1.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
2.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
3.
Historical geography
–
Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time. It is a discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with history, anthropology, ecology, geology, environmental studies, literary studies. Although the majority of work in geography is considered human geography. Historical geography is often a component of school and university curricula in geography. Current research in geography is being performed by scholars in more than forty countries. In its early days, historical geography was difficult to define as a subject, a textbook from the 1950s cites a previous definition as an unsound attempt by geographers to explain history. Mitchell, came down firmly on the side of geography, the geographer is a geographer first last. To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be if all of its influences through history were taken into account, physical, cultural, economic. Sauer stressed regional specialization as the means of gaining sufficient expertise on regions of the world. Sauers philosophy was the shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century. Regional specialists remain in academic departments to this day. Despite this, some feel that it harmed the discipline, that too much effort was spent on data collection and classification. Studies became more and more area-specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves and these factors may have led in turn to the 1950s crisis in geography, which raised serious questions about geography as an academic discipline in the USA. This sub-branch of human geography is closely related to history, environmental history, a Map History of the Modern World,1890 to the Present Day. First ed. published in 1968, a revision with corrections appeared in 1970, partly an atlas of historical geography, partly an atlas illustrating historical events
Historical geography
–
A 1740 map of
Paris.
Historical geography
–
Sub-fields
4.
Lyon
–
Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
Lyon
–
Top, the Basilique de Notre-Dame de Fourvière, the Place des Terreaux with the Fontaine Bartholdi and Lyon City Hall at night. Centre, the Parc de la Tête d'Or, the Confluence district and the old city. Bottom, the Pont Lafayette, the Part-Dieu district with the Place Bellecour in the foreground during the Festival of Lights.
Lyon
–
Place Carnot, Lyons
Lyon
–
The lion has been the symbol of the city for centuries and is represented throughout the city.
Lyon
–
Lyon in the 18th century
5.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
6.
University of Aix-en-Provence
–
Aix-Marseille University is a public research university located in Provence, southern France. It was founded in 1409 when Louis II of Anjou, Count of Provence, the university as it is today was formed by the merger of the University of Provence, the University of the Mediterranean and Paul Cézanne University. The merger became effective on 1 January 2012, resulting in the creation of the largest university in the French-speaking world, AMU has the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the Francophone world, standing at €750 million. The university is organized around five main campuses situated in Aix-en-Provence, apart from its major campuses, AMU owns and operates facilities in Arles, Aubagne, Avignon, Digne-les-Bains, Gap, La Ciotat, Lambesc and Salon-de-Provence. The university is headquartered at the Pharo, Marseille, AMU has produced many notable alumni in the fields of law, politics, business, economics and literature. AMU is a member of academic organisations including the European University Association. The decision to establish the university was, in part, a response to the already-thriving University of Paris, as a result, in order to be sure of the viability of the new institution, Louis II compelled his Provençal students to study in Aix only. Thus, the patent for the university were granted. The Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence Thomas de Puppio was appointed as the first chancellor of the university for the rest of his life. After his death in 1420, a new chancellor was elected by the rector, masters, the rector had to be an “ordinary student”, who had unrestricted civil and criminal jurisdiction in all cases where one party was a doctor or scholar of the university. Those displeased with the decisions could appeal to a doctor legens. Eleven consiliarii provided assistance to the rector, being elected yearly by their predecessors and these individuals represented all faculties, but were elected from among the students. The constitution was of a student-university, and the instructors did not have authority except in granting degrees. Refusal to submit to this extortion was punished by the assemblage of students at the summons of the rector with frying-pans, bassoons. Continued recusancy was followed by the piling up of dirt in front of their door upon every Feast-day and these injunctions were justified on the ground that the money extorted was devoted to divine service. In 1486 Provence passed to the French crown, the universitys continued existence was approved by Louis XII of France, and Aix-en-Provence continued to be a significant provincial centre. It was, for instance, the seat of the Parliament of Aix-en-Provence from 1501 to 1789 and this college de plain exercice became a significant seat of learning, under the control of the Jesuit order. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the college served as a preparatory
University of Aix-en-Provence
–
The headquarters for AMU is located at the Pharo,
Marseille
University of Aix-en-Provence
–
Aix-Marseille University
University of Aix-en-Provence
–
Louis II of Anjou,
Count of Provence, the university's founder, as painted by
Barthélemy d'Eyck and now on display at the
National Library of France
University of Aix-en-Provence
–
Former seat of the
University of the Mediterranean Aix-Marseille II
7.
Cluny Abbey
–
Cluny Abbey dedicated to St Peter, is a former Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. It was built in the Romanesque style, with three built in succession from the 4th to the early 12th centuries. The earliest basilica was the worlds largest church until the St. Peters Basilica construction began in Rome, Cluny was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910. He nominated Berno as the first Abbot of Cluny, subject only to Pope Sergius III, the abbey was notable for its stricter adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict, whereby Cluny became acknowledged as the leader of western monasticism. The establishment of the Benedictine Order was a keystone to the stability of European society that was achieved in the 11th century, in 1790 during the French Revolution, the abbey was sacked and mostly destroyed, with only a small part of the Abbey surviving. Starting around 1334, the Abbots of Cluny maintained a townhouse in Paris known as the Hôtel de Cluny, apart from the name, it no longer possesses anything originally connected with Cluny. In 910, William I, Duke of Aquitaine the Pious, the deed of gift included vineyards, fields, meadows, woods, waters, mills, serfs, cultivated and uncultivated lands. Hospitality was to be given to the poor, strangers, William placed Cluny under the protection of saints Peter and Paul, with a powerful curse on anyone who should violate the charter. With the Pope across the Alps in Italy, this meant the monastery was essentially independent, in donating his hunting preserve in the forests of Burgundy, William released Cluny Abbey from all future obligation to him and his family other than prayer. Contemporary patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots, William appears to have made this arrangement with Berno, the first abbot, to free the new monastery from such secular entanglements and initiate the Cluniac Reforms. The Abbots of Cluny were statesmen on the stage and the monastery of Cluny was considered the grandest, most prestigious. The height of Cluniac influence was from the half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The first female members were admitted to the Order during the 11th century, Berno had adopted Benedicts interpretation of the Rule previously at Baume Abbey. Cluny was not known for the severity of its discipline or its asceticism, but the abbots of Cluny supported the revival of the papacy, the Cluniac establishment found itself closely identified with the Papacy. In the early 12th century, the order lost momentum under poor government and it was subsequently revitalized under Abbot Peter the Venerable, who brought lax priories back into line and returned to stricter discipline. Cluny reached its apogee of power and influence under Peter, as its monks became bishops, legates, and cardinals throughout France, but by the time Peter died, newer and more austere orders such as the Cistercians were generating the next wave of ecclesiastical reform. Outside monastic structures, the rise of English and French nationalism created a climate unfavourable to the existence of monasteries autocratically ruled by a head residing in Burgundy. The Papal Schism of 1378 to 1409 further divided loyalties, France recognizing a pope at Avignon and England one at Rome, interfered with the relations between Cluny and its dependent houses
Cluny Abbey
–
Cluny Abbey in 2004
Cluny Abbey
–
A view of the abbey
Cluny Abbey
–
Cluny III, reconstruction.
Cluny Abbey
–
Pope Callixtus II was elected at the
papal election, 1119 at Cluny.
8.
Dijon
–
Dijon is a city in eastern France, capital of the Côte-dOr département and of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The earliest archaeological finds within the city limits of Dijon date to the Neolithic period, Dijon later became a Roman settlement named Divio, located on the road from Lyon to Paris. Population,151,576 within the city limits,250,516 for the greater Dijon area, the city has retained varied architectural styles from many of the main periods of the past millennium, including Capetian, Gothic and Renaissance. Many still-inhabited town houses in the central district date from the 18th century. Dijon architecture is distinguished by, among other things, toits bourguignons made of tiles glazed in terracotta, green, yellow and black, Dijon holds an International and Gastronomic Fair every year in autumn. With over 500 exhibitors and 200,000 visitors every year, Dijon is also home, every three years, to the international flower show Florissimo. The historical center of the city has been registered since July 4,2015 as a UNESCO World Heritage site, the earliest archaeological finds within the city limits of Dijon date to the Neolithic period. Dijon later became a Roman settlement called Divio, which may mean sacred fountain, saint Benignus, the citys apocryphal patron saint, is said to have introduced Christianity to the area before being martyred. The Duchy of Burgundy was a key in the transformation of medieval times toward early modern Europe, the Palace of the Dukes of Burgundy now houses city hall and a museum of art. In 1513, Swiss and Imperial armies invaded Burgundy and besieged Dijon, the siege was extremely violent, but the town succeeded in resisting the invaders. After long negotiations, Louis II de la Trémoille managed to persuade the Swiss, during the siege, the population called on the Virgin Mary for help and saw the towns successful resistance and the subsequent withdrawal of the invaders as a miracle. For those reasons, in the following the siege the inhabitants of Dijon began to venerate Notre-Dame de Bon-Espoir. Although a few areas of the town were destroyed, there are no signs of the siege of 1513 visible today. However, Dijons museum of arts has a large tapestry depicting this episode in the towns history. Dijon is situated at the heart of a plain drained by two small converging rivers, the Suzon, which crosses it mostly underground from north to south, farther south is the côte, or hillside, of vineyards that gives the department its name. Dijon lies 310 km southeast of Paris,190 km northwest of Geneva, the average low of winter is −1 °C, with an average high of 4.2 °C. The average high of summer is 25.3 °C with a low of 14.7 °C. Average normal temperatures are between 2.3 °C and 5.3 °C from November to March, and 17.2 to 19.7 °C from June to August, the climate is oceanic but with a greater temperature range than closer to the Atlantic coastline
Dijon
–
Top: Dijon City Hall, Bottom: Saint Benigne Cathedral, Statue of Jean-Philippe Rameau, Statue of Francois Rude, Saint Michel Church
Dijon
–
Porte Guillaume (Guillaume Gate), Place Darcy (Darcy Square), in the center of Dijon.
Dijon
–
A jar of Dijon mustard
9.
Carolingian
–
The Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The name Carolingian derives from the Latinised name of Charles Martel, the Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Emperor of Romans in over three centuries. His death in 814 began a period of fragmentation of the Carolingian empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France. This picture, however, is not commonly accepted today, the greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire, is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire, the Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons kings in the various regions of the Empire. The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888 and they ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet, the dynasty became extinct in the male line with the death of Eudes, Count of Vermandois. His sister Adelaide, the last Carolingian, died in 1122, the Carolingian dynasty has five distinct branches, The Lombard branch, or Vermandois branch, or Herbertians, descended from Pepin of Italy, son of Charlemagne. Though he did not outlive his father, his son Bernard was allowed to retain Italy, Bernard rebelled against his uncle Louis the Pious, and lost both his kingdom and his life. Deprived of the title, the members of this branch settled in France. The counts of Vermandois perpetuated the Carolingian line until the 12th century, the Counts of Chiny and the lords of Mellier, Neufchâteau and Falkenstein are branches of the Herbertians. With the descendants of the counts of Chiny, there would have been Herbertian Carolingians to the early 14th century, the Lotharingian branch, descended from Emperor Lothair, eldest son of Louis the Pious. At his death Middle Francia was divided equally between his three surviving sons, into Italy, Lotharingia and Lower Burgundy, the sons of Emperor Lothair did not have sons of their own, so Middle Francia was divided between the western and eastern branches of the family in 875. The Aquitainian branch, descended from Pepin of Aquitaine, son of Louis the Pious, since he did not outlive his father, his sons were deprived of Aquitaine in favor of his younger brother Charles the Bald. The German branch, descended from Louis the German, King of East Francia, since he had three sons, his lands were divided into Duchy of Bavaria, Duchy of Saxony and Duchy of Swabia. His youngest son Charles the Fat briefly reunited both East and West Francia — the entirety of the Carolingian empire — but it again after his death. With the failure of the lines of the German branch, Arnulf of Carinthia
Carolingian
–
A Carolingian family tree, from the Chronicon Universale of
Ekkehard of Aura, 12th century
Carolingian
–
Carolingian denier of
Lothair I, struck in
Dorestad (
Middle Francia) after 850.
Carolingian
–
Carloman, son
Carolingian
–
Pepin, son
10.
Crusades
–
The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
Crusades
–
Madrid Skylitzes illuminated manuscript depicting Byzantine Greeks punishing ninth-century
Cretan Saracens
Crusades
–
Map of the
Eastern Mediterranean in 1135, showing crusader-held and neighbouring territories
Crusades
–
Fifteenth-century illustrated French translation of
Boccaccio 's
De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, showing
Seljuk emperor
Alp Arslan ritually humiliating
Romanos IV in 1071 after Manzikert; Alp Arslan allowed Romanos to return to
Constantinople, where he was killed by the Byzantines.
Crusades
–
Illumination from the Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer (c. 1490) of Urban II at the Council of Clermont (from the
Bibliothèque Nationale)
11.
Marc Bloch
–
Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch was a French historian who cofounded the highly influential Annales School of French social history. An assimilated Alsatian Jew from a family in Paris, he was deeply affected in his youth by the Dreyfus Affair. He studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, in 1908–9 he studied at Berlin and he fought in the trenches of the Western Front for four years. He is best known for his pioneering studies French Rural History and Feudal Society and his posthumously-published unfinished meditation on the writing of history, The Historians Craft. A French soldier in both World Wars, he was captured and shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France for his work in the French Resistance. Born in Lyon to a Jewish family, the son of the professor of ancient history Gustave Bloch, Marc studied at the École Normale Supérieure and Fondation Thiers in Paris, then at Berlin and Leipzig. He was an officer of infantry in World War I, rising to the rank of captain, after the war, he went to the university at Strasbourg, then in 1936 succeeded Henri Hauser as professor of economic history at the Sorbonne. This tradition has its roots in the role of kings in ancient societies. This work by Bloch had an impact not only on the social history of the Middle Ages. Blochs most important work centered on the study of feudalism, in 1939 he published a large work, available in a two-volume English translation as Feudal Society. In some ways, his most innovative work is his monograph 1931 French Rural History, Bloch has had lasting influence in the field of historiography through his unfinished manuscript The Historians Craft, which he was working on at his death. Blochs book is considered one of the most important historiographical works of the 20th century. Bloch was highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache, Bloch vigorously supported the idea of international scholarly cooperation and tried unsuccessfully to set up an international journal with American support. In Les Rois Thaumaturges Bloch looked at the folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practised the ritual, Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch—he acted like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was influential in introducing comparative studies, as well as long-duration studies spanning a thousand years. By investigating the impact of rituals, the efficacy of myths, Blochs revolutionary charting of mentalities resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. Blochs own ideas on rural history were best expressed in his masterworks, French Rural History, Bloch argued that it was this intensified exploitation that provoked peasant revolt, leading to the Revolution
Marc Bloch
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Marc Bloch
12.
Lucien Febvre
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Lucien Febvre was a French historian best known for the role he played in establishing the Annales School of history. He was the editor of the Encyclopédie française together with Anatole de Monzie. Lucien Febvre was born and brought up in Nancy, in northeastern France and his father was a philologist, who introduced Febvre to the study of ancient texts and languages, which significantly influenced Febvres way of thinking. At the age of twenty, Febvre went to Paris to enrol in the École Normale Supérieure, between 1899 and 1902, he concentrated on studying history and geography. After his graduation from college, Febvre taught at a provincial lycée, where he worked on his thesis on Philip II of Spain and the Franche-Comté. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Febvre was forced to leave his teaching post to join the army, Febvre took up a position at the University of Strasbourg in 1919 when the province was returned to France. While there, Febvre became acquainted with Marc Bloch, who shared Febvres philosophical and political approach, the time Febvre spent in Paris played an enormous role in reshaping his outlook on the world. Prevalent approaches to art, philosophy and modern ways of thinking strongly influenced Febvre and he embraced 20th century modernism to the extent that he later claimed to have become untuned from the old world and the old ways of thinking. In his approach to history, Febvre contextualized events against the geography, psychology, History as a mere collection of historical facts no longer held any interest for Febvre. Febvres first thesis on Philip the Second and the Franche-Comté, published in 1911, in this work, Febvre tried to demonstrate the context that shows events in their true light. Febvre reconstructed the life of villagers and town dwellers in a traditional province in France by contextualizing historical events in terms of the geography. By describing Franche-Comtés rivers, salt mines, vineyards and other surroundings, Febvre created an accurate and true-to-life portrayal of the atmosphere, with this approach, Febvre was also able to reveal a negative influence that the French Government of the time played in the life of this province. This approach to history is known as histoire totale, or histoire tout court, later, Febvres work would be a paradigm for the Annales School and would become a new way of historical thinking. Another influential work of Febvre dealt with Protestantism, published in the Revue Historique in 1929, Une question mal posée attempted to study popular religion by trying to observe and quantify human behavior. Through this work, Febvre became very involved in the field of ethnology, some critics consider this work to be heavily influenced by Febvres own views of the surrounding world. As time went by, Febvre grew increasingly suspicious of theology and he refused to see people as bound by forces beyond their control. He came to the view that religion and old ways of thinking were impractical, maybe even dangerous, in the general confusion of our time, Febvre wrote, old ideas refuse to die and still find acceptance with the mass of the population. He became convinced that religious views and attitudes is as difficult as trying to influence the outcome of any sort of political or social upheavals
Lucien Febvre
–
Lucien Febvre
13.
William Marshal
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William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, also called William the Marshal, was an Anglo-Norman soldier and statesman. He served five English kings – Henry II, his sons The Young King Henry, Richard I, John, knighted in 1166, he spent his younger years as a knight errant and a successful tournament competitor, Stephen Langton eulogized him as the best knight that ever lived. In 1189, he received the title of Earl of Pembroke through marriage during the creation of the Pembroke Earldom. In 1216, he was appointed protector for the nine-year-old Henry III, William became known as the Marshal, although by his time much of the function was actually delegated to more specialized representatives. Because he was an Earl, and also known as the Marshal, the term Earl Marshal was commonly used and this later became an established hereditary title in the English Peerage. When King Stephen besieged Newbury Castle in 1152, according to Williams biographer, John, however, used the time allotted to reinforce the castle and alert Matildas forces. Subsequently, there was a made to launch William from a pierrière. Fortunately for the child, Stephen could not bring himself to harm young William, William remained a crown hostage for many months, only being released following the peace that resulted from the terms agreed at Winchester on 6 November 1153 that ended the civil war. As a younger son of a nobleman, William had no lands or fortune to inherit. Here he began his training as a knight and this would have included basic biblical stories and prayers written in Latin, as well as exposure to French romances, which conferred the basic precepts of chivalry to the budding knight. In addition, while in Tancarville’s household, it is likely that Marshal also learned important and he was knighted in 1166 on campaign in Upper Normandy, then being invaded from Flanders. His first experience in battle came with mixed reviews, according to LHistoire, everyone who witnessed the young knight in action agreed that he had acquitted himself well in combat. However, as medieval historian David Crouch explains, “War in the century was not fought wholly for honour. Profit was there to be made…” On this front, Marshal was not so successful, as described in LHistoire, the Earl of Essex, who was expecting the customary tribute from his valorous knight following battle, jokingly remarked, “Oh. But Marshal, what are you saying and you had forty or sixty of them — yet you refuse me so small a thing. ”In 1167 he was taken by William de Tancarville to his first tournament where he found his true métier. Quitting the Tancarville household he served in the household of his mothers brother, Patrick. In 1168 his uncle was killed in an ambush by Guy de Lusignan, William was injured and captured in the same skirmish. It is known that William received a wound to his thigh and he received a loaf of bread in which were concealed several lengths of clean linen bandages with which he could dress his wounds
William Marshal
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Tomb effigy of William Marshal in
Temple Church, London
William Marshal
William Marshal
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13th-century depiction by
Matthew Paris of the Earl of Pembroke's coat of arms
William Marshal
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A 13th-century depiction of the Second Battle of Lincoln, which occurred at Lincoln Castle on 20 May 1217; the illustration shows the death of Thomas du Perche, the Comte de la Perche
14.
Battle of Bouvines
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The Battle of Bouvines, which took place on 27 July 1214, was a medieval battle which ended the 1202–1214 Anglo-French War. It was fundamental in the development of France in the Middle Ages by confirming the French crowns sovereignty over the Angevin lands of Brittany. Philip Augustus of France defeated an army consisting of Imperial German, English and Flemish soldiers, led by Otto IV, Allied with Philip was Frederick II Hohenstaufen, who controlled the southern Holy Roman Empire and afterwards deposed Otto. Other leaders included Count Ferrand of Flanders, William de Longespee, Ferrand and Renaud were captured and imprisoned and King John of England was forced to agree to the Magna Carta by his discontented barons. Philip was himself able to take undisputed control of most of the territories in France that had belonged to King John of England, Ottos maternal uncle, johns plan was carried out at first, but the allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with the French, retreated to Aquitaine on 3 July, on 23 July, after having summoned all his vassals, Philip had an army consisting of 4,000 cavalry and 11, 000-foot soldiers. The emperor finally succeeded in concentrating his forces at Valenciennes, although John was out of the picture, and in the interval Philip Augustus had counter marched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in maneuvering to get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle, on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque. Otto was surprised by the speed of his enemy and was thought to have been caught unprepared by the King of France, although he was under a Church interdict, Otto, already an excommunicate, decided to launch an attack on what was then the French rearguard. The Allied army drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the cavalry on the wings. The total force was estimated at 25,000 men, a larger force of foot soldiers. Philips army contained about 2,000 knights and 2,000 mounted sergeants with the rest being infantry, even today, the evaluation of forces is controversial. The classic French historiography often refers to Coalition troops three times more numerous than those of the King of France, Philippe Contamine is not of this opinion, On the face of it, his opponents did not have a clear numerical superiority. William the Breton also says in his column that the two lines of combatants were separated by a pretty small space, Philip Augustus had then launched an appeal to the municipalities in northern France, in order to obtain their support. Seventeen of the municipalities of the royal demesne answered the call for militia. Paris sent a corps of 2,000 men,1,750 of whom fought on the battlefield, in total, the royal army totalled 7,000 soldiers. In the front of the wing were men of arms and militia from the parishes of Burgundy, Champagne. In front of the king and his knights were infantry from the towns of Île de France, the left wing, composed of knights and foot soldiers was led by Robert of Dreux, and Count William of Ponthieu
Battle of Bouvines
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La Bataille de Bouvines, by
Horace Vernet. (
Galerie des Batailles,
Palace of Versailles). The white Arabian horse and
Moorish attendant (right) of Philippe Auguste at the Battle of Bouvines can be seen in this 19th-century painting.
Battle of Bouvines
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French and Imperial knights clashing
Battle of Bouvines
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King
Philip II of France 's victory at Bouvines, by
Vincent of Beauvais
Battle of Bouvines
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Ferrand of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne marched as prisoners to Paris
15.
La Sept
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La Sept was a French television broadcaster and production company created on 23 February 1986 to develop cultural and educational programming for transmission via the TDF1 satellite. In 1985, Georges Fillioud, French Minister of Transport, charged Pierre Desgraupes with creating programs for one or more of the five channels of the high power satellite TDF1 launched in 1988 and it was chaired by historian George Duby. In March 1989, the name of La Sept changed. In April 1989, the Conseil supérieur de laudiovisuel granted permission to broadcast on one of TDF 1s channels, the station broadcast three hours and 30 minutes of programmes per day, each programme broadcast twice. On 30 May 1992, La Sept lost its role of broadcaster to Arte, on 27 September 1993 it changed its name to Sept-ARTE, and became ARTE France on 1 August 2000. Michael Nyman released an album, La Sept, containing music recorded for the network
La Sept
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La Sept
16.
Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard
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Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard was a French journalist, translator and man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment. He was born in Besançon and died in Paris, the 16 January 1766, he married Amélie Panckoucke, sister of Charles-Joseph Panckoucke. He was the editor of the Journal étranger in the years 1760–1762, Suard was on intimate terms with the philosophes and regularly attended the salon of Baron dHolbach, although he seems to have eschewed their more radical ideas. Suard was an acquaintance with the Marquis de Condorcet, having stayed in residence with him back in 1772. In 1774 he was made a member of the Académie française, for all his caution, Suard would later be harassed by both the Revolutionary and the Napoleonic regimes. His Mélanges de littérature were published in 1803–1805, works by or about Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard at Internet Archive
Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard
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Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard
17.
Marie-Louis-Antoine-Gaston Boissier
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Marie-Louis-Antoine-Gaston Boissier, French classical scholar, and secretary of the Académie française, was born at Nîmes. The Roman monuments of his native town very early attracted Gaston Boissier to the study of ancient history. He made epigraphy his particular theme, and at the age of twenty-three became a professor of rhetoric at the University of Angoulême, where he lived and worked for ten years without further ambition. A travelling inspector of the university, however, happened to hear him lecture and he began his literary career by a thesis on the poet Attius and a study on the life and work of Marcus Terentius Varro. In 1861 he was professor of Latin oratory at the Collège de France. In 1865 he published Cicéron et ses amis, which has enjoyed a success such as rarely falls to the lot of a work of erudition, in studying the manners of ancient Rome, Boissier had learned to re-create its society and to reproduce its characteristics with exquisite vivacity. In 1874 he published La Religion romaine dAuguste aux Antonins, in which he analysed the great movement of antiquity that preceded the acceptance of Christianity. In LOpposition sous les Césars he drew a picture of the political decadence of Rome under the early successors of Augustus. His later works include Promenades archéologiques, Rome et Pompei, LAfrique romaine, promenades archéologiques, La Fin du paganisme, La Conjuration de Catilina, Étude sur la société romaine du temps de César Nouvelles promenades archéologiques, Horace et Virgile. Chapitre premier, La Maison de campagne d’Horace, sur wikisource, petit dictionnaire des écrivains du Gard. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Boissier. La Conjuration de Catilina, enregistrement audio gratuit Les Délateurs, enregistrement audio gratuit
Marie-Louis-Antoine-Gaston Boissier
–
Gaston Boissier
18.
Marcel Arland
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Marcel Arland was a French novelist, literary critic, and journalist. With René Crevel and Roger Vitrac he founded the dadaist newspaper Aventure and he was awarded the Prix Goncourt for LOrdre in 1929, and was elected to the French academy in 1968. He directed the Nouvelle Revue Française from 1968-1977, lEau et le feu Je vous écris. La nuit et les sources Le Grand Pardon Attendez laube LAcadémie française Marcel Arland Marcel Arland
Marcel Arland
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Marcel Arland, before 1929
19.
Historian
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A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race, if the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although historian can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. Historian became an occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, while ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region, the earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus who later became known as the father of history. Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men and he was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, while early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder, was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, livy records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history, in Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages and they wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammads life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, to evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad
Historian
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Herodotus was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC and one of the earliest historians whose work survives.
Historian
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Reproduction of part of a tenth-century copy of
Thucydides 's
History of the Peloponnesian War.
Historian
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Leonardo Bruni (c.1370–1444), the historian who first divided history into the three eras of
Antiquity, the
Middle Ages, and
Modern times.
Historian
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A page of
Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
20.
Jacques Le Goff
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Jacques Le Goff was a French historian and prolific author specializing in the Middle Ages, particularly the 12th and 13th centuries. Le Goff championed the Annales School movement, which emphasizes long-term trends over the topics of politics, diplomacy, from 1972 to 1977, he was the head of the École des hautes études en sciences sociales. He was a figure of New History, related to cultural history. Le Goff argued that the Middle Ages formed a civilization of its own, Le Goff succeeded Fernand Braudel in 1972 at the head of the École des hautes études en sciences sociales and was succeeded by François Furet in 1977. Along with Pierre Nora, he was one of the figures of New History in the 1970s. Subsequently, he dedicated himself to studies on the anthropology of Western Europe during medieval times. An agnostic, Le Goff presented an equidistant position between the detractors and the apologists of the Middle Ages, in October 2000 he received an Honorary Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Pavia. He was also nominated Academician of Studium, Accademia di Casale e del Monferrato, in 2004, he received the Dr. A. H. Heineken Prize for History from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Time, Work, & Culture in the Middle Ages, translated by Arthur Goldhammer, constructing the Past, Essays in Historical Methodology, edited by Jacques Le Goff and Pierre Nora. The Medieval Imagination, translated by Arthur Goldhammer and your Money or Your Life, Economy and Religion in the Middle Ages, translated by Patricia Ranum. Medieval Civilization, 400-1500, translated by Julia Barrow, the Medieval World, edited by Jacques Le Goff, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. The Birth of Purgatory, translated by Arthur Goldhammer, History and Memory, translated by Steven Rendall and Elizabeth Claman. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages, translated by Teresa Lavender Fagan, Saint Louis Saint Francis of Assisi, trans. Christine Rhone The Birth of Europe, translated by Janet Lloyd, in Search of Sacred Time, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane Must We Divide History into Periods. DeBevoise, Columbia University Press,160 pp. 2015) Honorary degree, the Work of Jacques Le Goff and the Challenges of Medieval History. Mes souvenirs sont peut-être reconstruits, Medieval Studies, Medievalism, Jacques Le Goff at the Internet Movie Database Dan David Prize laureate 2007, The history of innovation and revolt Il Medioevo Europeo di Jacques Le Goff
Jacques Le Goff
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Jacques Le Goff
21.
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
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Emmanuel Bernard Le Roy Ladurie is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the Ancien Régime, particularly the history of the peasantry. Le Roy Ladurie was born in Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais, Calvados and his father was Jacques Le Roy Ladurie, minister of Agriculture for Marshal Philippe Pétain and subsequently a member of the French resistance after breaking with the Vichy regime. Le Roy Ladurie described his childhood in Normandy growing up on his estates in the countryside as intensely Catholic. Afterwards, the former Captain Le Roy Ladurie returned to rural Normandy, during his childhood, Le Roy Laduries hero was Marshal Pétain. France is full of people who became important, then became nothing. My fascination is probably due to the fact that my own family was once important, there was a contrast between my own career and the feelings in my family. Because his father had been a minister in the Vichy government, his son grew up in an atmosphere of family shame, the historian was educated in Caen at the Collège Saint-Joseph, in Paris at the Lycée Henri-IV and in Sceaux at the Lycée Lakanal. He was awarded an agrégation in history after studying at the École Normale Supérieure, Le Roy Ladurie was a member of the French Communist Party between 1945 and 1956. His devoutly Catholic parents had expected him to become a Catholic priest and were scandalized that their son should become an ardent Communist and atheist. The Great Depression of the 1930s together with Frances defeat in 1940 at the hands of Germany had caused many people in France to lose faith in both capitalism and liberal democracy. The Resistance had fought not only the Germans, but also the policemen, gendarmes, the Milice were a collection of French fascists, gangsters and assorted adventurers used by the Vichy regime to hunt down and murder résistants, who in their turn assassinated members of the Milice. If we are subjected to violence, we will in turn be violent towards others and it is like someone who is sodomised and then sodomises others. Le Roy Ladurie explained becoming a Communist as a reaction to his war-time youth and it was not until 1928 when Stalin brought in the First Five Year Plan that full socialism arrived in the Soviet Union, a policy choice that Bukharin had opposed. Le Roy Ladurie was to subsequently to admit that he misunderstood the message of Darkness At Noon. At the height of the Cold War in the early 1950s, in 1955, Le Roy Ladurie married Madeleine Pupponi by whom he had one son and one daughter. Le Roy Laduire left the PCF after doubts caused by the 1956 Hungarian Revolution became too much for him, in November 1956, Le Roy Ladurie resigned from the Communist Party in protest against the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian revolt. In 1963, a disillusioned Le Roy Ladurie left the Socialists, Le Roy Ladurie has often written for Le Nouvel Observateur, LExpress, and Le Monde newspapers, and appeared on French television. In France, historians have far more prestige than they do in the English-speaking world
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
–
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
22.
Pierre Nora
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Pierre Nora is a French historian elected to the Académie française on 7 June 2001. He is known for his work on French identity and memory and his name is associated with the study of new history. He is the brother of the late Simon Nora, former French officer, Nora occupies a particular position that he himself qualifies as on the side of the French historical sphere. In the 1950s he took hypokhâgne and khâgne at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand but, contrary to a persistent legend, thereafter, he obtained a bachelier ès lettres degree in philosophy. He passed the agrégation dhistoire in 1958 and he was a teacher at the Lycée Lamoricière dOran in Algeria until 1960. He wrote book about it, published under the title Les Français dAlgérie, from 1961 to 1963, he was a resident at the Thiers Foundation. From 1965 to 1977 he was first assistant and then lecturer at the Institut dÉtudes Politiques de Paris, since 1977 he has been the director of studies at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales. Concurrently, Nora had managed an important career in publishing and he joined Éditions Julliard in 1964, where he created the Archives paperback collection. In 1965 he joined Éditions Gallimard, the house, which already had a good marketshare in literature. In the Library of histories, François Furet, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Michel de Certeau, Georges Duby, Jacques Le Goff, Jean-Pierre Vernant, Maurice Agulhon, foreign researchers whom he introduced in France, like Ernst Kantorowicz, Thomas Nipperdey, Karl Polanyi. This important role gave to Nora a certain power in French publishing, to begin, he refused in 1997 to translate Eric Hobsbawms work, The Age of Extremes, because of that authors attachment to the revolutionary cause. In May 1980, Nora founded at Gallimard the review Le Débat with philosopher Marcel Gauchet and he had participated at the Saint-Simon Foundation, created in 1982 by François Furet and Pierre Rosanvallon and dissolved in 1999. Noras book Les Français dAlgérie has received criticism for its bias against French Algerians – a prejudice held by many French intellectuals of the time. Nora posited that the French Algerians were different from the French of the Metropol and his opinions were developed from his two years as a high school teacher in Algiers. The French of Algeria is described as synthesizing a self-righteous anti-pied noir discourse, since 2012, he has lived with French journalist Anne Sinclair, ex-wife of former politician Dominique Strauss-Kahn. 1961, Les Français dAlgérie, prefaced by Charles-André Julien 1962, Ernest Lavisse, son rôle dans la formation du sentiment national Revue historique issue 463 1970–1979, remembered Realms, Pierre Nora and French National Memory. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13, essay on the English translation of Lieux de Mémoire as Realms of Memory, edited by Pierre Nora Dosse, François
Pierre Nora
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Pierre Nora in June 2011
23.
Roger Chartier
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Roger Chartier, born on December 9,1945 in Lyon, is a French historian and historiographer who is part of the Annales school. He works on the history of books, publishing and reading and he teaches at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, the Collège de France, and the University of Pennsylvania. Originally from Lyon, he studied at the Ampère lycée, between 1964 and 1969, he was a student at the École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud and, at the same time, he pursued a 3-year-degree followed by a masters degree at the Sorbonne. In 1969, he succeeded at his agrégation in history and he taught as an associate professor at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris between 1969 and 1970. In the same year, he became assistant in Modern History at the University of Paris I and he became a lecturer and then director of studies at the EHESS until 2006. In 2006 he was appointed professor at the Collège de France and he also hosts the show Les lundis de lhistoire on France Culture, in which he talks with historians who publish books on modern history. Winner of the 1990 Annual Award of the American Printing History Association Grand Prix dhistoire of the Académie française in 1992, corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. Honoris Causa Doctor, Universidad Carlos III Cultural History, Between Practices and Representations Translator Lydia G. Review, Text, Symbols,4, pp. 682–695 in JSTOR Chartier, Roger. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 44e Année, No,6, pp. 1505–1520 in JSTOR Chartier, Roger. Les arts de mourir, 1450-1600, Annales, Histoire, Sciences Sociales 31e Année, No. 1, pp. 51–75 in JSTOR Chartier, Roger, espace social et imaginaire social, les intellectuels frustrés au XVIIe siècle, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 37e Année, No,2, pp. 389–400 in JSTOR Chartier, Roger. Review, Lancien régime typographique, réflexions sur quelques travaux récents, Histoire, Sciences Sociales 36e Année, No. 2, pp. 191–209 in JSTOR Hunt, Lynn, French History in the Last Twenty Years, The Rise and Fall of the Annales Paradigm, Journal of Contemporary History Vol.21, No. 2, Twentieth Anniversary Issue, pp. 209–224 in JSTOR Département Histoire - Paris VIII-Saint-Denis Stanford Presidential Lectures in the Humanities and Arts, Roger Chartier
Roger Chartier
–
Roger Chartier at CEFRES (Centre français de recherche en sciences sociales),
Prague, 2011.
24.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
–
Screenshot 2012
25.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
26.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
National Diet Library
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Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Main building in Tokyo
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National Library of the Czech Republic
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The National Library of the Czech Republic is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture, the librarys main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař, the National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, in its funds there are around 6 million documents. The library has around 60,000 registered readers, as well as Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India. The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague, the library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO via the Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts. The project, which commenced in 1992, involved the digitisation of 1,700 documents in its first 13 years, the most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new building on Letna plain. In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus. Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, the library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water. Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building, there was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event. List of national and state libraries Official website
National Library of the Czech Republic
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Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic
National Library of the Czech Republic
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General reading room (former
refectory of the Jesuit residence in
Clementinum)
