1.
Bulgarian Communist Party
–
The Bulgarian Communist Party was the Communist and Marxist-Leninist ruling party of the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria from 1946 until 1989 when the country ceased to be a communist state. The partys origins lay in the Bulgarian Social Democratic Workers Party, the partys founding leader was Dimitar Blagoev, who was the driving force behind the formation of the BSDWP in 1894. It comprised most of the hardline Marxists in the Social Democratic Workers Party, the party opposed World War I and was sympathetic to the October Revolution in Russia. Under Blagoevs leadership, the party applied to join the Communist International upon its founding in 1919, upon joining the Comintern the party was reorganised as the Communist Party of Bulgaria. Georgi Dimitrov was a member of the partys Central Committee from its inception in 1919 until his death in 1949, in 1938 the party merged with the Bulgarian Workers Party and took the former partys name. In 1948 the BWP reunited with the Social Democrats to become the Bulgarian Communist Party once again, following Dimitrovs sudden death, the party was led by Valko Chervenkov, a Stalinist who oversaw a number of party purges that met with Moscows approval. The party joined the Cominform at its inception in 1948 and conducted purges against suspected Titoites following the expulsion of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia from the alliance, in March 1954, one year after Joseph Stalins death, Chervenkov was deposed. From 1954 until 1989 the party was led by Todor Zhivkov and his rule led to relative political stability and an increase in living standards. The demands for reform which swept Eastern Europe in 1989 led Zhivkov to resign. He was succeeded by a more liberal Communist, Petar Mladenov. However, events overtook him, and on December 11 Mladenov announced the party was giving up its guaranteed right to rule. For all intents and purposes, this was the end of Communist rule in Bulgaria, the party moved in a more moderate direction, and by the spring of 1990 was no longer a Marxist-Leninist party. That April, the party changed its name to the Bulgarian Socialist Party, a number of hardline Communists established several splinter parties with a small number of members. One of these parties, named Communist Party of Bulgaria, is led by Aleksandar Paunov. m. wikipedia. org/wiki/Народен_дом_на_терора
Bulgarian Communist Party
–
Sculptures of the communist Bulgarian leaders in the Museum of Socialist Art in
Sofia:
Vasil Kolarov,
Dimitar Blagoev,
Georgi Dimitrov and
Todor Zhivkov
Bulgarian Communist Party
–
Bulgarian Communist Party Българска Комунистическа Партия Balgarska Komunisticheska Partiya
2.
Valko Chervenkov
–
Valko Velev Chervenkov was a Bulgarian communist politician. He served as leader of the Communist Party between 1950 and 1954, and Prime Minister between 1950 and 1956 and his rule was marked by the consolidation of the Stalin model, rapid industrialisation, collectivisation and large-scale persecution of political opponents. Chervenkov was born in Zlatitsa, Bulgaria and he became a member of the Communist Party in 1919 and participated in communist youth group activities and newspaper editing. He took part in the failed 1923 September Uprising and was sentenced to death, in 1925 Chervenkov fled to the Soviet Union. He attended the Marx-Lenin school in Moscow and eventually became its director and he became a supporter of the governing style of Joseph Stalin and was known for his high wit and knowledge of Marxism–Leninism. He was recruited as an agent in the NKVD under the alias Spartak, in 1941, Chervenkov became the director of a radio station which sent anti-nazi and pro-communist messages to the Bulgarian people. In 1944 Chervenkov returned to Bulgaria on a mission for his brother-in-law, Chervenkov became a member of the government which took office soon after the end of World War II in 1945 which quickly came to be controlled by Communists. He became minister of culture in 1947, and became deputy minister in 1949. Shortly after becoming deputy minister, Bulgarian leader Georgi Dimitrov died. Chervenkov became general secretary of the party, and Vasil Kolarov took Dimitrovs other post of prime minister, Kolarov himself died in 1950, and Chervenkov fused the two most powerful offices in Bulgaria once again, with full Soviet approval. Chervenkovs policies closely resembled those of the Soviet Union at the time, in 1950, a collectivization campaign was launched. By early 1951, Chervenkov had expelled one in five party members, including high officials. Out of 460,000 members,100,000 were expelled from the party by 1953, although Chervenkovs personality cult model was similar to that of Stalin, he personally accepted it only as a necessity of the current political situation and strongly opposed any extremities. By 1953, Bulgaria had cut ties with the West and 90% of its exports and imports involved Soviet partnership, Chervenkovs cabinet used intimidation and supply discrimination to increase collectivization rates. Between 1950 and 1953, state-owned arable land increased from 12% to 61%, even before the death of Stalin, Chervenkov had already begun moving away from the Stalinist line. The official approval of Dimitar Dimovs novel Tobacco marked a slight loosening of Party control over cultural activities, in April 1956, following Khrushchevs de-Stalinisation, the Bulgarian Communist Party denounced Stalinism. Between 1962 and 1969, his membership in the Party was suspended, in 1926 Chervenkov married Georgi Dimitrovs youngest sister, Elena. They had two children - Irina and Vladimir
Valko Chervenkov
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Republika Power Plant, one of the construction projects during the industrialisation
3.
Kimon Georgiev
–
Kimon Georgiev Stoyanov was a Bulgarian general who was Prime Minister of Bulgaria from 1934 to 1935 and again from 1944 to 1946. Born in Pazardzhik, Georgiev graduated from the Sofia military academy in 1902 and he participated in the Balkan Wars as a company commander and in the First World War as a commander of a battalion. In 1916 he lost an eye due to injuries received in action and he left the army in 1920 with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Georgiev was one of the founders of the Military Union in 1919 and he participated in the organization of the 1923 coup détat and after that became one of the leaders of the Democratic Alliance. He was the minister for railways, postal service and telegraphs in the first cabinet of Andrey Lyapchev, in the 1930s he became one of the leaders of the right-wing military Zveno movement. Together with fellow officers he committed a coup détat in May 1934 and he was also justice minister and for a short time minister of war and foreign affairs. He abolished all parties and trade unions. Influenced by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini he introduced an economic system. In 1935 Tsar Boris III forced him to resign, during World War II, when Bulgaria was fighting on the side of the Axis, he grew close to the left wing forces in Bulgaria and in 1943 he joined the anti-Axis Fatherland Front as one of its leaders. In September 1944 the FF committed a coup détat and Georgiev became again prime minister, in 1946 he was succeeded by the communist leader Georgi Dimitrov and became vice-premier and Foreign Minister. Though Zveno was disbanded in 1949, Georgiev continued holding ministerial posts in all the cabinets until 1962, from 1962 until his death in 1969 he was a member of the Parliaments presidium. Georgiev was twice awarded the title Hero of Socialist Labour and he is known as stariya prevratadzhiya in Bulgaria for having organised three coups,1923,1934 and 1944. Tasho Tashev, The Ministers of Bulgaria 1879-1999, Sofia, AI Prof. Marin Drinov/Publishing house of the Ministry of defense,1999, ISBN 978-954-430-603-8 / ISBN 978-954-509-191-9
Kimon Georgiev
–
Kimon Georgiev Stoyanov Кимон Георгиев Стоянов
4.
Vasil Kolarov
–
Vasil Petrov Kolarov was a Bulgarian communist political leader and leading functionary in the Communist International. Kolarov was born in Şumnu, Ottoman Empire on 16 July 1877, after graduating from high school in Varna, he worked as a teacher in Nikopol from 1895 to 1897. In 1897, Kolarov joined the Bulgarian Workers Social Democratic Party, Kolarov studied law in Aix-en-Provence, France, and at the University of Geneva. Following his graduation in 1900, Kolarov worked as a lawyer in his hometown and, from 1904, after the ideological split of the BWSDP, Kolarov cast his lot with Dimitar Blagoevs Tesniak wing of the party, which espoused revolutionary socialism. From 1904 to 1912, Kolarov headed the local Tesniak organization in Povdiv and he was named a member of the organizations governing Central Committee in 1905. On behalf of the Tesniak organization, Kolarov was a delegate to the congresses of the Second International at Stuttgart, during the Balkan wars Kolarov served as a second lieutenant in the 13th Rila Regiment of 7th Rila Division of the Bulgarian army. 1913 Kolarov was elected to the Bulgarian National Assembly, Kolarov participated in the September 1915 Zimmerwald Conference but he remained at that time aloof from the revolutionary Zimmerwald Left. Kolarov was also the delegate of the Tesniak organization to the 1917 Socialist conference held in Stockholm, in April 1919 the Bulgarian Communist Party was established, with Kolarov elected the first Secretary of its Central Committee. Kolarov was elected to the Executive Committee of the Communist International, early in 1923, he travelled to Central and Western Europe on behalf of the Comintern, attending Communist gatherings in Paris, Frankurt, Oslo, and Prague. In June 1923, Kolarov spoke at the 3rd Enlarged Plenum of ECCI in Moscow before returning secretly to Bulgaria at the end of the month, there he was promptly arrested but released on 5 August. Upon his release, Kolarov played a role along with Georgi Dimitrov in convincing the Bulgarian Communist Party to organize an insurrection in accordance with Comintern instructions. Kolarov was a member of the committee which launched that uprising in September 1923. This attempted revolution failed and Kolarov was forced to flee to the Soviet Union by way of Yugoslavia and Austria and he remained in exile for more than two decades. Kolarov remained a top official of the Communist International, presiding over the debates at the 5th World Congress of 1924. He was re-elected to ECCI and its governing Presidium at the 5th, 6th, Kolarov was President of the Executive Committee of the Peasant International from 1928 until its dissolution in 1939. He also served as director of the International Agrarian Institute in Moscow during this period, in 1943, Kolarov signed the document formally dissolving the Communist International. Kolarov returned to Bulgaria in 1945 during its occupation by the Soviet Union and he was reelected in 1946 and became provisional president of Bulgaria that year, amidst the growing domination of the communists. He remained president until the formation of the government headed by Dimitrov in December 1947, when Dimitrov died in July 1949, Kolarov was elected to Dimitrovs old post as prime minister
Vasil Kolarov
–
Vasil Kolarov Васил Коларов
5.
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated in English as CPSU, was the founding and ruling political party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks, a group led by Vladimir Lenin which seized power in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917. The party was dissolved on 29 August 1991 on Soviet territory soon after a failed coup détat and was abolished on 6 November 1991 on Russian territory. The highest body within the CPSU was the party Congress, which convened every five years, when the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, the Secretariat, and the Orgburo. The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or some of the three offices concurrently—but never all three at the same time. The CPSU, according to its party statute, adhered to Marxism–Leninism, a based on the writings of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, a number of causes contributed to CPSUs loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some historians have written that Gorbachevs policy of glasnost was the root cause, Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first constitutionally socialist state, was established by the Bolsheviks in the aftermath of the October Revolution. Immediately after the Revolution, the new, Lenin-led government implemented socialist reforms, including the transfer of estates, in this context, in 1918, RSDLP became Russian Communist Party and remained so until 1997. Lenin supported world revolution he sought peace with the Central Powers. The treaty was voided after the Allied victory in World War I, in 1921, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy, a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and recovery from the Civil War. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire in the Soviet Union, on 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924 and was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, after emerging victorious from a power struggle with Trotsky, Stalin obtained full control of the party and Stalinism was installed as the only ideology of the party. The partys official name was All-Union Communist Party in 1925, Stalins political purge greatly affected the partys configuration, as many party members were executed or sentenced for slave labour. Happening during the timespan of the Great Purge, fascism had ascened to power in Italy, seeing this as a potential threat, the Party actively sought to form collective security alliances with Anti-fascist western powers such as France and Britain
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as the Soviet leader. His rule is best known for his liberalization of political and social life, and the end of terror as a means of social control
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
The Brezhnev era is commonly referred to by historians as the
Era of Stagnation, a term coined by CPSU General Secretary Gorbachev
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
Gorbachev, the last leader of the CPSU and the Soviet Union, as seen in 1986
6.
Mikhail Suslov
–
Mikhail Andreyevich Suslov was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War. He served as Second Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1965, Suslov was responsible for party democracy and the power separation within the Communist Party. His hardline attitude toward change made him one of the foremost anti-reformist Soviet leaders, born in rural Russia in 1902, Suslov became a member of the All-Union Communist Party in 1921 and studied economics for much of the 1920s. He left his job as a teacher in 1931 to pursue politics full-time, Suslov impressed the Soviet leadership to such an extent in the pre-Eastern Front Soviet Union that he was made First Secretary of Stavropol Krai administrative area. During the war, Suslov headed the local Stavropol guerrilla movement and he became a member of the Organisational Bureau of the Central Committee in 1946 and, four years later, was elected to the Presidium of the All-Union Communist Party. Suslov lost much of the recognition and influence he had earned following the reshuffle of the Soviet leadership after Stalins death, however, by the late 1950s, Suslov had risen to become the leader of the hardline opposition to Nikita Khrushchevs revisionist leadership. After Khrushchev was ousted in 1964, Suslov supported the establishment of a collective leadership and he also supported inner-party democracy and opposed the reestablishment of the one-man rule as seen during the Stalin and Khrushchev Eras. During the Brezhnev Era, Suslov was considered to be the Partys Chief Ideologue and his death on 25 January 1982 is viewed as starting the battle to succeed Leonid Brezhnev in the post of General Secretary. Suslov was born in Shakhovskoye, a locality in Pavlovsky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast. Suslov began work in the local Komsomol organisation in Saratov in 1918, after working in the Komsomol for nearly three years, Suslov became a member of the All-Union Communist Party in 1921. After graduating from the rabfak, he studied economics at the Plekhanov Institute of National Economy between 1924–1928, in 1931 he abandoned teaching in favour of the party apparatus. He became an inspector on the Communist Partys Party Control Commission and on the Peoples Commissariat of the Workers and his main task there was to adjudicate on large numbers of personal cases, breaches of discipline, and appeals against expulsion from the party. In 1933 and 1934 Suslov directed a commission charged with purging the party in the Ural, the purge was organised by Lazar Kaganovich, then Chairman of the Soviet Control Commission. On the orders of Joseph Stalin, Suslov purged the city of Rostov in 1938, Suslov was made First Secretary of the Stavropol Krais Communist Party in 1939. On the Eastern Front in World War II, Suslov was a member of the Military Soviet of the Northern Group of Forces, according to Soviet historiography, Suslovs years as a guerrilla fighter were highly successful, however, testimonies from participants differ from the official account. These participants claim that there were a number of problems which reduced their effectiveness on the battlefield. During the war, Suslov spent much of his time mobilising workers to fight against the German invaders, the guerrilla movement he led was operated by the regional party cells. During the liberation of the Northern Caucasus, Suslov maintained close contact with the Red Army, during the war, Suslov supervised the deportations of Chechens and other Muslim minorities from the Caucasus
Mikhail Suslov
–
Mikhail Suslov Михаил Суслов
7.
Executive Committee of the Communist International
–
The Executive Committee of the Communist International, commonly known by its acronym, ECCI, was the governing authority of the Comintern between the World Congresses of that body. The ECCI was established by the Founding Congress of the Comintern in 1919 and was dissolved with the rest of the Comintern in May 1943, the Communist International was established at a gathering convened in Moscow at the behest of the Russian Communist Party. Similarly, Andreas Rudniansky, a prisoner of war stranded in Russia represented Hungary, while Christian Rakovsky. A commission chaired by Swiss radical Fritz Platten was appointed by this Founding Congress to construct an organizational apparatus for the new Third International. This commission recommended the establishment of two bodies, an Executive Committee, to handle matters of policy, and a 5-member Bureau. The governing Executive Committee was to be headquartered in Moscow and to include representatives from the organizations of the Communist International. The parties of Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, the Balkan Federation, Switzerland, all parties joining the Comintern before the convention of the 2nd World Congress were similarly to be allowed a representative on this body. Until the arrival of the elected delegates, representatives of the Russian Communist Party were to perform the functions of this Executive Committee of the Communist International. This organizational plan was approved unanimously by the Congress, without debate, selected as President of ECCI was Grigorii Zinoviev, an old associate of V. I. Lenin and top figure in the Russian Communist Party, karl Radek, then ensconced in a Berlin prison, was symbolically selected as Secretary of ECCI, although the actual functions fell to Angelica Balabanov, albeit only for a few weeks. Zinoviev also served as editor of the magazine of ECCI, Kommunisticheskii Internatsional. The early ECCI was, in short, to an extent an propaganda body. In the estimation of historian E. H, carr, the summer and fall of 1920 marked the high-water mark for the prestige of the Comintern and its hopes of promoting world revolution. There would be, however, other functions for the organization and this did not mean that ECCI, the Cominterns directing body, was staffed exclusively with Russians during the 1919-1920 period, however. In addition to representatives of the Russian Communist Party Angelica Balabanova, Ian Berzin, Nikolai Bukharin, vorovsky, Grigorii Zinoviev, and G. Klinger, a number of radicals from around the world had at various time taken part in ECCIs activities. Among this group were László Rudas of Hungary, Jacques Sadoul of France, John Reed of the Communist Labor Party of America, John Anderson of the Communist Party of America, S. J. Rutgers of the Netherlands, in addition to others from Korea, China, Norway, Sweden, Yugoslavia, Poland, over time this financial aid provided by the Comintern would help to bind the various national parties to the central body. Still, it would be facile to reduce loyalty to the Comintern and its body, ECCI
Executive Committee of the Communist International
–
The magazine The Communist International was the official organ of ECCI. It was initially published in Russian, French, German, and English editions.
Executive Committee of the Communist International
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Delegates to the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern received a copy of Lenin's new book The Infantile Sickness of "Leftism" in Communism, published by ECCI.
8.
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of Peoples Commissars from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. He served as First Deputy Premier from 1942 to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev, Molotov retired in 1961 after several years of obscurity. He was aware of the Katyn massacre committed by the Soviet authorities during this period, after World War II, Molotov was involved in negotiations with the Western allies, in which he became noted for his diplomatic skills. He retained his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until March 1949, Molotovs relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, with Stalin criticising Molotov in a speech to the 19th Party Congress. However, after Stalins death in 1953, Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchevs de-Stalinisation policy, Molotov defended Stalins policies and legacy until his death in 1986, and harshly criticised Stalins successors, especially Khrushchev. Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin in the village of Kukarka, Yaransk Uyezd, Vyatka Governorate, contrary to a commonly repeated error, he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin. Throughout his teen years, he was described as shy and quiet and he was educated at a secondary school in Kazan, and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, soon gravitating toward that organisations radical Bolshevik faction, headed by V. I. Skryabin took the pseudonym Molotov, derived from the Russian word молот molot for his political work owing to the names vaguely industrial ring and he was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda. In 1911 he enrolled at St Petersburg Polytechnic, Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper called Pravda, meeting Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project. This first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief, however, and did not lead to a close political association. Molotov worked as a professional revolutionary for the next several years, writing for the party press. He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the time of the outbreak of World War I and it was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity, this time being deported to Irkutsk in eastern Siberia. In 1916 he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the city, now called Petrograd by the Tsarist regime. Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Partys committee in Petrograd in 1916, when the February Revolution occurred in 1917, he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital. Under his direction Pravda took to the left to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution, when Joseph Stalin returned to the capital, he reversed Molotovs line, but when the party leader Lenin arrived, he overruled Stalin. Despite this, Molotov became a protégé of and close adherent to Stalin, Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee which planned the October Revolution, which effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power. In 1918, Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the war then breaking out. Since he was not a man, he took no part in the fighting
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Vyacheslav Molotov Вячеслав Молотов
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov in his youth
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
Molotov's birth house in
Sovetsk, Kirov Oblast
Vyacheslav Molotov
–
A list from the
Great Purge signed by Molotov, Stalin,
Voroshilov,
Kaganovich and
Zhdanov
9.
Bulgarian language
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Bulgarian /bʌlˈɡɛəriən/, /bʊlˈ-/ is an Indo-European language, a member of the Southern branch of the Slavic language family. Various evidential verb forms exist to express unwitnessed, retold, with the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Bulgarian became one of the official languages of the European Union. Development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several periods, prehistoric period – occurred between the Slavonic migration to eastern Balkans and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in the 860s. Old Bulgarian – a literary norm of the southern dialect of the Common Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved. It was used by Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples to translate the Bible, Middle Bulgarian – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations were accepted. It was a language of literary activity and the official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Modern Bulgarian – dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar, present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing, as Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as языкъ словяньскъ, the Slavic language. In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was replaced by the name языкъ блъгарьскъ. In some cases, the name языкъ блъгарьскъ was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот, непонятен, ядро and others. As usual in cases, many other loans from French, English. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, between 1835–1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and linguistic chaos ensued. Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed, and in 1899 the Ministry of Education officially codified a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography, the language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Common Slavic yat vowel. This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgarias, E. g. млеко – milk, хлеб – bread. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have ya, or an open e sound. The literary language norm, which is based on the Eastern dialects
Bulgarian language
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The
Codex Zographensis is one of the oldest
manuscripts in the Old Bulgarian language dated from the late 10th or early 11th century
Bulgarian language
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regions where Bulgarian is the language of the majority
10.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
–
Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
–
Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
–
This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
–
The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
11.
Kovachevtsi, Pernik Province
–
Kovachevtsi is a village in western Bulgaria, part of Pernik Province. It is the centre of Kovachevtsi Municipality, which lies in the western part of Pernik Province. Kovachevtsi lies 25 kilometres southwest of Pernik and 55 kilometres southwest of Sofia, the village was first mentioned in Ottoman tax registers of 1576 as Kovachovcha, later on, its continuous existence was confirmed by western travelers such as Ami Boué and Felix Philipp Kanitz. The name is derived from the Bulgarian word for blacksmith, kovach, kovachevtsis population took part in the Bulgarian struggle for liberation from Ottoman rule, and the village was razed several times by Ottoman forces and bashi-bazouk detachments. The village was liberated in January 1878 by the band of Ilyo Voyvoda, after the liberation, it was also visited by the Minister of Education, Konstantin Josef Jireček. A notable native is Bulgarian Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov, whose parents were refugees from the Pirin region, which was left under Ottoman rule until the Balkan Wars
Kovachevtsi, Pernik Province
–
Georgi Dimitrov Memorial House in Kovachevtsi
12.
Principality of Bulgaria
–
The Principality of Bulgaria was a de facto independent, and de jure vassal state under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. It was established by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, after the Russo-Turkish War ended with a Russian victory, the Treaty of San Stefano was signed by Russia and the Ottoman Empire on 3 March 1878. However, the United Kingdom and Austria-Hungary were against the establishment of such a large Russian client state in the Balkans, due to this, the great powers convened and signed the Treaty of Berlin, superseding the Treaty of San Stefano, which never went into effect. This created a smaller principality, alongside an autonomous Eastern Rumelia within the Ottoman Empire. Although an Ottoman vassal, Bulgaria only acknowledged the authority of the Sublime Porte in a formal way and it had its own Constitution, flag and anthem, and conducted its own foreign policy. In 1885, a bloodless revolution resulted in Eastern Rumelia being de facto annexed by Bulgaria, on 5 October 1908, Bulgaria declared its independence as the Kingdom of Bulgaria. In 1396 the Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars ended with the fall of the Bulgarian Empire, due to the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans, under Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian nobility was destroyed and the national consciousness suppressed. The Bulgarian National Revival, emerging in the late 18th century, revived Bulgarian identity, numerous revolutionary movements and uprisings against the Ottomans occurred alongside similar movements in the rest of the Balkans, culminating in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878. The Treaty of San Stefano of March 3,1878 proposed a Bulgarian state, based on that date Bulgarians celebrate Bulgarias national day each year. Fearing the establishment of a large Russian client state on the Balkans, a widely autonomous Principality of Bulgaria was created, between the Danube and the Stara Planina range, with its seat at the old Bulgarian capital of Veliko Turnovo, and including Sofia. This state was to be under nominal Ottoman sovereignty but was to be ruled by an elected by a congress of Bulgarian notables. They insisted that the Prince could not be a Russian, but in a compromise Prince Alexander of Battenberg, an autonomous Ottoman province under the name of Eastern Rumelia was created south of the Stara Planina range, whereas Macedonia was returned under the sovereignty of the Sultan. The Bulgarians adopted a democratic constitution, and power soon passed to the Liberal Party led by Stefan Stambolov. He also supported the Unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, which was brought about by a coup in Plovdiv in September 1885, the Powers did not intervene because of the power struggles between them. Shortly after, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria in the hope of grabbing territory while the Bulgarians were distracted and these events made Alexander very popular in Bulgaria, but Russia was increasingly dissatisfied at the liberal tendencies under his reign. In August 1886 they fomented a coup, in the course of which Alexander was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Russia, Stambolov, however, acted quickly and the participants in the coup were forced to flee the country. Stambolov tried to reinstate Alexander, but strong Russian opposition forced the prince to abdicate again, in July 1887 the Bulgarians elected Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as their new Prince. Ferdinand was the Austrian candidate and the Russians refused to recognise him, Ferdinand initially worked with Stambolov, but by 1894 their relationship worsened
Principality of Bulgaria
–
Alexander I
Principality of Bulgaria
–
Flag
Principality of Bulgaria
–
Ferdinand I
13.
Barvikha
–
Barvikha is a village in Odintsovsky District of Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is the site of the Barvikha Sanatorium, the resort of the President of Russia. The village lies on the Rublyovo-Uspenskoye road leading to the west from Moscow, just outside the Moscow Ring Road, there is a Barvikha rail station on a spur of the Belarus direction of the Moscow Railway, first opened at the current site in 1927. Barvikha is surrounded by a zone of pine forest nature preserve on the bank of the Moscow River. Two villages, Lutskaya and Shulgina existed in the area where modern Barvikha now stands, later they grew and merged into a settlement, which was originally called Samynki, after the Saminka River, on which the settlement stood. Over time, the changed to Borikha and later—to Barvikha. By 1890, the population of the village consisted of almost 100 people, Barvikha contains the Barvikha Sanatorium, a well-equipped medical center which treated several Russian leaders. The sanatorium was designed by architect Boris Iofan, and completed in 1935 and it was designated as a clinic for leading government officials suffering from illnesses of digestion and metabolism, it was there that Bulgarian leader Georgi Dimitrov died in 1949. In 1944 and 1945, writer and Communist Party official Aleksandr Shcherbakov was treated at Barvikha for cardiac illness and he died of heart failure in 1945. In 1952, Shcherbakovs death became one of the issues in Doctors Plot affair, the deputy director of the medical department of the sanitarium, Roman Ryzhikov, was arrested and interrogated, but later released. In 1961 the American singer Paul Robeson was treated there for several months, today the sanatorium is owned by the Administration of Affairs of the President of the Russian Federation. It provides deluxe accommodations and high-quality medical services and its grounds include a lake that offers fishing and swimming in the summer. The first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, made frequent stays at the sanatorium during his presidential term. From 1996 until his death in April 2007, his residence was the Gorki-9 presidential dacha on the Rublyovo-Uspenskoye Road. This allowed quick access to the medical facilities. The Rublyovo-Uspenskoye Road, colloquially known as the Rublyovka, has long been a site for dachas, during the Soviet period, prominent officials and intellectuals often used state-owned dachas in the vicinity of Barvikha. Writer Aleksey Tolstoy and his family occupied a state-owned dacha in Barvikha from 1938 through his death in 1945, beginning in the late 1990s, Barvikha has become a popular site for the dachas of wealthy residents of Moscow. In contrast to the traditional wood-built dachas, these new, privately owned cottages are often larger and include mansion-like residences with full amenities
Barvikha
–
Barvikha platform on the Moscow Railway
Barvikha
–
Dmitry Medvedev and
Hugo Chavez at
Barvikha Castle
14.
Russian SFSR
–
The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
Russian SFSR
–
Flag (1954–1991)
15.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
16.
Typesetting
–
Typesetting is the composition of text by means of arranging physical types or the digital equivalents. Stored letters and other symbols are retrieved and ordered according to a languages orthography for visual display, typesetting requires the prior process of designing a font. One significant effect of typesetting was that authorship of works could be spotted more easily, during much of the letterpress era, movable type was composed by hand for each page. The form was placed in a press, inked, and an impression made on paper. During typesetting, individual sorts are picked from a case with the right hand, and set into a composing stick held in the left hand from left to right. This is reputed to be the origin of the expression mind your ps and it might just as easily have been “mind your bs and ds”. The diagram at right illustrates a cast metal sort, a face, b body or shank, wooden printing sorts were in use for centuries in combination with metal type. Not shown, and more the concern of the casterman, is the “set”, set width, like body size, is measured in points. This was particularly prevalent in book and newspaper work where rotary presses required type forms to wrap an impression cylinder rather than set in the bed of a press, advances such as the typewriter and computer would push the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing have not fallen out of use. However, it is a small niche within the larger typesetting market. The time and effort required to compose the text led to several efforts in the 19th century to produce mechanical typesetting. Most of the systems involved the in-house casting of the type to be used. The Linotype machine, invented in 1884, used a keyboard to assemble the casting matrices, in the Monotype System, a keyboard was used to punch a paper tape, which was then fed to control a casting machine. The Ludlow Typograph involved hand-set matrices, but otherwise used hot metal, by the early 20th century, the various systems were nearly universal in large newspapers and publishing houses. Phototypesetting or cold type systems first appeared in the early 1960s and these devices consisted of glass disks that spun in front of a light source to selectively expose characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes, later they were hooked up to computer front ends. One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor, the typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display
Typesetting
–
Movable type on a
composing stick on a
type case.
Typesetting
–
A specimen sheet issued by
William Caslon, letter founder, from the 1728 edition of
Cyclopaedia.
Typesetting
–
Linotype CRTronic 360 phototypesetting terminal, 2006
Typesetting
–
Mural mosaic "Typesetter" at John A. Prior Health Sciences Library in Ohio
17.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communism
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communism
Communism
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communism
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
18.
Class conflict
–
The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself
Class conflict
–
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) demonstration in New York, 11 April 1914
Class conflict
–
Teamsters wild-cat strike in Minneapolis, 1934
Class conflict
–
Warren Buffett
Class conflict
–
Karl Marx, 1875
19.
Gift economy
–
A gift economy, gift culture, or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not traded or sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. This contrasts with an economy or a market economy, where goods. Social norms and custom govern gift exchange, Gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity. The nature of gift economies forms the subject of a debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowskis description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Gift economies are said, by some, to communities. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the typical of non-market societies. Gift economies must also be differentiated from several closely related phenomena, such as common property regimes, however, he claims that anthropologists, through analysis of a variety of cultural and historical forms of exchange, have established that no universal practice exists. Gift exchange is frequently embedded in political, kin, or religious institutions, gift-giving is a form of transfer of property rights over particular objects. The nature of property rights varies from society to society, from culture to culture. The nature of gift-giving is thus altered by the type of property regime in place, property is not a thing, but a relationship amongst people about things. According to Chris Hann, property is a relationship that governs the conduct of people with respect to the use. Anthropologists analyze these relationships in terms of a variety of actors bundle of rights over objects, an example is the current debates around intellectual property rights. Hann and Strangelove both give the example of a book, over which the author retains a copyright. The gifts given in Kula exchange still remain, in some respects, in the example used above, copyright is one of those bundled rights that regulate the use and disposition of a book. Gift-giving in many societies is complicated because private property owned by an individual may be limited in scope
Gift economy
–
A Kula necklace, with its distinctive red shell-disc beads, from the Trobriand Islands.
Gift economy
–
Watercolor by
James G. Swan depicting the
Klallam people of chief
Chetzemoka at
Port Townsend, with one of Chetzemoka's wives distributing
potlatch.
Gift economy
–
Wedding rings: commodity or pure gift?
Gift economy
–
Three tongkonan noble houses in a Torajan village.
20.
Stateless society
–
A stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state, or, especially in common American English, has no government. Stateless societies are highly variable in economic organization and cultural practices, while stateless societies were probably the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today, almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state. In some regions nominal state authorities may be weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them, some political philosophies, particularly anarchism, consider the state an unwelcome institution and stateless societies the ideal. In archaeology, cultural anthropology and history, a stateless society denotes a complex human community without a state, such as a tribe, a clan. An additional criterion is population size, the bigger the population, the more relationships have to be reckoned with. Indeed, one of the functions of the state is the defense of territory. Nevertheless, there are exceptions, Lawrence Krader for example describes the case of the Tatar state, characteristically the state functionaries are mainly not self-supporting, but rather materially supported and financed by taxes and tributes contributed by the rest of the working population. Such permanent surpluses were not produced on a significant scale in smaller tribal or clan societies. Similarly, in the earliest large-scale human settlements of the age which have been discovered, such as Çatal Höyük and Jericho. The Çatal Höyük settlement of a farming community spanned circa 13 hectares, modern state-based societies regularly pushed out stateless indigenous populations as their settlements expanded. Uncontacted peoples may be considered remnants of prehistoric stateless societies, to varying extents they may be unaware of and unaffected by the states that have nominal authority over their territory. Some political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of anarchism is the advocacy of society without states, the type of society sought for varies significantly between anarchist schools of thought, ranging from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. In Marxism, Marxs theory of the state considers that in a post-capitalist society the state, a related concept is that of stateless communism, a phrase sometimes used to describe Marxs anticipated post-capitalist society. Anthropologists have found that social stratification is not the standard among all societies, in many stateless societies, conflicts between families or individuals are resolved by appealing to the community. Each of the sides of the dispute will voice their concerns, even when there is no legal or coercive authority to enforce these community decisions, people tend to adhere to them, due to a desire to be held in esteem by the community
Stateless society
–
hunter-gatherers
21.
World revolution
–
World revolution is the Marxist concept of overthrowing capitalism in all countries through the conscious revolutionary action of the organized working class. The end goal of such internationally oriented revolutionary socialism is to achieve world socialism, particularly in the years 1918-1919, it seemed plausible that capitalism would soon be swept from the European continent forever. Given the fact that European powers controlled the majority of Earths land surface at the time, such an event could have meant the end of not just in Europe. With the prospect of world revolution so close at hand, Marxists were dominated by a feeling of overwhelming optimism, the European revolutions were crushed one by one, until eventually the Russian revolutionaries found themselves to be the only survivors. After those events and up until the present day, the situation never came quite so close to a world revolution again. However, none managed to finish in first and form a government, communist parties in Eastern Europe, meanwhile, though they did win elections at around the same time, Western media criticized the lack of liberal democratic elements in their rise to power. Many groups, however, such as the Progressive Labor Party, still pursue the goal of worldwide communist revolution. Communist revolution Proletarian internationalism Revolutionary wave Stateless communism Social Patriotism Workers of the world, unite
World revolution
–
"Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth" (1920).
22.
Communist state
–
A communist state is a state that is usually administered and governed by a single party representing the proletariat, guided by Marxist–Leninist philosophy, with the aim of achieving communism. The term Communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists, Communist states can be administered by a single, centralised party apparatus, although countries such as the DPRK have several parties. These parties usually are Marxist–Leninist or some variation thereof, with the aim of achieving socialism. Marx saw that in his time, the new nation states were characterized by increasingly intensified class contradiction between the capitalist class and the working class it ruled over. The state ruled by the class during the transition into classless society is called the dictatorship of the proletariat. Vladimir Lenin created revolutionary vanguard theory in an attempt to expand on the concept, during the 20th century, the worlds first constitutionally socialist state was in Russia in 1917. In 1922, it joined other territories of the empire to become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. After World War II, the Soviet Army occupied much of Eastern Europe, most Communist states in Eastern Europe were allied with the USSR, except for Yugoslavia which declared itself non-aligned. In 1949, after a war against Japanese occupation and a war resulting in a Communist victory. Communist states were established in Cuba, Vietnam, Laos. A Communist state was established in North Korea, although it withdrew from the Communist movement. In 1989, the Communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed under pressure during a wave of non-violent movements which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Today, the existing Communist states in the world are in China, Cuba, Laos, Communist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the Communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large. When used within a party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism. When applied to a state, democratic centralism creates a one-party system. The constitutions of most socialist states describe their system as a form of democracy. Thus, they recognize the sovereignty of the people as embodied in a series of parliamentary institutions
Communist state
–
Map of countries that declared themselves to be socialist states under the Marxist–Leninist or Maoist definition—that is to say, "Communist states"—between 1979 and 1983. This period marked the greatest territorial extent of Communist states.
23.
Communist symbolism
–
Communist symbolism represents a variety of themes, including revolution, the proletariat, peasantry, agriculture, or international solidarity. Communist states, parties and movements use these symbols to advance, the flag of the Soviet Union incorporated a yellow-outlined red star and a yellow hammer and sickle on red. The flags of Vietnam, China, Angola, and Mozambique would all incorporate similar symbolism under communist rule, the hammer and sickle have become the pan-communist symbol, appearing on the flags of most communist parties around the world. However, the flag of the Workers Party of Korea includes a hammer representing industrial workers, a hoe representing agricultural workers, and a brush representing the intelligentsia. In Hungary, Latvia, Indonesia, Poland, Ukraine and Lithuania, communist symbols are banned, the hammer and sickle is a symbol of the communist movement. The hammer stands for the industrial working-class while the sickle represents the workers, together the hammer. The hammer and sickle were first used during the Russian Revolution, since the Russian Revolution, the hammer and sickle have come to represent various communist parties and socialist states. The five-pointed red star is a symbol of communism as well as socialism in general. The red star was a symbol after the October Revolution. It was widely used by anti-fascist resistance parties and underground organizations in Europe leading up to, most states in the Eastern Bloc incorporated the red star into state symbols to signify their socialist nature. Today the red star is used by many socialist and communist parties, the red flag is often seen in combination with other communist symbols and party names. The flag is used at various communist and socialist rallies like May Day, the flag, being a symbol of socialism itself, is also commonly associated with non-communist variants of socialism. The red flag has had multiple meanings in history but it was first used as a flag of defiance, the red flag gained its modern political meaning in the 1871 French Revolution. After the October Revolution, the Soviet government adopted the red flag with a superimposed hammer, since the October Revolution, various socialist states and movements have used the red flag. The red and black flag has been a symbol of general communist movements, the flag was used as the symbol of the Anarcho-syndicalists during the Spanish Civil War. The black represents anarchism and the red represents leftist ideals, over time the flag spilled into statist leftist movements, these movements include the Sandinistas and the 26th of July Movement, where the flags colors are not divided diagonally but horizontally. As in the case of the Sandinistas they adopted the flag due to the movements Anarchist roots, the Internationale is an anthem of the socialist movement. It is one of the most universally recognised songs in the world and has translated into nearly every spoken language
Communist symbolism
–
Symbol of the
Mexican Communist Party
Communist symbolism
Communist symbolism
–
Variant of the
Anarcho-communist symbol
Communist symbolism
–
A
tableau in a communist rally in
Kerala,
India, showing two farmers forming the
hammer and sickle, the most famous communist symbol.
24.
History of communism
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Most modern forms of communism are based upon Marxism, a variant of the ideology formed by the sociologist Karl Marx in the 1840s. Some religious societies that have stressed egalitarianism and common ownership of goods have been described as communist, including early Christianity, however various left communist groups emerged who, to varying degrees, disputed the communist nature of the new state. Over the ensuing decades, governments using the Communist name obtained power in parts of the world, including most of eastern Europe, eastern Asia. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, most of these Communist regimes fell from power, in some cases, nominally Communist governments themselves adopted capitalistic policies, such as in the People’s Republic of China. Today, in addition to China, nominal Communist governments rule Cuba, Vietnam and his friend and contemporary author Restif de la Bretonne also describes him as a communist in one of his books. Socialism is also a word which is essentially the same as communism, however, the semantic evolution of these two words has led them to contain different associations. Infused the terms with their own political orientation, many historical groups have been considered as following forms of communism. Early Christianity supported a form of common ownership based on the teachings in the New Testament which emphasised sharing amongst everyone, other ancient Jewish sects, like the Essenes, also supported egalitarianism and communal living. In Europe during the Early Modern period, various groups supporting communist ideas appeared, tommaso Campanellas 1601 work The City of the Sun propagated the concept of a society where the products of society should be shared equally. The latter was involved in the Conspiracy of the Equals of 1796 intending to establish a regime based on communal ownership, egalitarianism. The plot was detected and he and several others involved were arrested and executed. Communism is the riddle of history solved, and it knows itself to be this solution, Marx was financially aided and supported by another German émigré, Friedrich Engels, who, like Marx, had fled from the German authorities in 1849. Engels regularly met Marx at Chethams Library in Manchester, England from 1845 and it was here Engels relayed his experiences of industrial Manchester, chronicled in the Condition of the Working Class in England, highlighting the struggles of the working class. He then published The Communist Manifesto in 1848, which would prove to be one of the most influential communist texts ever written. During the latter half of the 19th century, various left-wing organisations across Europe continued to campaign against the many autocratic right-wing regimes that were then in power, in 1890, the party was re-legalised, and by this time it had fully adopted Marxist principles. It subsequently achieved a fifth of the vote in the German elections, nonetheless, the new political ideology had gained sufficient support that an organisation was founded known as the Second International to unite the various Marxist groups around the world. Criticism also came from other sociologists, such as the German Max Weber, the Cominterns historical existence is divided among periods, regarding changes in the general policy it followed. The War Communism period which saw the forming of the International and these years also saw the complete subordination of all Communist Parties across the world to the directives of the Soviet Party, making the Comintern more or less an organ of the CPSU
History of communism
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Karl Marx, founder of Marxism.
History of communism
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Vladimir Lenin
History of communism
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Comintern published a theoretical magazine in a variety of European languages from 1919 to 1943.
History of communism
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Chairman
Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949.
25.
Anarcho-communism
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Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the examples of anarchist communist societies were the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution. Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, an early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as libertarian. Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, returning to New York he was able to serialise his book in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social. Published in 27 issues from June 9,1858 to February 4,1861 and this was the first anarchist journal to use the term libertarian. The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume Anarchist Encyclopedia, started the weekly paper Le Libertaire in 1895. He saw anarchic initiative, reasoned will and the autonomy of each as the conditions for the revolution of the proletariat. In Déjacques view, a government resulting from an insurrection remains a reactionary fetter on the initiative of the proletariat. As Bakunins associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization, When production comes to outstrip consumption. But, Errico Malatesta stated that instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work, the federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point. The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the Jura Federations bulletin later that year, Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that cooperation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his scientific work Mutual Aid. Aims of life vary with each and every individual, and the society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed. He supported the expropriation of property into the commons or public goods. Some support a form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, so between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the official workers movement, which was then in the process of formation. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day
Anarcho-communism
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Sylvain Maréchal
Anarcho-communism
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Carlo Cafiero
Anarcho-communism
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Peter Kropotkin
26.
Eurocommunism
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Eurocommunism was a revisionist trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various Western European communist parties. They claimed to be developing a theory and practice of social transformation more relevant for Western Europe, during the Cold War, they sought to undermine the influence of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It was especially prominent in Italy, Spain and France, the Eurocommunists came into conflict with the orthodox Marxist-Leninists in the various communist parties of the West. They sought to move the focus away from the class struggle politics of industrial workers, the origin of the term Eurocommunism was subject to great debate in the mid-1970s, being attributed to Zbigniew Brzezinski and Arrigo Levi, among others. Jean-François Revel once wrote that one of the amusements of political scientists is to search for the author of the term Eurocommunism. In April 1977, Deutschland Archiv decided that the word was first used in the summer of 1975 by Yugoslav journalist Frane Barbieri, outside Western Europe, it is sometimes referred to as Neocommunism. They are sometimes called Gramscians because of their reliance on the theories of Antonio Gramsci rather than Vladimir Lenin, early inspirations can also be found in the Austromarxism and its seeking of a third democratic way to socialism. The Prague Spring and particularly its crushing by the Soviet Union in 1968 became a point for the Communist world. The usually very pro-Soviet Communist Party of Ireland initially condemned the invasion but later changed their stance, some Communist parties with strong popular support, notably the Italian Communist Party and the Communist Party of Spain adopted Eurocommunism most enthusiastically. The Communist Party of Finland was dominated by Eurocommunists, in the 1980s the traditional, pro-Soviet faction broke away, calling the main party revisionist. The PCE and its Catalan referent, the United Socialist Party of Catalonia, had already committed to the liberal possibilist politics of the Popular Front during the Spanish Civil War. The Communist parties of Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, in 1975 the PCI and the PCE had made a declaration regarding the march toward socialism to be done in peace and freedom. The compromesso storico with Democrazia Cristiana, stopped by the kidnapping, the same happened and even more drastically when Finnish Peoples Democratic League changed its leadership also, with the reformist Ele Alenius leading it. In 1968 CPFI FPDL were the parties to directly oppose the actions of the Soviet militarship in Prague in 1968. Thus, the two organizations split de facto into two different parties, one reformist and one hard-line Soviet, what was peculiar was that the Youth was nearly completely Taistolaist. Finally in 1984 with a strong Eurocommunist majority the PCFI hard-line organizations were expelled from the already weakened party. Pro-Soviet hard-liners formed their own cover-organization, Democratic Movement, finally in 1990 the new Left Alliance integrated the CPFI/FPDL, FPDL, s ex-secretary Alenius chose not to be member of it because they also took hard-line Taistolaists. Western European communists came to Eurocommunism via a variety of routes, for some it was their direct experience of feminist and similar action
Eurocommunism
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"Viva Dubček" – demonstration against the
Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968 in Helsinki
Eurocommunism
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"Beginning of a prolonged struggle" – French revolutionary poster, May 1968
Eurocommunism
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Giorgio Napolitano, prominent figure of the
Italian Communist Party (until 1991), and
President of Italy from 2006 to 2015.
27.
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
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Socialism with Chinese characteristics, meaning socialism adapted to Chinese conditions, is the official ideology of the Communist Party of China, claimed to be based upon scientific socialism. This ideology supports the creation of a socialist market economy dominated by the sector since China is, as claimed by the CPC. The Peoples Republic of China government maintains that it has not abandoned Marxism but has developed many of the terms, the CPC argues that socialism is compatible with these economic policies. In current Chinese Communist thinking, China is in the stage of socialism—a view which explains the PRC governments flexible economic policies to develop into an industrialized nation. The concept of a stage of socialism was conceived before China introduced economic reforms. It is said that the article was written on the orders of Deng Xiaoping, so as to criticize and repudiate the beliefs of the communist left. The term reappeared at the 6th plenum of the 11th Central Committee on 27 June 1981 in the document, hu Yaobang, the CPCs general secretary, used the term in his report to the 12th CPC National Congress on 1 September 1982. He wrote that China was a socialist society, but that socialism in China was in its primary stage, during this phase of development, Zhao recommended introducing a planned commodity economy on the basis of public ownership. The main failure of the communist right, according to Zhao, was that they failed to acknowledge that China could reach socialism by bypassing capitalism. The main failure of the communist left was that held the utopian position that China could bypass the primary stage of socialism. According to Jiang, the 3rd plenum of the 11th Central Committee correctly analyzed and formulated a scientifically correct program for the problems facing China, in Jiangs words, the primary stage of socialism was an undeveloped stage. The fundamental task of socialism is to develop the productive forces, the primary contradiction in Chinese society during the primary stage of socialism is the growing material and cultural needs of the people and the backwardness of production. This contradiction will remain until China has completed the process of primary stage of socialism, Jiang elaborated on three points to develop the primary stage of socialism. The first—to develop a socialist economy with Chinese characteristics—meant developing the economy by emancipating and modernizing the forces of production while developing a market economy, when asked how long the primary stage of socialism would last, Zhao replied, t will be at least 100 years. Socialist modernization will have been in the main accomplished, the state constitution states that China will be in the primary stage of socialism for a long time to come. As with Zhao, Jiang believed that it would take at least 100 years to reach an advanced stage. Deng Xiaoping, the architect of the Chinese economic reforms, did not believe that the economy was synonymous with capitalism or that planning was synonymous with socialism. During his southern tour, he said, planning and market forces are not the difference between socialism and capitalism
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
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China
28.
Juche
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Consequentially, Juche was adopted into a set of principles that the North Korean government has used to justify its policy decisions from the 1950s onwards. Such principles include moving the nation towards claimed jaju, through the construction of jarip, Juche is a Sino-Korean word which is formed by hanja meaning subject and body. Literally it means subjectivity or agency, and in political discourse has a connotation of self-reliance, autonomy and it is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of Sadae, or reliance on the great powers. Official statements by the North Korean government attribute the origin of Juche to Kim Il-Sungs experiences in the Anti-Imperialist Youth League in 1930 in his struggle against Japan. The first documented reference to Juche as an ideology appeared in 1955, in a given by Kim Il Sung entitled On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism. The speech had been delivered to promote a political purge similar to the earlier Yanan Rectification Movement in China. In his 1955 speech, the first known to refer to Juche, Kim Il-sung said, To make revolution in Korea we must know Korean history and geography as well as the customs of the Korean people. Only then is it possible to educate our people in a way that suits them and to inspire in them an ardent love for their native place, in North Korea it functions as the authoritative and comprehensive explanation of Juche. According to the treatise, the Workers Party of Korea is responsible for indoctrinating the masses in the ways of Juche thinking, Juche is, according to the treatise, inexorably linked with Kim Il-sung, and represents the guiding idea of the Korean Revolution. We are confronted with the task of modeling the whole society on the Juche idea. The WPKs break with basic premises of Marxism–Leninism emerges more clearly in the article Let Us March Under the Banner of Marxism–Leninism, in August 1997, the Central Peoples Committee of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea promulgated regulations regarding use of the Juche Era calendar. Gregorian calendar dates are used for years before 1912, while years from 1912 are described as Juche years, the Gregorian year 2017, for example, is Juche 106, as 2017-1911=106. When used, Juche years are often accompanied by the Gregorian equivalent, kims regime intended these principles to apply around the world, not only to Korea. Since 1976 North Korea has organized seminars on Juche. The grand International Scientific Seminar on the Juche Idea took place in Antananarivo from September 28 to 30,1976, what we want is not the perfection of political independence alone. The evil forces craftily manipulate the economic levers in order to perpetuate their supremacy and reduce us to vassals, the International Juche Research Center was established in Tokyo in 1978 to supervise international Juche research groups. The Juche Tower, completed in 1982, incorporated commemorative plaques from supporters, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Black Panther Party of the US expressed sympathy for the ideology. The Nepal Workers Peasants Party identifies Juche as its guiding idea in its governance of Bhaktapur, Kimilsungism was first mentioned by Kim Jong-il in the 1970s and was introduced alongside the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System
Juche
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Tower of the Juche Idea in
Pyongyang,
North Korea.
Juche
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Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Juche
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North Korea claims that the Juche idea has a wide international following. It displays tributes from other socialist movements towards the idea in the entrance hall of
Juche tower
