 5th Infantry Regiment as a volunteer in 1904 and he fought in the Macedonian Struggle, and participated in the military coup of 1909. He entered the NCO School in 1910 and, after being assigned to the rank 2nd lieutenant in 1912, he fought with distinction in the Balkan Wars, where he earned his nickname The Black Rider. He first rose to prominence when, as a major. He fought with distinction with the 5/42 Evzone Regiment at the battle of Skra-di-Legen and was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1919, Colonel Plastiras commanded the 5/42 Evzone Regiment in the Ukraine and his force was then transferred to Smyrna in Asia Minor via Romania. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, the Turks called Plastiras Kara Biber and his advance was finally halted at Kale-Grotso, just across the Sakarya River. Soon after, at the battle of Sakarya, the Greeks were forced to begin their retreat, for these feats he earned immense popularity, especially among the Ionian Greeks he helped save. Having the support of the Army and much of the people, Plastiras faced multiple challenges in governing Greece. The 1.3 million refugees from the exchange had to be catered for in a country with a ruined economy, internationally isolated. The Corfu incident, and a botched Royalist coup in October 1923 were evidence of this, after the failed royalist coup, King George II was forced to leave the country
15.
Archbishop Damaskinos
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Archbishop Damaskinos Papandreou was the archbishop of Athens and All Greece from 1941 until his death. He was also the regent of Greece between the pull-out of the German occupation force in 1944 and the return of King George II to Greece in 1946 and his rule was between the liberation of Greece from the German occupation during World War II and the Greek Civil War. He was born Dimitrios Papandreou in Dorvitsa, Greece and he enlisted in the Greek army during the Balkan Wars. He was ordained a priest of the Greek Orthodox Church in 1917, in 1922, he was made Bishop of Corinth. He spent the early 1930s as an ambassador of the Ecumenical Patriarch in the United States, in 1938 he was elected Archbishop of Athens, taking the name Damaskinos. Ioannis Metaxas, dictator of Greece at the time, objected to Damaskinos and forced the cancellation of his election, and the appointment of Metropolitan Chrysanthus to the post. The Archbishop of Athens was the leader of the Greek Orthodox people of Athens and All Greece. He frequently clashed with the German authorities and the quisling government, in 1943, the Germans began the persecution of the Jews of Greece, and their deportations to Nazi concentration camps. Damaskinos formally protested the actions of the occupational authorities, the letter in part reads, Damaskinos went on to publish the letter, even though the local Schutzstaffel commander, Jürgen Stroop, threatened to execute him by firing squad. For his actions in saving Greek Jews during the Holocaust, he was named among the Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, after the occupation ended, Damaskinos was proclaimed regent of Greece until the return of the king from exile. During this time, fighting broke out between pro-royalist Greek soldiers and communist partisans and he took control of the situation in his early term, appointing himself Prime Minister during late 1945. Though he wielded power in his latter term, Damaskinos continued to call for peace. He relinquished his position after fighting began to die down and recalled the king formally on September 28,1946 and he died in Athens in 1949. The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation, Archbishop Damaskinos Damaskinos of Athens – his activity to save Jews lives during the Holocaust, at Yad Vashem website
16.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos
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Panagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967-1974 and he studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy and his book I was born in 1402 received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II, in November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a unity government. He also served in ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis. The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg. The six member group was the precursor of todays 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis, in 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party. He was the last Prime Minister prior to the coup détat of 21 April 1967 and he was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the metapolitefsi, Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government, after the metapolitefsi Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the metapolitefsi
17.
Themistoklis Sofoulis
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Themistoklis Sofoulis or Sophoulis was a prominent centrist Greek politician from Samos Island, belonging to the centre-left wing of the Liberal Party, which he led for many years. Sofoulis was born in 1860 in Vathy of Samos, then a principality under Ottoman suzerainty. His father was Panagiotis Sofoulis, who had fought for the autonomy of the island, Sofoulis studied in the faculty of philosophy of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and then in Germany, where he specialised in archaeology. As an archaeologist he published certain insightful surveys and he participated actively in various excavations around Greece, soon, Sofoulis established himself as the head of the Progressives, who favoured reforms and union with the Kingdom of Greece. In 1902, he was elected president of the Samian parliament, the ensuing riots left several dead and Sofoulis was forced to flee to Greece. The unification took place officially on 2 March 1913, Sofoulis remained for a while as the president of the interim government of Samos until April 1914, when he was appointed Governor General of Macedonia. He remained in Thessaloniki until February 1915 when he resigned following the resignation of Eleftherios Venizelos as Prime Minister after a dispute with King Constantine I. Sofoulis was first elected a deputy to the Hellenic Parliament in the elections of May 1915 and he also served as Interior Minister in Venizelos National Defence government in Thessaloniki, during the National Schism. After the exile of Constantine I, Eleftherios Venizelos and his government returned to Athens and he held his post until 1920. After Venizelos fled from Greece, Sofoulis became the new leader of the Liberal Party and he served as prime minister, for the first time, from the 25 July 1924 to the 27 November 1924. In 1926, after the overthrow of Theodoros Pangalos dictatorship, he served as Speaker of the Parliament, until 1928 and he served as Minister of Military Affairs until 1930, when he was re-elected as Speaker of the Parliament. During all these years he was recognised as the deputy leader of the Liberal Party, although such post did not, officially, exist. Sophoulis remained Speaker of the Parliament until the elections of 1933, when the Liberal Party suffered a defeat, on 16 March 1936 Sofoulis was re-elected Speaker of the Parliament. The same year he signed the notorious Sofoulis-Sklavainas Pact with the KKE, during the Axis Occupation of Greece, Sofoulis, like most of the established politicians, remained rather passive, although he maintained contacts to the Allies in the Middle East. He refused an offer to cooperate with the National Liberation Front, on 19 May 1944, the Germans arrested him along with other politicians and imprisoned him in the Haidari concentration camp, where he remained until Liberation in October. However, on 7 September 1947 he became prime minister again in a government of both the Liberal Party and the Peoples Party. Under intense US pressure, these proposals were abandoned, and the war took its course and he died, however, before the end of the civil conflicts, in Kifissia, on the 24 June 1949, at the age of 89. Although he belonged to the center-left, Sofoulis led the government and he was admired for his lucidity and his courage despite his age and he was revered by all the politicians of the center-left, the center and the right
18.
Panagiotis Poulitsas
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Panagiotis Poulitsas was a Greek judge and archeologist. He was born in Geraki, Laconia in 1881, in 1947, he became a member of the Archaeological Society of Athens and of the Academy of Athens, of which he was elected president in 1954. He died in Athens οn 16 January 1968 and he was the maternal grandfather of the famous authorist and playboy Taki Theodoracopulos
19.
Konstantinos Tsaldaris
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Konstantinos Tsaldaris was a Greek politician and twice Prime Minister of Greece. Tsaldaris was born in Alexandria, Egypt and he studied law at the University of Athens as well as Berlin, London and Florence. He became a politician from 1915 to 1917. In 1926, he was elected as a deputy for the first time in the Argolidocorinthia prefecture with the Freethinkers Party of Ioannis Metaxas, in 1928, he became a member of the Peoples Party, the leader of which was his uncle Panagis Tsaldaris. He entered Panagis Tsaldaris second government as Vice Minister of Transportation from 1933 to 1935, after the death of Panagis Tsaldaris in 1936, he became a member of the administrative commission of the Peoples Party, which was however soon dissolved under the dictatorship of Metaxas. His government carried out the plebiscite on the return of the monarchy in August 1946, during 1947-1949 he acted as the head of the Greek representation in the UN General Assembly. He was Deputy Prime Minister during the governments of Dimitrios Maximos, Themistoklis Sophoulis and he once again became prime minister from August 1947 until September of the same year. With the foundation and rise to power of the Greek Rally of Marshal Alexandros Papagos and he was voted into Parliament with the Liberal Democratic Union, in the 1956 elections, but in the 1958 elections, as head of the Union of Populars, he failed to be elected. Shortly afterwards he ended his political career and he died in Athens in 1970
20.
Dimitrios Maximos
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Dimitrios E. Maximos was a Greek banker and politician. He briefly served as Prime Minister of Greece after World War II, Maximos was born on 6 July 1873 in Patras. He began his career in banking, between 1933 and 1935, he became Foreign Minister of the government of Panagis Tsaldaris. He was Prime Minister of Greece in 1947 and he died on 17 October 1955. His home in central Athens, the Maximos Mansion, serves since 1982 as the seat of the Prime Minister of Greece
21.
Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
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For many the new style calendar is only used for civil purposes and the old style calendar remains used in religious contexts. In the western world, the change was a date shift from the previous Julian Calendar. Today, the Gregorian calendar is internationally the worlds most widely used civil calendar. During – and for some time after – the change between systems, it has been common to use the terms Old Style and New Style when giving dates, to indicate which calendar was used to reckon them. Although Gregorys reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church, the changes that he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no authority. They required adoption by the authorities in each country to have legal effect. The bull became the law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant churches, Orthodox churches. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays were celebrated by different Christian churches again diverged, when converting a date that occurs in a leap year on one calendar but not the other, include 29 February in the calculation if the conversion spans the February/March month change. A month after having decreed the reform, the granted to one Antoni Lilio the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period of ten years. The papal brief was revoked on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved unable to keep up with the demand for copies. Catholic states such as France, the Italian principalities, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Thursday,4 October 1582 was followed by Friday,15 October 1582, with ten days missing. Countries that did not change until the 18th century had by then observed an additional leap year, some countries did not change until the 19th or 20th century, necessitating one or two more missing days. France adopted the new calendar with Sunday,9 December 1582, the seven Catholic Swiss cantons adopted the new calendar in January 1684 while Geneva and several Protestant cantons adopted it in January 1701 or at other dates throughout the 18th century. The two Swiss communes of Schiers and Grüsch there the last areas of Western and Central Europe to switch to the Gregorian calendar in 1812. Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation, some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold, in the Czech lands, Protestants resisted the calendar imposed by the Habsburg Monarchy. They finally adopted the Gregorian calculation of Easter in 1774, the remaining provinces of the Dutch Republic adopted the Gregorian calendar on 12 July 1700,12 December 1700,12 January 1701 and 12 May 1701. Swedens relationship with the Gregorian calendar was a difficult one and this system had potential for confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40-year period. To add to the confusion, the system was administered
22.
Kingdom of Greece
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The Kingdom of Greece was a state established in 1832 at the Convention of London by the Great Powers. It was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Constantinople, where it also secured full independence from the Ottoman Empire and this event also marked the birth of the first, fully independent, Greek state since the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans in the mid-15th century. The Kingdom succeeded from the Greek provisional governments after the Greek War of Independence, in 1924 the monarchy was abolished, and the Second Hellenic Republic was established. The restored Kingdom of Greece lasted from 1935 to 1973, the Kingdom was again dissolved in the aftermath of the seven-year military dictatorship, and the Third Republic, the current Greek government, came to be. Most of Greece gradually became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, the Ottoman advance into Greece was preceded by victory over the Serbs to its north. This was followed by a draw in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, with no further threat by the Serbs and the subsequent Byzantine civil wars, the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into Greece, capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, the mountains of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. Cyprus fell in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670, the Ionian Islands were only briefly ruled by the Ottomans, and remained primarily under the rule of Venice. In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire, following a protracted struggle, the autonomy of Greece was first recognized by the Great Powers in 1828, full independence was recognized in 1830. Count Ioannis Kapodistrias became Governor of Greece in 1827, but was assassinated in 1831, at the insistence of the Powers, the 1832 Treaty of London made Greece a monarchy. Pedro of Braganza, Prince Royal of Portugal, Brazil, Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria was chosen as its first King. Otto arrived at the capital, Nafplion, in 1833 aboard a British warship. Ottos reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia, left the way they came, nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, in addition, the new Kingdom tried to eliminate the traditional banditry, something that in many cases meant conflict with some old revolutionary fighters who continued to exercise this practice. But Greece still had no legislature and no constitution, Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in Athens in September 1843. Otto agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November, the new constitution created a bicameral parliament, consisting of an Assembly and a Senate. Power then passed into the hands of a group of politicians, Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the national question. Greeks dreamed of liberating them all and reconstituting a state embracing all the Greek lands and this was called the Great Idea, and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, particularly Crete, Thessaly and Macedonia
23.
Athens
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Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. In modern times, Athens is a cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime. In 2015, Athens was ranked the worlds 29th richest city by purchasing power, Athens is recognised as a global city because of its location and its importance in shipping, finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, culture, education and tourism. It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe, with a financial sector. The municipality of Athens had a population of 664,046 within its limits. The urban area of Athens extends beyond its administrative city limits. According to Eurostat in 2011, the Functional urban areas of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union, Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a number of Ottoman monuments. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery, Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics. In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι a plural, in earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη. It was possibly rendered in the later on, like those of Θῆβαι and Μυκῆναι. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα, an etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements, in an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. Different etymologies, now rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος or ἄνθος meaning flower, ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- to denote Athens as having fertile soil. In classical literature, the city was referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindars ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι. In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, today the caption η πρωτεύουσα, the capital, has become somewhat common
24.
Elisabeth of Romania
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Elisabeth of Romania was a princess of Romania and member of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and by marriage Queen consort of the Hellenes during 1922–1924. Raised by her great-uncle King Carol I of Romania and his wife Queen Elisabeth of Wied, married to the heir to the Greek throne in 1921, she felt no passion for him and suffered the political turmoil that crossed her adopted country after the World War I. After her husband became King of Greece in 1922, Elisabeth was involved in assisting refugees who arrived to Athens after the disaster of the Greco-Turkish War. The rise of the climate, however, affected her health and with great relief she left the Kingdom of Greece with her husband in December 1923. The royal couple then settled in Bucharest, where eventually King George II was deposed on 25 March 1924, in Romania, Elisabeth and George IIs relationship deteriorated and eventually the couple divorced in 1935. Very close to her brother, King Carol II of Romania, the princess amassed an important fortune, partly due to advice of her lover. After the death of her mother, Queen Marie, in 1938, however, her communist links didnt save her from being expelled from the country when was proclaimed the Socialist Republic of Romania in 1947. Exiled, the moved to Switzerland and then to Cannes. She had a relationship with Marc Favrat, a man almost thirty years younger. Second child and first daughter of Crown Prince Ferdinand and Crown Princess Marie of Romania, Elisabeth was born on 12 October 1894 at Peleş Castle, named after her paternal great-aunt, Queen Elisabeth of Wied, shortly after birth she was removed from her parents. With her older brother Prince Carol, she was raised by King Carol I, over the years, Elisabeth developed a cold character and a volatile temperament which socially isolated her. Considered vulgar by her mother, however, she had the reputation of being a classical beauty, in 1911, Prince George of Greece, then second-in-line to the throne and his future wifes second cousin, met Elisabeth for the first time. Disdainful, the princess even said on the occasion, that God began the prince, during World War I, Elizabeth was involved in helping wounded soldiers. She made daily visits to the hospitals and distributed cigarettes and comforting words to the victims of the fighting, in 1919, Elisabeth and her sisters Maria and Ileana accompanied their mother, now Queen Marie, to Paris at the Peace Conference. The sovereign hoped that during her stay there she could find suitable husbands for her daughters, especially Elisabeth, after a few months in France, the Queen and her daughters decided to return to Romania in early 1920. On the way back, they made a stop in Switzerland, where they found the Greek royal family. Elisabeth then met again Prince George, who asked again her hand, now more aware of her own imperfections, Elisabeth decided to accept the marriage. Nevertheless, the engagement satisfied both Elisabeth and Georges parents, delighted to have finally found a husband for her eldest daughter, the Queen of Romania soon invited the prince to travel to Bucharest in order to publicly announce the engagement
25.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
26.
Sophia of Prussia
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Princess Sophia of Prussia, was Queen Consort of the Hellenes during 1913–1917 and 1920–1922. In 1889, less than a year after the death of her father, she married her cousin the Diadochos Constantine, Duke of Sparta. During World War I, the ties between Sophia and the German Emperor also cause the suspicion of the Triple Entente, which accuses Constantine I for his neutrality in the conflict. After imposing a blockade of Greece and supporting the government of Eleftherios Venizelos, causing the National Schism, France. Sophia and her family went into exile in Switzerland, while the second son of the royal couple replaced his father on the throne under the name of Alexander I. At the same time, Greece entered the war alongside the Triple Entente, after the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War in 1919 and the untimely death of Alexander I the following year, the Venizelists abandoned power, allowing the royal familys return to Athens. The defeat of the Greek army against the Turkish troops of Mustafa Kemal, however, Sophia and her family then were forced to a new exile, and settled in Italy, where Constantine died one year later. With the proclamation of the Republic in Athens Sophia spent her last years alongside her family, Princess Sophie was born in the Neues Palais in Potsdam, Prussia on 14 June 1870. Frederick and Victoria were a couple, both on sentimental and political levels. Being staunch liberals, they lived away from the Berlin court and suffered the intrigues of a very conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, a week after Sophies birth, a case relating to succession to the throne of Spain damaged the Franco-Prussian relations. The tone between Paris and Berlin worsened even further after Bismarck published the humiliating Ems Telegram on 13 July 1870. Six days later, the government of Napoleon III declared war on Prussia and the states of the German Confederation offered support to Prussia, which then appeared as the victim of French imperialism. It was in this context that Sophie was christened the following month, though all the men present were in uniform. Sophie was known as Sossy during her childhood, Sophies two other brothers, Sigismund and Waldemar, died at a young age, this drew the Crown Princess and her three daughters closer together, calling them my three sweet girls and my trio. The Crown Princess, believing in the superiority of all things English, had her childrens nurseries modelled on her childhood. Sophie was raised with a love for England and all things associated with it as a result, and had frequent trips to visit her grandmother Queen Victoria. Sophie often stayed in England for long periods, especially on the Isle of Wight, because she was generally avoided by her paternal grandparents, Sophias formative years were mainly shaped by her parents and her maternal grandmother Queen Victoria. As a little girl she was so attached to the old British sovereign that the Crown Princess didnt hesitate to leave her daughter for long periods under the care of her grandmother
27.
Greek Orthodox
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Historically, the term Greek Orthodox has also been used to describe all Eastern Orthodox Churches in general, since Greek in Greek Orthodox can refer to the heritage of the Byzantine Empire. Over time, most parts of the liturgy, traditions, and practices of the church of Constantinople were adopted by all, thus, the Eastern Church came to be called Greek Orthodox in the same way that the Western Church is called Roman Catholic. Orthodox Churches, unlike the Catholic Church, have no Bishopric head, such as a Pope, however, they are each governed by a committee of Bishops, called the Holy Synod, with one central Bishop holding the honorary title of first among equals. Greek Orthodox Churches are united in communion with other, as well as with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches. The Eastern Orthodox hold a doctrine and a common form of worship. The most commonly used Divine Liturgy of the Orthodox Church was written by Saint John Chrysostom, others, are attributed to St. Basil the Great, St. James, the Brother of God and St. The majority of Greek Orthodox Christians live within Greece and elsewhere in the southern Balkans, but also in Lebanon, Cyprus, Anatolia, European Turkey, and the South Caucasus. In addition, due to the large Greek diaspora, there are many Greek Orthodox Christians who live in North America, Orthodox Christians in Finland, who compose about 1% of the population, are also under the jurisdiction of a Greek Orthodox Church. Thus, they may attend services held in Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic, the Church conducts its liturgy in Koine Greek in the areas of Albania populated by the ethnic Greek minority, alongside the use of Albanian throughout the country. The Greek and Eastern Churches online Constantelos, Demetrios J. Understanding the Greek Orthodox church, its faith, history, the Orthodox Eastern Church Hussey, Joan Mervyn. The orthodox church in the Byzantine empire online Kephala, Euphrosyne, the Church of the Greek People Past and Present Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe, The Protestant,2, 479-484, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, IV, The Twentieth Century in Europe, The Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Churches McGuckin, John Anthony. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, media related to Greek Orthodox Church at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
29.
Prussian Guard
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The Guards Corps / GK was a corps level command of the Prussian and then the Imperial German Armies from the 19th Century to World War I. The Corps was headquartered in Berlin, with its units garrisoned in the city, unlike all other Corps of the Imperial German Army, the Guards Corps did not recruit from a specific area, but from throughout Prussia and the Imperial Lands of Alsace-Lorraine. The Corps served in the Austro-Prussian War, during the Franco-Prussian War it was assigned to the 2nd Army. In peacetime the Corps was assigned to the II Army Inspectorate and it was still in existence at the end of the war in the 4th Army, Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht on the Western Front. The Corps was disbanded with the demobilisation of the German Army after World War I, the Guards Corps fought in the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, including the Battle of Königgrätz. The Corps served in the Franco-Prussian War against France in 1870–1871 as part of 2nd Army and it saw action in the Battle of Gravelotte, Battle of Sedan and the Siege of Paris, among other actions. The 25 peacetime Corps of the German Army had a standardised organisation. Each consisted of two divisions with two infantry brigades, one field artillery brigade and a cavalry brigade each. Each brigade normally consisted of two regiments of the type, so each Corps normally commanded 8 infantry,4 field artillery and 4 cavalry regiments. In addition to the normal 2 Infantry Divisions, the Guards Corps also commanded the Guards Cavalry Division and it also incorporated an exceptional number of Corps Troops units, in particular school and demonstration units. On mobilization on 2 August 1914 the Corps was extensively restructured, the Guards Cavalry Division was assigned to the I Cavalry Corps, the 4th Guards Cavalry Brigade was broken up and its regiments assigned to the divisions as reconnaissance units. The Lehr Infantry Battalion was expanded to form the Lehr Infantry Regiment and it formed 6th Guards Infantry Brigade and together with the 5th Guards Infantry Brigade formed the 3rd Guards Division of the Guards Reserve Corps. Divisions received engineer companies and other units from the Corps headquarters. On mobilisation, the Guards Corps was assigned to the 2nd Army as part of the wing of the forces that invaded France. Soon into the war, at the 1st Battle of the Marne, in 1917, the corps was stationed on the Aisne River as part of 1st Army, and played an important role in the German defense against the French offensive in that sector. It was still in existence at the end of the war in the 4th Army, formationsgeschichte der Deutschen Infanterie im Ersten Weltkrieg. Imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle, the World War One Source Book. Stellenbesetzung der deutschen Heere 1815-1939, Bd.1, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920
30.
Balkan Wars
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The Balkan Wars consisted of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war, one of the four, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples, the war set the stage for the Balkan crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to the First World War. By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, in 1912 these countries formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War had three main causes, The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising nationalism of its diverse peoples. The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms and this led the Balkan states to impose their own solution. Most importantly, the Balkan League had been formed, and its members were confident that it could defeat the Turks. The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories to the west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkeys western border, a large influx of Turks started to flee into the Ottoman heartland from the lost lands. By 1914, the core region of the Ottoman Empire had experienced a population increase of around 2.5 million because of the flood of immigration from the Balkans. Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a disaster in the nations history. Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, was responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the 1913 Ottoman coup détat carried out by the Young Turks. The First Balkan War began when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire on 8 October 1912, the Second Balkan War was begun on 16 June 1913. Seeing the treaty as trampled, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, the more numerous combined Serbian and Greek armies repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked into Bulgaria. Romania, who having taken no part in the conflict, had intact armies to strike with, the Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace regaining Adrianople. The background to the lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. Serbia had gained territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881. All three countries, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the Eastern Question and the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted access to the waters of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy
31.
Crown Prince of Greece
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The Crown Prince of Greece is the heir to the throne of modern Greece. Since the abolition of the Greek monarchy by the military regime on 1 June 1973. Neither the constitution of 1844 or 1864, which served as the basis for other laws of the Kingdom of Greece. On the contrary, they prohibited even the sovereign from conferring such titles, as a result, the heir apparent was usually referred to simply as the diadochos by virtue of his function, rather than as a title. The word diadochos simply means successor, he who collects the estate and this is a deverbal of διαδέχομαι, receive by succession, and has been used since the Archaic period for heirs-apparent. The most famous bearers of the title were the Diadochi, the Successors of Alexander the Great, only one crown prince, the future Constantine I, bore a separate title of nobility, that of Duke of Sparta. The London Conference of 1832, established a line of succession which would pass the crown to Otto Is descendants, or his younger brothers. It was also decided that in no case would the crowns of Greece, from 1844, the constitution also established that the crown prince must profess the Orthodox faith, which was not without difficulty as the royal dynasty at the time was Catholic. Since the establishment of the constitution of 1952, the daughters of the sovereign came after their brothers in the order of succession to the throne. In 1965 Prince Michael could have considered himself as crown prince renounced his rights when he married Marina Karella in 1965, palmer, Alan W. Michael of Greece
32.
National Schism
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Venizelos was in support of the Allies and wanted Greece to join the war on their side, while the pro-German King wanted Greece to remain neutral, which would favor the plans of the Central Powers. The disagreement had wider implications, since it would affect the character. After intense diplomatic negotiations and a confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces the king abdicated on 11 June 1917, and his second son Alexander took his place. Venizelos returned to Athens on 29 May 1917 and Greece, now unified, officially joined the war on the side of the Allies, emerging victorious, many reformists and liberals viewed meddling by the monarchy in politics as deleterious. The negative public attitude towards the monarchy was strengthened by the defeat of the Greek army, headed by Constantine, many of these hopes for reform were also shared by young officers in the Hellenic Army, who felt humiliated by the defeat, and who were influenced by republicanism. A Military League was formed, and on 15 August 1909, the movement, which demanded reforms in government and military affairs, was widely supported by the public, King George was forced to give in to the militarys demands. He appointed Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis as Prime Minister and accepted the dismissal of the Princes from the military, with Venizelos arrival, the League was sidelined, and the energetic and relatively young politician soon dominated Greek political life. His government carried out a number of overdue reforms, including the creation of a revised constitution. Constantine, now king, was being hailed as laurel-crowned and Bulgar-slayer and it was however during this war that the first tension between Constantine and Venizelos surfaced, in a dispute over the armys course following the victory at Sarantaporo. Constantine wanted to march due north, towards Monastir, while Venizelos was anxious that the army should turn east, towards the important city. The anxiety of Venizelos was doubled by the fact that the Bulgarians had also set their eyes on the city, the most important in Macedonia, eventually Venizelos prevailed, and the Greeks captured the city only a few hours before the arrival of the Bulgarians. As the Great War began, the Greek authorities had to choose between neutrality and aligning themselves with the Allied forces. Hence, neutrality was the course favored by most pro-German Greeks, including the senior, German-educated, leadership of the General Staff, King Constantines German affiliations were exaggerated in the Ententes propaganda during the war. It is true that Queen Sofia was the sister of the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, Greece had an ongoing mutual defense pact with Serbia, a member of the Allied forces, who were asking for support after they were invaded by Austria-Hungary. However, Constantine believed it was in the interests of Greece to remain neutral. The Prime Minister, Venizelos, was strongly in favor of joining the Entente, as he believed that Greece would gain new lands, in January 1915, in an attempt to convince the Greeks to side with them, Britain offered Greece post-war concessions in Asia Minor. Venizelos felt this was much in Greeces interests and attempted to force a bill through the Greek parliament to join the Allies. He also adivsed King Constantine to convene the Crown Council, which he did and it met twice, on February 18 and on February 20
33.
Alexander of Greece
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Alexander was King of Greece from 11 June 1917 until his death from the effects of a monkey bite at the age of 27. The second son of King Constantine I, Alexander was born in the palace of Tatoi. He succeeded his father in 1917, during World War I, after the Entente Powers and the followers of Eleftherios Venizelos pushed Constantine I, having no real political experience, the new king was stripped of his powers by the Venizelists and effectively imprisoned in his own palace. Venizelos, as minister, was the effective ruler with the support of the Entente. Though reduced to the status of a king, Alexander supported Greek troops during their war against the Ottoman Empire. Alexander controversially married the commoner Aspasia Manos in 1919, provoking a scandal that forced the couple to leave Greece for several months. Soon after returning to Greece with his wife, Alexander was bitten by a domestic Barbary macaque, the sudden death of the sovereign led to questions over the monarchys survival and contributed to the fall of the Venizelist regime. After a general election and a referendum, Constantine I was restored, Alexander was born at Tatoi Palace on 1 August 1893, the second son of Crown Prince Constantine of Greece and his wife Princess Sophia of Prussia. He was related to royalty throughout Europe, Constantine was a grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark and a cousin of both King George V of the United Kingdom and Emperor Nicholas II of Russia. Sophia was the sister of Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, and was also a cousin of King George V through her grandmother, Alexanders early life alternated between the Royal Palace in Athens, and Tatoi Palace in the citys suburbs. With his parents he undertook several trips abroad and regularly visited Schloss Friedrichshof, the home of his maternal grandmother, though he was very close to his younger sister, Princess Helen, Alexander was less warm towards his elder brother George, with whom he had little in common. As his fathers son, Alexander was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother. His education was expensive and carefully planned, but while George spent part of his training in Germany. He was passionate about cars and motors, and was one of the first Greeks to acquire an automobile and he distinguished himself in combat during the Balkan Wars of 1912–13. King George I was assassinated in Thessaloniki soon afterwards, and Alexanders father ascended the throne as Constantine I, in 1915, at a party held in Athens by court marshal Theodore Ypsilantis, Alexander became re-acquainted with one of his childhood friends, Aspasia Manos. She had just returned from education in France and Switzerland, and was reckoned as very beautiful by her acquaintances and she was the daughter of Constantines Master of the Horse, Colonel Petros Manos, and his wife Maria Argyropoulos. The 21-year-old Alexander was smitten, and was so determined to seduce her that he followed her to the island of Spetses where she holidayed that year. Initially, Aspasia was resistant to his charm, although considered very handsome by his contemporaries, despite this, he finally won her over, and the couple were engaged in secret
34.
Greek referendum, 1920
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A referendum on the return of King Constantine I was held in Greece on 22 November 1920. It followed the death of his son, King Alexander, the proposal was approved by 99. 0% of voters. The result ensured and affirmed the dominance of the anti-Venizelist camp in the country, Constantine returned, albeit questioned by the supporters of the Liberal Party, while Liberal leader Eleftherios Venizelos maintained his silence, being in voluntary exile abroad
35.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
36.
Bucharest
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Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than 60 km north of the Danube River, Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459. It became the capital of Romania in 1862 and is the centre of Romanian media, culture and its architecture is a mix of historical, interbellum, communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the citys elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of Little Paris. Although buildings and districts in the city centre were heavily damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic, in 2016, the historical city centre was listed as endangered by the World Monuments Watch. According to the 2011 census,1,883,425 inhabitants live within the city limits, the urban area extends beyond the limits of Bucharest proper and has a population of about 1.9 million people. Adding the satellite towns around the area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.27 million people. According to Eurostat, Bucharest has an urban zone of 2,183,091 residents. According to unofficial data, the population is more than 3 million, Bucharest is the sixth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits, after London, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, and Paris. Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and is one of the industrial centres. The city has big convention facilities, educational institutes, cultural venues, traditional shopping arcades, the Romanian name București has an uncertain origin. Tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur, who was a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, in Romanian, the word stem bucurie means joy, and it is believed to be of Dacian origin. Other etymologies are given by scholars, including the one of an Ottoman traveler, Evliya Çelebi. A native or resident of Bucharest is called a Bucharester, Bucharests history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements in antiquity until its consolidation as the national capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the Citadel of București in 1459, it became the residence of the famous Wallachian prince Vlad III the Impaler, the Ottomans appointed Greek administrators to run the town from the 18th century. A short-lived revolt initiated by Tudor Vladimirescu in 1821 led to the end of the rule of Constantinople Greeks in Bucharest, the Old Princely Court was erected by Mircea Ciobanul in the mid-16th century. Under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the residence of the royal court
37.
Princess Elisabeth of Romania
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Elisabeth of Romania was a princess of Romania and member of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and by marriage Queen consort of the Hellenes during 1922–1924. Raised by her great-uncle King Carol I of Romania and his wife Queen Elisabeth of Wied, married to the heir to the Greek throne in 1921, she felt no passion for him and suffered the political turmoil that crossed her adopted country after the World War I. After her husband became King of Greece in 1922, Elisabeth was involved in assisting refugees who arrived to Athens after the disaster of the Greco-Turkish War. The rise of the climate, however, affected her health and with great relief she left the Kingdom of Greece with her husband in December 1923. The royal couple then settled in Bucharest, where eventually King George II was deposed on 25 March 1924, in Romania, Elisabeth and George IIs relationship deteriorated and eventually the couple divorced in 1935. Very close to her brother, King Carol II of Romania, the princess amassed an important fortune, partly due to advice of her lover. After the death of her mother, Queen Marie, in 1938, however, her communist links didnt save her from being expelled from the country when was proclaimed the Socialist Republic of Romania in 1947. Exiled, the moved to Switzerland and then to Cannes. She had a relationship with Marc Favrat, a man almost thirty years younger. Second child and first daughter of Crown Prince Ferdinand and Crown Princess Marie of Romania, Elisabeth was born on 12 October 1894 at Peleş Castle, named after her paternal great-aunt, Queen Elisabeth of Wied, shortly after birth she was removed from her parents. With her older brother Prince Carol, she was raised by King Carol I, over the years, Elisabeth developed a cold character and a volatile temperament which socially isolated her. Considered vulgar by her mother, however, she had the reputation of being a classical beauty, in 1911, Prince George of Greece, then second-in-line to the throne and his future wifes second cousin, met Elisabeth for the first time. Disdainful, the princess even said on the occasion, that God began the prince, during World War I, Elizabeth was involved in helping wounded soldiers. She made daily visits to the hospitals and distributed cigarettes and comforting words to the victims of the fighting, in 1919, Elisabeth and her sisters Maria and Ileana accompanied their mother, now Queen Marie, to Paris at the Peace Conference. The sovereign hoped that during her stay there she could find suitable husbands for her daughters, especially Elisabeth, after a few months in France, the Queen and her daughters decided to return to Romania in early 1920. On the way back, they made a stop in Switzerland, where they found the Greek royal family. Elisabeth then met again Prince George, who asked again her hand, now more aware of her own imperfections, Elisabeth decided to accept the marriage. Nevertheless, the engagement satisfied both Elisabeth and Georges parents, delighted to have finally found a husband for her eldest daughter, the Queen of Romania soon invited the prince to travel to Bucharest in order to publicly announce the engagement
38.
Ferdinand of Romania
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Ferdinand I, nicknamed Intregitorul, was King of Romania from 10 October 1914 until his death in 1927. Born in Sigmaringen in southwestern Germany, the Roman Catholic Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the name was later shortened simply to Hohenzollern after the extinction of the Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch in 1869. The princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen had ruled the principality until 1850, when it was annexed to Prussia, in 1889, the Romanian parliament recognized Ferdinand as a prince of Romania. For agreeing to this, Ferdinand was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, the neighboring Emperor Francis Joseph, monarch of Austria-Hungary and as such, ruler of Transylvania, was Ferdinands grandmothers first cousin. Ferdinand, a stranger in his new home, started to get close to one of Queen Elisabeths ladies in waiting. Elisabeth, very close to Elena herself, encouraged the romance, the affair caused a sort of dynastic crisis, in 1891. Marie and Ferdinand were third cousins in descent from Franz Frederick Anton, Maries paternal grandparents were Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Her maternal grandparents were Alexander II of Russia and Marie of Hesse, the marriage produced 3 sons, Carol, Nicholas and Mircea and 3 daughters, Elisabeta, Maria and Ileana. The marriage was unhappy and the two youngest children, Ileana and Mircea, are generally acknowledged to have been sired by Maries long-time lover. Ferdinand succeeded his uncle on the death as King of Romania on 10 October 1914. He was the 1, 174th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1909, thus he gained the nickname the Loyal, respecting his oath when sworn in before the Romanian Parliament in 1914, I will reign as a good Romanian. As a consequence of this betrayal toward his German roots, Kaiser Wilhelm II had Ferdinands name erased from the Hohenzollern House register. Despite the setbacks after the entry into war, when Dobruja and Wallachia were occupied by the Central Powers, Romania fought in 1917, when the Bolsheviks sued for peace in 1918, Romania was surrounded by the Central Powers and forced to conclude the Treaty of Bucharest,1918. However, Ferdinand refused to sign the treaty, when the Allied forces advanced on the Thessaloniki front, they knocked Bulgaria out of the war, and Ferdinand ordered the re-mobilization of the Romanian Army. Romania re-entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente, the outcome of Romanias war effort was the union of Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. A new period of Romanian history began on the day of the Union of Transylvania with Romania and this period would eventually come to an end with the international treaties that led up to World War II. These ceded parts of Romania to its neighbors, as such, they are widely seen as an attempt to provoke the country into taking sides and joining the war. Domestic political life during his reign was dominated by the conservative National Liberal party led by the brothers Ion, the acquisition of Transylvania ironically enlarged the electoral base of the opposition, whose principal parties united in January 1925 – October 1926 to form the National Peasant Party
39.
Queen Marie of Romania
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Princess Marie of Edinburgh, more commonly known as Marie of Romania, was the last Queen consort of Romania as the wife of King Ferdinand I. Born into the British royal family, she was titled Princess Marie of Edinburgh at birth and her parents were Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. Maries early years were spent in Kent, Malta and Coburg, after refusing a proposal from her cousin, the future King George V, she was chosen as the future wife of Crown Prince Ferdinand of Romania, the heir apparent of King Carol I, in 1892. Marie was Crown Princess between 1893 and 1914, and became popular with the Romanian people. After the outbreak of World War I, Marie urged Ferdinand to ally himself with the Triple Entente and declare war on Germany, during the early stages of fighting, Bucharest was occupied by the Central Powers and Marie, Ferdinand and their five children took refuge in Moldavia. There, she and her three daughters acted as nurses in hospitals, caring for soldiers who were wounded or afflicted by cholera. On 1 December 1918, the province of Transylvania, following Bessarabia and Bukovina, Marie, now Queen consort of Greater Romania, attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, where she campaigned for international recognition of the enlarged Romania. In 1922, she and Ferdinand were crowned in a cathedral in the ancient city of Alba Iulia, in an elaborate ceremony which mirrored their status as queen. As queen, she was popular, both in Romania and abroad. In 1926, Marie and two of her children undertook a tour of the United States. They were received enthusiastically by the people and visited several cities before returning to Romania, there, Marie found that Ferdinand was gravely ill and he died a few months later. Now queen dowager, Marie refused to be part of the council which reigned over the country under the minority of her grandson. In 1930, Maries eldest son Carol, who had waived his rights to succession, deposed his son and usurped the throne and he removed Marie from the political scene and strived to crush her popularity. As a result, Marie moved away from Bucharest and spent the rest of her either in the countryside. In 1937, she became ill with cirrhosis and died the following year, following Romanias transition to a Socialist Republic, the monarchy was excoriated by communist officials. In the years preceding the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Maries popularity recovered, Marie is primarily remembered for her work as a nurse, but is also known for her extensive writing, including her critically acclaimed autobiography. She was born at her parents residence, Eastwell Manor in Kent, on 29 October 1875 and her birth was celebrated by firing the Park and Tower guns. She was named Marie Alexandra Victoria, after her mother and grandmothers, the Duke of Edinburgh wrote that his daughter promises to be as fine a child as her brother and gives every evidence of finely developed lungs and did so before she was fairly in the world
40.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
41.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
42.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
43.
Dictatorship
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A dictatorship is a type of authoritarianism, in which politicians regulate nearly every aspect of the public and private behavior of citizens. Dictatorship and totalitarianism societies generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative governing systems, in the past different religious tactics were used by the dictators to maintain their rule. Like the Monarchy system in the west, in the 19th and 20th centuries, traditional monarchies gradually declined and disappeared. Dictatorship and constitutional democracy emerged as the two major forms of government. Since World War II a broader range of dictatorships have been recognized including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships, in the Roman Empire, a Roman dictator was the incumbent of a political office of legislate of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency and their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later such as Sulla. After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators came to power in many liberated countries, such dictators have been also referred to as personalismo. The wave of military dictatorships in Latin America in the half of the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and caudillismo is a significant genre, there are also many films depicting Latin American military dictatorships. After World War II, dictators established themselves in the new states of Africa and Asia. These constitutions often failed to work without a middle class or work against the preexisting autocratic rule. Some elected presidents and prime ministers captured power by suppressing the opposition and installing one-party rule, whatever their form, these dictatorships had an adverse impact on economic growth and the quality of political institutions. Dictators who stayed in office for a time period found it increasingly difficult to carry out sound economic policies. The often-cited exploitative dictator is the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, the global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political scientists. The Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies, the DD index is seen as an example of the minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, relatively more substantive. The most general term is despotism, a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power and that entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy. Despotism can mean tyranny, or absolutism, or dictatorship, dictatorship may take the form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism
44.
Venizelism
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Venizelism was one of the major political movements in Greece from the 1900s until the mid-1970s. That year, determined to enter World War I on the side, Venizelos rebelled against the king. He regained full control of the country and ruled until losing the 1920 elections, after a crisis period the liberals returned to power from 1928 until 1932. Venizelists Sophoklis Venizelos and George Papandreou formed the core of the Greek government in exile during the Axis Occupation of Greece, georgios Papandreou created the Center Union party in 1961, as a coalition of Venizelists and progressive conservatives. In 1963 the party was elected and held power until 1965, after the 1967–1974 Junta, Venizelists formed the Center Union-New Forces party, which then evolved into the Union of the Democratic Centre. Although the image of Venizelos is still popular in Greece today. Venizelos prestige however and his ideologys connotations of republicanism, and progressive reforms means that most mainstream political forces claim his political heritage, there are few explicitly Venizelist movements today in Greece. In the 2004 elections for the European Parliament, the leading Venizelist party was the Union of Centrists, an attempted revival of the original Liberal Party, under the same name, was founded in the 1980s by Venizelos grandson. Against Venizelos policy were united politicians of different political orientation during the 1910s, another common point of the Antivenizelists was a hesitation about the countrys social and economical modernization
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Denmark: Knight with Collar of the Order of the Elephant[19]
House of Savoy: Knight Collar with Star of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation[20]
Norway: Recipient of the War Cross Medal[21]
Romania: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I[22]
United Kingdom: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order[23]
1st Republic (1827–1832)
Monarchy (1832–1924)
Military Junta (1967–1974)
3rd Republic (since 1974)4
