1.
Alphabet
–
An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
Alphabet
–
Edward Bernard 's "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689.
Alphabet
–
Writing systems
Alphabet
–
A Specimen of
typeset fonts and
languages, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Alphabet
–
Codex Zographensis in the
Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval
Bulgaria
2.
Georgian language
–
Georgian is a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians. It is the language of Georgia. Georgian is written in its own writing system, the Georgian script, Georgian is the literary language for all regional subgroups of Georgians, including those who speak other Kartvelian languages, Svans, Mingrelians and the Laz. Georgian is the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, a family that also includes Svan and Megrelian and Laz. Dialects of Georgian are from Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi, Guria, Adjara, Imerkhevi, Kartli, Kakheti, Saingilo, Tusheti, Khevsureti, Khevi, Pshavi, Fereydan, Mtiuleti and Meskheti. Georgian as separate from the other Kartvelian languages would have emerged in the 1st millennium BC in the area known later as the Kingdom of Iberia, the evolution of Georgian into a written language was a consequence of the conversion of the Georgian elite to Christianity in the mid-4th century. The first Georgian texts are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, Georgian has a rich literary tradition. The oldest surviving work in Georgian is the 5th century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik by Iakob Tsurtaveli. In the 11th century, Old Georgian gives rise to Middle Georgian, the Georgian national epic, Shota Rustavelis The Knight in the Panthers Skin, dates from the 12th century. This marked the beginning of the modern Georgian language, symbols on the left are those of the IPA and those on the right are of the modern Georgian alphabet. Opinions also differ on the aspiration of /t͡sʰ, t͡ʃʰ/, as it is non-contrastive, a former distinction between /x/ and /qʰ/ has been lost. Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm, stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word, the rhythm of Georgian speech is syllable-timed. Georgian contains many harmonic clusters involving two consonants of a type which are pronounced with only a single release, e. g. ბგერა bgera, ცხოვრება tskhovreba. There are also frequent consonant clusters, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნი gvprtskvni and მწვრთნელი mtsvrtneli. Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice, Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently the Mkhedruli or Military script is almost completely dominant, the others are used mostly in religious documents, Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use, a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of Mkhedruli correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language, however, the first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD
Georgian language
–
The Kartvelian people
Georgian language
–
Georgian
Georgian language
–
Calligraphy
Georgian language
–
Road sign in Latin and Georgian
3.
Kartvelian languages
–
There are approximately 5.2 million speakers of Kartvelian languages worldwide. It is not known to be related to any language family. The Georgian script is the system used to write all Kartvelian languages. Georgian is the language of Georgia and the main language for literary. It is written with an original and distinctive alphabet, and the oldest surviving text dates from the 5th century AD—the only Caucasian language with an ancient literary tradition. The old Georgian script seems to have derived from Aramaic. Mingrelian has been written with the Georgian alphabet since 1864, especially in the period from 1930 to 1938, when the Mingrelians enjoyed some cultural autonomy, the Laz language was written chiefly between 1927 and 1937, and now again in Turkey, with the Latin alphabet. Laz, however, is disappearing as its speakers are integrating into mainstream Turkish society, georgian-Zan Georgian with approximately 4.5 million native speakers, mainly in Georgia. There are Georgian-speaking communities in Russia, Turkey, Iran, Israel, and EU countries, zan Mingrelian, with some 500,000 native speakers in 1989, mainly in the western regions of Georgia, namely Samegrelo and Abkhazia. The Mingrelians displaced from Abkhazia are scattered elsewhere in the Georgian government territory, with clusters in Tbilisi. Laz, with 220,000 native speakers in 1980, mostly in the Black Sea littoral area of northeast Turkey, zan is the branch that contains the Mingrelian and Laz languages. No relationship with other languages, including the two North Caucasian language families, has demonstrated so far. Some linguists, such as Tamaz V, certain grammatical similarities with Basque, especially in the case system, have often been pointed out. Any similarities to other phyla may be due to areal influences. Heavy borrowing in both directions has been observed, therefore it is likely that certain features have been influenced as well. Certain Kartvelian-Indo-European lexical links are revealed at the level, which are ascribed to the early contacts between Proto-Kartvelian and Proto-Indo-European populations. The Kartvelian languages classify objects as intelligent and unintelligent beings, Kartvelian verbs can indicate one, two, or three grammatical persons. A performer of an action is called the subject and affected persons are objects, the person may be singular or plural
Kartvelian languages
–
The Kartvelian people
Kartvelian languages
–
Kartvelian
4.
Greek alphabet
–
It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
Greek alphabet
–
Dipylon inscription, one of the oldest known samples of the use of the Greek alphabet, c. 740 BC
Greek alphabet
–
Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Greek alphabet
–
A 16th-century edition of the New Testament, printed in a renaissance typeface by
Claude Garamond
Greek alphabet
–
A page from the
Codex Argenteus, a 6th-century bible manuscript in Gothic
5.
Unicode range
–
The Unicode Consortium and the International Organisation for Standardisation collaborate on the Universal Character Set. The UCS is a standard to map characters used in natural language, mathematics, music. By creating this mapping, the UCS enables computer software vendors to interoperate, because it is a universal map, it can be used to represent multiple languages at the same time. UCS has a capacity to encode over 1 million characters. Each UCS character is represented by a code point, which is an integer between 0 and 1,114,111, used to represent each character within the internal logic of text processing software. The number of encoded characters is made up as follows,128,019 graphical characters 218 special purpose characters for control, ISO maintains the basic mapping of characters from character name to code point. Often the terms character and code point will get used interchangeably, however, when a distinction is made, a code point refers to the integer of the character, what one might think of as its address. Input methods can be through keyboard or a character palette. The UCS can be divided in various ways, such as by plane, block, character category, the x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros, the hhhh may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style. In contrast, an entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition, the format is the same as for any entity reference, &name, where name is the case-sensitive name of the entity. Unicode and ISO divide the set of points into 17 planes. As of 2016 ISO and the Unicode Consortium has only allocated characters, the others remain empty and reserved for future use. Most characters are assigned to the first plane, the Basic Multilingual Plane. This is to ease the transition for legacy software since the Basic Multilingual Plane is addressable with just two octets. The characters outside the first plane usually have very specialized or rare use. Each plane corresponds with the value of the one or two hexadecimal digits preceding the four ones, hence U+24321 is in Plane 2, U+4321 is in Plane 0
Unicode range
–
Example of fraction slash use. This
typeface (
Apple Chancery) shows the synthesized common fraction on the left and the precomposed fraction glyph on the right as a rendering the plain text string “1 1⁄4 1¼”. Depending on the text environment, the single string “1 1⁄4” might yield either result, the one on the right through substitution of the fraction sequence with the single precomposed fraction glyph.
6.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The official chart of the IPA as of 2005. Click to enlarge. The proper symbols for upstep and downstep are not available in this font, and have been substituted.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
X-ray photos show the sounds [i, u, a, ɑ]
7.
Mojibake
–
Mojibake, from the Japanese 文字 character + 化け transform, is the garbled text that is the result of text being decoded using an unintended character encoding. The result is a replacement of symbols with completely unrelated ones. This display may include the replacement character � in places where the binary representation is considered invalid. A replacement can also involve multiple consecutive symbols, as viewed in one encoding and this is either because of differing constant length encoding, or the use of variable length encodings. Failed rendering of glyphs due to either missing fonts or missing glyphs in a font is a different issue that is not to be confused with mojibake, symptoms of this failed rendering include blocks with the codepoint displayed in hexadecimal or using the generic replacement character �. Importantly, these replacements are valid and are the result of error handling by the software. To correctly reproduce the text that was encoded, the correspondence between the encoded data and the notion of its encoding must be preserved. As mojibake is the instance of incompliance between these, it can be achieved by manipulating the data itself, or just relabeling it. Mojibake is often seen with text data that have been tagged with an encoding, it may not even be tagged at all. A major source of trouble are communication protocols that rely on settings on each computer rather than sending or storing metadata together with the data. Whereas Linux distributions mostly switched to UTF-8 for all uses of text, Microsoft Windows still uses codepages for text files, for some writing systems, an example being Japanese, several encodings have historically been employed, causing users to see mojibake relatively often. If the encoding is not specified, it is up to the software to decide it by other means, depending on type of software, the typical solution is either configuration or charset detection heuristics. Both are prone to mispredict in not-so-uncommon scenarios, the encoding of text files is usually governed by the OS-level setting, which depends on brand of operating system and possibly the users language. Therefore, the encoding is systematically wrong for files that come from a computer with a different setting. One solution is to use a byte order mark, but for source code and other machine readable text, another is storing the encoding as metadata in the filesystem. Filesystems that support extended file attributes can store this as user. charset and this also requires support in software that wants to take advantage of it, but does not disturb other software. While a few encodings are easy to detect, in particular UTF-8, Mojibake also occurs when the encoding is wrongly specified. This often happens between encodings that are similar, for example, the Eudora email client for Windows was known to send emails labelled as ISO-8859-1 that were in reality Windows-1252
Mojibake
–
Mojibake caused by a song title in Cyrillic (
Моя Страна) on a car audio system
Mojibake
–
The
UTF-8 -encoded Japanese Wikipedia article for mojibake, as displayed in the
Windows-1252 encoding.
8.
Unicode
–
Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
Unicode
–
Logo of the
Unicode Consortium
9.
Georgia (country)
–
Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
Georgia (country)
–
It is said that
Georgians were so named because they revered
Saint George.
Georgia (country)
–
Flag
Georgia (country)
–
Ancient Georgian states of
Colchis and
Iberia, 500-400 BC
Georgia (country)
–
Queen
Tamar of Georgia presided over the "Golden Age" of the medieval Georgian monarchy. Her position as the first woman to rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title "Mepe mepeta" ("King of Kings").
10.
Writing system
–
A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
Writing system
–
Writing systems
Writing system
–
Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts
Writing system
–
Chinese characters (漢字) are morpho-syllabic. Each one represents a syllable with a distinct meaning, but some characters may have multiple meanings or pronunciations
Writing system
–
A Specimen of typefaces and styles, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia
11.
Letter (alphabet)
–
A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas, letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language, although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes. Written signs in writing systems are best called syllabograms or logograms. Letter, borrowed from Old French lettre, entered Middle English around AD1200, letter derives from Latin littera, which may have derived, via Etruscan, from the Greek διφθέρα. The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document, use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century. As symbols that denote segmental speech, letters are associated with phonetics, in a purely phonemic alphabet, a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter, but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme. A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph, examples of digraphs in English include ch, sh and th. A phoneme can also be represented by three letters, called a trigraph, an example is the combination sch in German. A letter may also be associated more than one phoneme. As an example of positional effects, the Spanish letter c is pronounced before a, o, or u, letters also have specific names associated with them. These names may differ with language, dialect and history, Z, for example, is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U. S. where it is named zee. Letters, as elements of alphabets, have prescribed orders and this may generally be known as alphabetical order though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages. In Spanish, for instance, ñ is a letter being sorted after n. In English, n and ñ are sorted alike, letters may also have numerical value. This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems, in English, Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters. Letters may be used as words, the words a and I are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for Oh in poetic situations, in extremely informal cases of writing individual letters may replace words, e. g. u may be used instead of you in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from development or were inspired by its design
Letter (alphabet)
–
A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Letter (alphabet)
–
Ancient
Greek letters on a vase
Letter (alphabet)
–
Two pages from the manuscript of the Leys d'Amors, 14th century
12.
Kingdom of Georgia
–
The Kingdom of Georgia, also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval monarchy which emerged in circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV, a predominantly Christian, Georgian-speaking realm, it was the principal historical precursor of present-day Georgia. Lasting for several centuries, the fell to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. The Kingdoms geopolitical situation further worsened after the Fall of Constantinople, as a result of these processes, by the end of the 15th century Georgia turned into an isolated, fractured Christian enclave, surrounded by hostile Turco-Iranic neighbors. The ascendancy of the Bagrationi dynasty can be traced to the 8th century, the restoration of the Georgian kingship begins in AD888, when Adarnase IV of Iberia took the title of King of Georgians. The United Kingdom of Georgia was established in 1008, in this year, Bagrat III, son of Gurgen II, became the ruler of the Kingdom of Western Georgia, including the Principalities of Imereti, Samegrelo, Abkhazeti, Guria and Svaneti. Bagrats mother was Queen Gurandukht, a daughter of George II of Abkhazia, the first decades of the 9th century saw the rise of a new Georgian state in Tao-Klarjeti. Ashot Courapalate of the family of Bagrationi liberated from the Arabs the territories of former southern Iberia. In practice, however, the region functioned as an independent country with its capital in Artanuji. The hereditary title of Curopalates was kept by the Bagrationi family, the first united Georgian monarchy was formed at the end of the 10th century when Curopalate David invaded the Earldom of Kartli-Iberia. Three years later, after the death of his uncle Theodosius the Blind, King of Egrisi-Abkhazia, in 1001 Bagrat added Tao-Klarjeti to his domain as a result of Davids death. In 1008–1010, Bagrat annexed Kakheti and Hereti, thus becoming the first king of a united Georgia in both the east and west, in 1071, the Seljuq army destroyed the united Byzantine-Armenian and Georgian forces in the Battle of Manzikert. By 1081, all of Armenia, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria, in Georgia, only the mountainous areas of Abkhazia, Svaneti, Racha, and Khevi–Khevsureti remained out of Seljuq control and served as a relatively safe havens for numerous refugees. The rest of the country was dominated by the conquerors who destroyed the cities and fortresses, looted the villages, in fact, by the end of the 1080s, Georgians were outnumbered in the region by the invaders. The Golden Age began with the reign of David IV, the son of George II and Queen Helena, in 1121, he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori, with fleeing Seljuq Turks being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days. A huge amount of booty and prisoners were captured by Davids army, David IV made particular emphasis on removing the vestiges of unwanted eastern influences, which the Georgians considered forced, in favor of the traditional Christian and Byzantine overtones. As part of this effort he founded the Gelati Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, David also played a personal role in reviving Georgian religious hymnography, composing the Hymns of Repentance, a sequence of eight free-verse psalms. In this emotional repentance of his sins, David sees himself as reincarnating the Biblical David, with a relationship to God
Kingdom of Georgia
–
Queen Tamar and her father King
George III (restored fresco from the
Betania monastery)
Kingdom of Georgia
–
Flag
Kingdom of Georgia
–
Detail from the
Nautical chart by
Pietro Vesconte, depicting Georgian
Black Sea coast, 1321
Kingdom of Georgia
–
Detail from the
Nautical chart by
Angelino Dulcert, depicting Georgian Black Sea coast and
Tiflis, 1339
13.
Royal charter
–
A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
Royal charter
–
King's College, now the
University of Toronto, was founded with the issuance of this royal charter
Royal charter
–
The
Hudson's Bay Company building in
Montreal
Royal charter
–
The emblem of the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong
14.
Iconography
–
The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Having Veena in hands to denote necessity of resonating with what you going to learn, holding pear garland to indicate concentration is required to learn about some thing. A book on other hand to indicate one should relay on authentic source of learning, dressed in white colour cloth to indicate a learner should not having any own colour but inclusive to all colours
Iconography
–
Holbein 's
The Ambassadors is a complex work whose iconography remains the subject of debate.
Iconography
–
A painting with complex iconography:
Hans Memling 's so-called
Seven Joys of the Virgin - in fact this is a later title for a
Life of the Virgin cycle on a single panel. Altogether 25 scenes, not all involving the Virgin, are depicted. 1480,
Alte Pinakothek, Munich.
Iconography
–
A 17th century Central
Tibetan thanka of
Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra.
Iconography
–
The Theotokos of
Tikhvin of ca. 1300, an example of the
Hodegetria type of
Madonna and Child.
15.
Georgian Orthodox Church
–
The Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church in full communion with the other churches of Eastern Orthodoxy. It is Georgias dominant religious institution, and a majority of Georgian people are members and it asserts apostolic foundation, and its historical roots can be traced to the Christianization of Iberia by Saint Nino in the 4th century AD. As in similar autocephalous Orthodox churches, the Churchs highest governing body is the Holy Synod of bishops, the church is headed by the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, currently Ilia II, who was elected in 1977. The current Constitution of Georgia recognizes the role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the countrys history. Government relations are defined and regulated by the Concordat of 2002. The church is the most trusted institution in Georgia, according to a 2013 survey 95% respondents had a favorable opinion of its work. It is highly influential in the sphere and is considered Georgias most influential institution. According to Georgian Orthodox Church tradition, the first preacher of the Gospel in Colchis and Iberia was the apostle Andrew, the First-called. However, modern historiography considers this account mythical, and the fruit of a late tradition, similar traditions regarding Saint Andrew exist in Ukraine, Cyprus and Romania. The Church also claims the presence in Georgia of the Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus, the propagation of Christianity in present-day Georgia before the 4th century is still poorly known. The first documented event in this process is the preaching of Saint Nino and its consequences, Saint Nino, honored as Equal to the Apostles, was according to tradition the daughter of a Roman general from Cappadocia. She preached in the kingdom of Iberia in the first half of the 4th century, cyril Toumanoff dates the conversion of Mirian to 334, his official baptism and subsequent adoption of Christianity as the official religion of Iberia to 337. From the first centuries C. E. the cult of Mithras, pagan beliefs, the royal baptism and organization of the Church were accomplished by priests sent from Constantinople by Constantine the Great. Conversion of the people of Kartli proceeded quickly in the plains, the conversion of Kartli marked only the beginnings of the formation of the Georgian Orthodox Church. In the next centuries, different processes took place that shaped the Church, and gave it, by the beginning of the 11th century, the main characteristics that it has retained until now. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Church of Kartli was strictly subordinate to the Apostolic See of Antioch, in 1010, the Catholicos of Kartli was elevated to the honor of Patriarch. From then on, the hierarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church carried the official title of Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia. At the beginnings of the Church history, what is now Georgia was not unified yet politically, such division was reflected in major differences in the development of Christianity
Georgian Orthodox Church
–
Coat of arms of the Georgian Orthodox Church
Georgian Orthodox Church
–
The Kartvelian people
Georgian Orthodox Church
–
Jvari Monastery, near
Mtskheta, one of Georgia's oldest surviving monasteries (6th century)
16.
Mingrelian language
–
Mingrelian or Megrelian is a Kartvelian language spoken in Western Georgia, primarily by Mingrelians. The language was also called Iverian in the early 20th century, no reliable figures exist for the number of Mingrelian native speakers, but it is estimated to be between 500,000 and 800,000. Most speakers live in the Samegrelo region of Georgia, that comprises the Odishi Hills and the Kolkheti Lowlands, from the Black Sea coast to the Svan Mountains and the Tskhenistskali River. Smaller enclaves existed in Abkhazia, but the civil unrest there has displaced many Mingrelian speakers to other regions of Georgia. Their geographical distribution is relatively compact, which has helped to promote the transmission of the language between generations, Mingrelian is generally written with the Georgian alphabet, but has no written standard or official status. Almost all speakers are bilingual, they use Mingrelian mainly for familiar and informal conversation, in the summer of 1999, books of the Georgian poet Murman Lebanidze were burned in the Mingrelian capital, Zugdidi, after he made disparaging remarks about the Mingrelian language. Mingrelian is one of the Kartvelian languages and it is closely related to Laz, from which it has differentiated mostly in the last 500 years, after the northern and southern communities were separated by Turkic invasions. It is somewhat closely related to Georgian and even more distantly related to Svan. Mingrelian is not mutually intelligible with any of other languages. Some linguists refer to Mingrelian and Laz as grouped within the Zan languages, Zan had already split into Mingrelian and Laz variants by early modern times, however, and it is not customary to speak of a unified Zan language today. The oldest surviving texts in Mingrelian date from the 19th century, the earliest linguistic studies of Mingrelian include a phonetic analysis by Aleksandre Tsagareli, and grammars by Ioseb Kipshidze and Shalva Beridze. From 1930 to 1938 several newspapers were published in Mingrelian, such as Kazakhishi Gazeti, Komuna, Samargalosh Chai, Narazenish Chai, Mingrelian has five primary vowels a, e, i, o, u. The Zugdidi-Samurzaqano dialect has a sixth, ə, which is the result of reduction of i and u. Consonant inventory of Mingrelian is almost identical to Laz, Georgian, and Svan. Certain pairs of vowels reduce to single vowels, ae and ai → ee → e ao, oa, in word-initial prevocalic and intervocalic positions, q → ʔ. Before the consonant v, q → ʔ/ḳ, the common types are, voicing/devoicing of voiceless/voiced consonants before voiced/voiceless ones. Glottalization of consonants before the ones and the glottal stop. If the stem contains r then the suffixes -ar and -ur transform to -al and -ul, before the stops and affricates, an inorganic augmentation n may appear. Megrelian is written in the Mkhedruli script, Aleksandre Tsagareli, Megrelskie Etiudi, Analiz Fonetiki Megrelskogo Yazika
Mingrelian language
–
Mingrelian
17.
Svan language
–
The Svan language is a Kartvelian language spoken in the western Georgian region of Svaneti primarily by the Svan people. With its speakers variously estimated to be between 30,000 and 80,000, the UNESCO designates Svan as a endangered language. It is of particular interest because it has retained many features that have been lost in the other Kartvelian languages. Like all languages of the Kartvelian family, Svan has a number of consonants. It has agreement between subject and object, and a split-ergative morphosyntactic system, verbs are marked for aspect, evidentiality and version. Svan retains the voiceless aspirated uvular plosive, /qʰ/, and the glides /w/ and its morphology is less regular than that of the other three sister languages, and there are notable differences in verbal inflections. Svan is the language of fewer than 30,000 Svans, living in the mountains of Svaneti, i. e. in the districts of Mestia and Lentekhi of Georgia, along the Enguri, Tskhenistskali. Some Svan speakers live in the Kodori Valley of the de facto independent republic of Abkhazia, although conditions there make it difficult to reliably establish their numbers, there are only an estimated 2,500 Svan individuals living there. The language is used in familiar and casual social communication and it has no written standard or official status. Most speakers also speak Georgian, the official language, and use it as their literary. There is no instruction in Svan, and the number of speakers is declining due to the dispersal of the Svan population in the face of increasing economic hardship. The language is regarded as being endangered, as proficiency in it among people is limited. Svan is the most differentiated member of the four Kartvelian languages and is believed to have split off in the 2nd millennium BC or earlier, about one thousand years before Georgian did. The Svan language is divided into the dialects and subdialects, Upper Svan Upper Bal, Ushguli, Kala, Ipar, Mulakh, Mestia, Lenzer. Lower Bal, Becho, Tskhumar, Etser, Par, Chubekh, lentekhian, Lentekhi, Kheled, Khopur, Rtskhmelur, Cholur Freely varies between and Apart from the odd /eː/, only Upper Bal and Lashkh dialects have long vowels. Only Upper Bal has /æ, æː/, Lashkh does not have the front rounded vowels /œ, œː, y, yː/. The digraphs ჳი /y/ ჳე /œ/ are used in the Lower Bal and Lentekh dialects, and occasionally in Upper Bal, Svan at TITUS database ECLING - Svan. Svan alphabet and language at Omniglot Svan Youth literature in Svan language
Svan language
–
Svan
18.
Laz language
–
The Laz language is a Kartvelian language spoken by the Laz people on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea. It is estimated there are around 20,000 native speakers of Laz in Turkey, in a strip of land extending from Melyat to the Georgian border. Laz is one of the four South Caucasian languages, along with Mingrelian, it forms the Zan branch of this Kartvelian language family. In general, however, Mingrelian and Laz are considered as separate languages, the Laz are shifting to the Turkish of Trebizond. The Georgian language, along with its relatives Mingrelian, Laz, the initial breakup of Proto-Kartvelian is estimated to have been around 2500–2000 B. C. with the divergence of Svan from Proto-Kartvelian. Assyrian, Urartian, Greek, and Roman documents reveal that in historical times. The northern coast and coastal mountains of Asia Minor were dominated by Kartvelian peoples at least as far west as Samsun and their eastward migration may have been set in motion by the fall of Troy. Kiessling sees in the Lazoi a section of the Kerketai, who in the first centuries of the Christian era had to migrate southwards under pressure from the Zygoi, the same author regards the Kerketai as a Georgian tribe. The fact is that at the time of Arrian, the Lazoi were already living to the south of um, the ancient kingdom of Colchis was located in the same region the Laz speakers are found in today, and its inhabitants probably spoke an ancestral version of the language. Colchis was the setting for the famous Greek legend of Jason, there are also communities in northwestern Anatolia where many immigrants settled since the Russo-Turkish War and now also in Istanbul and Ankara. Only a few Laz live in Georgia, chiefly in Ajaria, Laz are also present in Germany where they have migrated from Turkey since the 1960s. Laz has no status in either Turkey or Georgia. It is presently used only for familiar and casual interaction, for literary, business, Laz is unique among the South Caucasian languages in that most of its speakers live in Turkey rather than Georgia. While the differences between the dialects are minor, their speakers feel that their level of mutual intelligibility is low. Given that there is no standard form of Laz, speakers of its different dialects use Turkish to communicate with each other. Between 1930 and 1938, Zan enjoyed cultural autonomy in Georgia and was used as a literary language, since then, all attempts to create a written tradition in Zan have failed, despite the fact that most intellectuals use it as a literary language. In Turkey, Laz has been a language since 1984. Since then, this system has used in most of the handful of publications that have appeared in Laz
Laz language
–
A Laz book "
Mothertongue "
Laz language
–
Laz
Laz language
–
A Laz newspaper in 1928
19.
Svan alphabet
–
The Svan language is a Kartvelian language spoken in the western Georgian region of Svaneti primarily by the Svan people. With its speakers variously estimated to be between 30,000 and 80,000, the UNESCO designates Svan as a endangered language. It is of particular interest because it has retained many features that have been lost in the other Kartvelian languages. Like all languages of the Kartvelian family, Svan has a number of consonants. It has agreement between subject and object, and a split-ergative morphosyntactic system, verbs are marked for aspect, evidentiality and version. Svan retains the voiceless aspirated uvular plosive, /qʰ/, and the glides /w/ and its morphology is less regular than that of the other three sister languages, and there are notable differences in verbal inflections. Svan is the language of fewer than 30,000 Svans, living in the mountains of Svaneti, i. e. in the districts of Mestia and Lentekhi of Georgia, along the Enguri, Tskhenistskali. Some Svan speakers live in the Kodori Valley of the de facto independent republic of Abkhazia, although conditions there make it difficult to reliably establish their numbers, there are only an estimated 2,500 Svan individuals living there. The language is used in familiar and casual social communication and it has no written standard or official status. Most speakers also speak Georgian, the official language, and use it as their literary. There is no instruction in Svan, and the number of speakers is declining due to the dispersal of the Svan population in the face of increasing economic hardship. The language is regarded as being endangered, as proficiency in it among people is limited. Svan is the most differentiated member of the four Kartvelian languages and is believed to have split off in the 2nd millennium BC or earlier, about one thousand years before Georgian did. The Svan language is divided into the dialects and subdialects, Upper Svan Upper Bal, Ushguli, Kala, Ipar, Mulakh, Mestia, Lenzer. Lower Bal, Becho, Tskhumar, Etser, Par, Chubekh, lentekhian, Lentekhi, Kheled, Khopur, Rtskhmelur, Cholur Freely varies between and Apart from the odd /eː/, only Upper Bal and Lashkh dialects have long vowels. Only Upper Bal has /æ, æː/, Lashkh does not have the front rounded vowels /œ, œː, y, yː/. The digraphs ჳი /y/ ჳე /œ/ are used in the Lower Bal and Lentekh dialects, and occasionally in Upper Bal, Svan at TITUS database ECLING - Svan. Svan alphabet and language at Omniglot Svan Youth literature in Svan language
Svan alphabet
–
Svan
20.
Diacritic
–
A diacritic – also diacritical mark, diacritical point, or diacritical sign – is a glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω, diacritic is primarily an adjective, though sometimes used as a noun, whereas diacritical is only ever an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute and grave, are often called accents, diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters. The main use of marks in the Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là versus la that are both pronounced /la/, in Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other alphabetic systems, diacritical marks may perform other functions, vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama and the Arabic sukūn mark the absence of a vowel, in the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new and this varies from language to language, and may vary from case to case within a language. ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels, not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, the tittle on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the minims of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, the j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling todays acute accent to a flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today, tanwīn symbols, Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, waṣla, Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk, ḥarakāt, fatḥa kasra ḍamma sukūn The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes, They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence, at the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, for verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods
Diacritic
–
Hunminjeongeum, the Korean alphabet
Diacritic
–
Blackboard used in class at
Harvard shows students' efforts at placing the
ü and
acute accent diacritic used in
Spanish orthography.
21.
Cultural heritage
–
Cultural heritage includes tangible culture, intangible culture, and natural heritage. Objects are a part of the study of history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas. Their preservation demonstrates a recognition of the necessity of the past, in The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by the hands of tourists, the required to display them. Similarly changing is the value each generation may place on the past, classical civilizations, and especially the Indian, have attributed supreme importance to the preservation of tradition. Its central idea was that institutions, scientific knowledge and technological applications need to use a heritage as a resource. Using contemporary language, we could say that ancient Indians considered, as social resources, ethics considered that what had been inherited should not be consumed, but should be handed over, possibly enriched, to successive generations. This was an imperative for all, except in the final life stage of sannyasa. What one generation considers cultural heritage may be rejected by the next generation, Cultural property includes the physical, or tangible cultural heritage, such as artworks. These are generally split into two groups of movable and immovable heritage, immovable heritage includes buildings, large industrial installations or other historic places and monuments. Moveable heritage includes books, documents, moveable artworks, machines, clothing, and other artifacts and these include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specified culture. The concept includes the ways and means of behavior in a society, and these include social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity. The significance of artifacts can be interpreted against the backdrop of socioeconomic, political, ethnic, religious. Naturally, intangible heritage is more difficult to preserve than physical objects. These kind of heritage sites often serve as an important component in a countrys tourist industry, Heritage can also include cultural landscapes. As of 2011, there are 936 World Heritage Sites,725 cultural,183 natural, each of these sites is considered important to the international community. The underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and this convention is a legal instrument helping states parties to improve the protection of their underwater cultural heritage. In additional, UNESCO has begun designating masterpieces of the Oral, international Institute for Conservation Much of heritage preservation work is done at the national, regional, or local levels of society
Cultural heritage
–
Roman ruins with a prophet, by
Giovanni Pannini, 1751. The artistic cultural heritage of the
Roman Empire served as a foundation for later
Western culture, particularly via the
Renaissance and
Neoclassicism (as exemplified here).
Cultural heritage
–
Classical Ruins by
Hubert Robert, 1798. Elements of tangible culture depicted include the ruins of the obelisk (foreground) and the pyramids (background).
Cultural heritage
–
The Grandfather tells a story, by
Albert Anker, ca. 1884.
Cultural heritage
–
Plaque stating the designation of
Carthage as a World Heritage Site.
22.
UNESCO
–
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
UNESCO
–
UNESCO offices in
Brasília
UNESCO
–
UNESCO
UNESCO
–
UNESCO Institute for Water Education in
Delft
UNESCO
–
The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.
23.
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
–
This list is published by Intergovernmental Committee for the safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage and the members to this are elected by States parties meeting in UN general assembly. The list was established in 2008 when the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage took effect, as of 2010 the programme compiles two lists. The Urgent Safeguarding List now numbers 35 elements, the List does not attribute or recognize any standard of excellence or exclusivity. Four of the 158 States Parties to the Convention—Ethiopia, the Republic of Macedonia, Niger and Ukraine — had their first inscriptions on that List, identification of the Masterpieces also entails the commitment of states to promote and safeguard these treasures, while UNESCO finances plans for their conservation. Started in 2001 and held biennially until 2005, a total of three Proclamations occurred, encompassing 90 forms of heritage around the world. The 90 previously proclaimed Masterpieces have been incorporated into the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity as its first entries, to be known as elements
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
–
Distribution by countries
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
24.
Bir el Qutt inscriptions
–
Georgian inscriptions were found on a mosaic floor. Two inscriptions are dated AD430 and the third one AD532, the monastery where the inscriptions were excavated was founded or rebuilt by the Georgian philosopher and royal prince Peter the Iberian. One of the inscriptions mentions him with his father, the other inscription mentions Bacurius the Iberian who is thought to be a possible grandfather of Peter. So far, the first two carvings are the oldest extant Georgian inscriptions, the inscriptions are kept at the museum of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Jerusalem. Inscription 2 mentioning Peter the Iberian is currently missing, Translation, Jesus Christ, have mercy on Bakur and Griormizd and their descendants. Dated, AD430 Translation, Saint Theodore, have mercy on Maruan and Burzen, Amen. Dated, AD430 Translation, With the help of Jesus Christ and Saint Theodore, God have mercy on Abba Antony and Iosia the layer of this mosaic and the father and mother of Iosia, Amen
Bir el Qutt inscriptions
–
Inscription 1
Bir el Qutt inscriptions
–
Inscription 3
25.
Kartli
–
Kartli is a historical region in central-to-eastern Georgia traversed by the river Mtkvari, on which Georgias capital, Tbilisi, is situated. Known to the Classical authors as Iberia, Kartli played a role in the ethnic. Kartli had no defined boundaries and they significantly fluctuated in the course of history. After the partition of the kingdom of Georgia in the 15th century, the historical lands of Kartli are currently divided among several administrative regions of Georgia. The Georgians living in the lands of Kartli are known as Kartleli. Most of them are Eastern Orthodox Christians adhering to the national Georgian Orthodox Church and speak a dialect, the toponym Kartli first emerges in written accounts in the 5th-century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik, the earliest surviving piece of Georgian literature. Kartlos seems to be a medieval contrivance and his being the founder of Kartli is not convincing. The term itself derives from Proto-Kartvelian root *kart-, which is considered an ancient inner-Kartvelian formation by modern linguists. See ქართლი and ქართველი for more, parallels have also been sought with the Khaldi and Carduchi of the Classical sources. The formation of Kartli and its people, the Kartveli is poorly documented, the infiltration of several ancient, chiefly Anatolian, tribes into the territory of modern-day Georgia and their fusion with the autochthons played a decisive role in this process. This might have been reflected in the story of Arian-Kartli, the place of the aboriginal Georgian habitat found in the early medieval chronicle Conversion of Kartli. In the 3rd century BC, Kartli and its original capital Mtskheta formed a nucleus around which the ancient Georgian kingdom known to the Greco-Roman world as Iberia evolved. The role of Kartli as an ethnic and political unit which would form a basis for the subsequent Georgian unification further increased as a result of its Christianization early in the 4th century. Located on the crossroads of the Byzantine and Iranian influences, Kartli developed a vibrant Christian culture, but the Kyrie eleison is said in Greek, which means in Georgian Lord, have mercy or Lord, be merciful to us. After the unification of various Georgian polities into the kingdom of Georgia early in the 11th century, the Georgian circumfix sa-X-o is a standard geographic construction designating the area where X dwell, where X is an ethnonym. Most of these lands are now part of Georgias regions of Shida Kartli and Kvemo Kartli, but also of Samtskhe-Javakheti, a significant portion of Zemo Kartli is now part of Turkey. With the fragmentation of the kingdom of Georgia in the 15th century, the kings of Kartli did not relinquish the titles of the all-Georgian monarchs whose legitimate successors they claimed to be. The Europeans, thus, knew it as Georgia proper and later also as Kartalinia via the Russian Карталиния, similarly, the toponym Gorjestān was usually used in Persian in the narrower sense of Kartli
Kartli
–
Kartli (Cardueli) in the 18th century. Detail from a map of Jean Clouet, 1767.
26.
Mirian III of Iberia
–
Mirian III was a king of Iberia or Kartli, contemporaneous to the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. The founder of the royal Chosroid dynasty, according to the early medieval Georgian annals and hagiography, Mirian was the first Christian king of Iberia, converted through the ministry of Nino, a Cappadocian female missionary. He is credited with establishment of Christianity as his kingdoms state religion and is regarded by the Georgian Orthodox Church as saint and is canonized as Saint Equal to the Apostles King Mirian. Traditional chronology after Prince Vakhushti assigns to Mirians reign—taken to have lasted for 77 years—the dates 268–345 and he is also known to the contemporary Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus and the medieval Armenian chronicles. The kings name, Mirian, is a Georgian adaptation of the Iranian Mihran, the medieval Georgian records give other versions of his name, both in its original Iranian as well as closely related Georgian forms. Writing in Latin, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus renders the name of his contemporary Iberian king as Meribanes, the Armenian chronicles, possibly compiled in the 8th century and traditionally ascribed to Moses of Chorene, gives Mihran and speaks about his conversion to Christianity. The regnal numbers as in Mirian III are modern and were not used by the medieval Georgian authors, since two kings preceded first Christian ruler of Iberia with that name, Mirian has been assigned the ordinal “III” in Georgian historiography. Mirian was an Iranian prince of the House of Mihran, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran, in 284, the Sasanians secured the Iberian throne for Mirian, and laid the foundation for Mihranid rule in Iberia, which would last into the sixth century. Thus, the Chosroid dynasty of which Mirian III became its first head in 284, was a branch of the Mihranid princely family. According to the medieval Georgian chronicle Life of the Kings, Mirian was a Persian prince married to an Iberian princess Abeshura, daughter of the last Georgian Arsacid king Aspagur. Upon the death of Aspagur, Mirian was installed on the throne of Iberia by his father whom the medieval Georgian chronicles refer to as Kasre and this being during the rule of the Sassanid dynasty over Iran, the medieval author of the chronicles assumed Mirians descent from the Sassanids. Another medieval Georgian account, Conversion of Kartli, is at odds with the tradition of Life of the Kings and identifies Mirian as the son of Lev, the Life of the Kings recount Mirians reign in much details. In the 298 Peace of Nisibis with Iran, Rome was acknowledged their suzerainty over Armenia and Iberia and he quickly adapted to this change in political situation, and established close ties with Rome. This association was cemented by Mirians conversion to Christianity—according to tradition—through the ministry of Nino, Mirians conversion to Christianity might have occurred in 334, followed by the declaration of Christianity as Iberias state religion in 337. He was, thus, among the first monarchs of the ancient world to have adopted this new religion. A legend has it that when Mirian, staunchly pagan, was hunting in the woods near his capital Mtskheta, the darkness fell upon the land, the light did not resume until Mirian prayed to Ninos God for aid. Upon his arrival he requested the audience with Nino and converted to Christianity soon after, according to tradition, Mirians second wife, Nana, preceded her husband in conversion. The Georgian tradition than relates a story of the construction of a cathedral in Mtskheta at Mirians behest, according to tradition, Mirian and his wife Nana were interred at the Samtavro convent in Mtskheta, where their tombs are still shown
Mirian III of Iberia
–
Sarcophagus of Mirian III at
Samtavro Monastery
Mirian III of Iberia
–
The burials of King Mirian and Queen Nana at
Samtavro church in Mtskheta
27.
Armenian alphabet
–
The Armenian alphabet is an alphabetical writing system used to write Armenian. It was developed around 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, the Armenian word for alphabet is այբուբեն aybuben, named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet, ⟨Ա⟩ Armenian, այբ ayb and ⟨Բ⟩ Armenian, բեն ben. Listen to the pronunciation of the letters in Eastern Armenian or in Western Armenian, notes, ^ Only used in classical orthography, word-initially and in some compound words. ^ Except in ով /ov/ who and ովքեր /ovkʰer/ those, ^ Iranian Armenians pronounce this letter as, like in Classical Armenian. ^ In classical orthography, ու and և are considered a digraph, in reformed orthography, they are separate letters of the alphabet. ^ In reformed orthography, the letter ւ appears only as a component of ու, in classical orthography, the letter usually represents /v/, except in the digraph իւ /ju/. The spelling reform in Soviet Armenia replaced իւ with the trigraph յու, ^ Except in the present tense of to be, եմ /em/ I am, ես /es/ you are, ենք /enkh/ we are, եք /ekh/ you are, են /en/ they are. ^ The letter ը is generally used only at the start or end of a word, ancient Armenian manuscripts used many ligatures. Some of the commonly used ligatures are, ﬓ, ﬔ, ﬕ, ﬖ, ﬗ, և, Armenian print typefaces also include many ligatures. In the new orthography, the character և is no longer a typographical ligature, Armenian punctuation is often placed above and slightly to the right of the vowel whose tone is modified, in order to reflect intonation. The computer-induced use of English-style single or double quotes is strongly discouraged in Armenian as they look too much like other – unrelated – Armenian punctuations, the storaket is used as a comma, and placed as in English. The mijaket is used like a colon, mainly to separate two closely related clauses, or when a long list of items follows. The verjaket is used as the full stop, and placed at the end of the sentence. The yerkaratsman nshan is used as an exclamation mark, the shesht is used as an emphasis mark, and usually placed over the last vowel of the interjection word to indicate stress. The hartsakan nshan is used as a mark and placed after the last vowel of the question word. The apatarts is used as an apostrophe, only in Western Armenian, to indicate elision of a vowel. The yentamna is used as the ordinary Armenian hyphen, the pativ was used as an Armenian abbreviation mark, and was placed on top of an abbreviated word to indicate that it was abbreviated. ISO9985 transliterates the Armenian alphabet for modern Armenian as follows, In the linguistic literature on Classical Armenian, hübschmann-Meillet have The Armenian alphabet was introduced by Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia in 405 CE
Armenian alphabet
–
The Armenian Alphabet at the
Melkonian Educational Institute in
Nicosia,
Cyprus
Armenian alphabet
–
The word Աստուած Astuaç "God" abbreviated. Only the first and last letters, and the abbreviation mark ՟, are written.
28.
Old Georgian language
–
Old Georgian was the literary language of Georgia beginning in the 5th century. The language remains as the liturgical language of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Spoken Old Georgian gave way to what is classified as Middle Georgian in the 11th century, fähnrich distinguishes three stages of Old Georgian, Chanmeti, Haemeti and Sani, noting grammatical difference between the extant texts of these stages. Fähnrich, H. Grammatik der altgeorgischen Sprache
Old Georgian language
–
Old Georgian of
Bir El Qutt inscriptions
29.
Nekresi
–
Nekresi is a historic town in Kakheti, Georgia, in modern day Kvareli Municipality, near the village of Shilda. The town was established by king Pharnajom, in the 4th century AD, king Thrdat built a church in this place. This church became a refuge to one of the Assyrian fathers, Abibus, around this time Diocese of Nekresi was established, which existed until the 19th century. The church was restored, stone masonry repaired, roof rebuilt
Nekresi
–
The remains of the Nekresi Church (2008)
30.
Kakheti
–
Kakheti is a region formed in the 1990s in eastern Georgia from the historical province of Kakheti and the small, mountainous province of Tusheti. The region comprises eight districts, Telavi, Gurjaani, Kvareli, Sagarejo, Dedoplistsqaro, Signagi, Lagodekhi. Kakheti is bordered by the Russian Federation to the Northeast, Azerbaijan to the Southeast, the Georgian David Gareja monastery complex is partially located in this province and is subject to a border dispute between Georgian and Azerbaijani authorities. It also includes the region of Hereti whose name has fallen into gradual oblivion since the 15th century. It was incorporated into the united Georgian Kingdom at the beginning of the eleventh century, only in the beginning of the twelfth century did Georgian King David the Builder incorporate Kakheti into his Kingdom successfully. After the disintegration of the Georgian Kingdom, Kakheti became an independent Kingdom in the 1460s, from the early 16th century till the early 19th century, Kakheti and its neighboring Kartli came under intermittent Iranian rule. During all these centuries the region was a part of Iran and it supplied many notable generals, administrators, women. In 1762, the Kakhetian Kingdom was united with the neighboring Georgian Kingdom of Kartli into the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti under King Erekle II. Following the Treaty of Georgievsk and the sack of Tblisi by Agha Mohammad Khan, Russian suzerainty over Kakheti and the rest of Georgia was recognized by Qajar Iran in the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan. In 1918–1921 Kakheti was part of the independent Democratic Republic of Georgia, in 1922–1936 part of the Transcaucasian SFSR, since the Georgian independence in 1991, Kakheti has been a region of the republic of Georgia. The travel infrastructure in Kakheti is fast developing, since it is the most visited region of Georgia, one can choose to stay in a guest house, in a small and comfortable hotel, or a beautiful boutique-style hotel while traveling in this region. Telavi and Signagi are the most visited towns, Signagi was renovated three years ago. Until recently there were only some family hotels, but now Signagi features several hotels, list of sovereigns of Kakheti www. kakheti. net - information Kakheti region website Kakheti regional administration website Kakheti travel guide from Wikivoyage
Kakheti
–
Signagi is becoming an important cultural center in the region
Kakheti
–
Kakheti კახეთი
Kakheti
–
The Alazani River Plain, with the Caucasus Mountains in the background
Kakheti
–
Gremi church in Kakheti.
31.
Pharnavaz I of Iberia
–
Pharnavaz I also transliterated as Parnavaz or Farnavaz was the king of Kartli, an ancient Georgian kingdom known as Iberia to the Classical sources. Pharnavazs rise and the advent of the Iberian monarchy was tied to the victory of Alexander the Great over the Achaemenid Empire. He is not directly attested in non-Georgian sources and there is no contemporary indication that he was indeed the first of the Georgian kings. According to the c.800 chronicle The Life of Kings, Pharnavaz had a genealogy, tracing back to Kartlos. His paternal uncle, Samara, held the position of mamasakhlisi of the Georgian tribes around Mtskheta, pharnavaz’s mother is claimed to have been a Persian woman from Isfahan, whom Prince Teimuraz of Georgia and Patriarch Anton I of Georgia identify with a daughter of King Darius III. The name Pharnavaz is also an example with its root par- being based upon the Persian farnah. Pharnavaz is also mentioned in the Armazi stele of Serapit, perhaps the most artistically rounded section of the Georgian annals, the narrative follows Pharnavazs life from birth to burial. Aged 3, small Pharnavazs family is destroyed, and his heritage is usurped by Azon installed by Alexander the Great during his campaign in Kartli. Pharnavaz is brought up fatherless, but a dream, in which he anoints himself with the essence of the Sun. He is persuaded by this vision to devote to noble deeds and he then sets off and goes hunting. In a pursuit of a deer, he encounters a mass of treasure stored in a hidden cave, Pharnavaz retrieves the treasure and exploits it to mount a loyal army against the tyrannical Azon. He is aided by Kuji of Colchis, who eventually marries Pharnavazs sister, are reminiscent of legends about Irans founding kings, like Cyrus the Great and Ardashir I. Pharnavazs self-anointment may have a Sasanian inspiration, as some early Shahanshahs crowned themselves, in the ensuing battle, Azon is defeated and killed, and Pharnavaz becomes the king of Kartli at the age of 27. Pharnavaz is also said to have patterned his administration upon an Iranian model, Pharnavaz had introduced a military-administrative organization based on a network of regional governors or eristavi. The insignia of the eristavi, received from the king, constituted a sceptre, Iberia had in total seven eristavis, in Colchis, Kakheti, Khunani, Samshvilde, Tsunda, Odzrkhe and Klarjeti. The kingdom had one spaspet who was under the control of the royal power based in Inner Kartli. Eristavates mimicked aspects of Achaemenid satrapies and Seleucid strategoi, in this way, the long-term viability and stability of the Georgian realm are established. It is evident that the division of Iberia by Pharnavaz into saeristavos served first and foremost a military aim and this organization was not so much directed against other countries
Pharnavaz I of Iberia
–
Relief of King Pharnavaz
Pharnavaz I of Iberia
–
Kingdom of Iberia during the reign of Pharnavaz I
Pharnavaz I of Iberia
–
King Pharnavaz's street in
Batumi.
32.
Mesrop Mashtots
–
Mesrop Mashtots listen, also known as Mesrob the Vartabed, was an early medieval Armenian linguist, theologian, statesman and hymnologist. He is best known for having invented the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD and he was also the creator of the Caucasian Albanian and Georgian alphabets, according to a number of scholars and contemporaneous Armenian sources. Mesrop Mashtots was born in a family in the settlement of Hatsekats in Taron. He was the son of a man named Vardan, Koryun, his pupil and biographer, tells us that Mashtots received a good education, and was versed in the Greek and Persian languages. On account of his piety and learning Mesrop was appointed secretary to King Khosrov IV and his duty was to write in Greek and Persian characters the decrees and edicts of the sovereign. Leaving the court for the service of God, he took holy orders, there, says Koryun, he practiced great austerities, enduring hunger and thirst, cold and poverty. He lived on vegetables, wore a shirt, slept upon the ground, and often spent whole nights in prayer. This life he continued for a few years, Armenia, so long the battle-ground of Romans and Persians, lost its independence in 387, and was divided between the Byzantine Empire and Persia, about four-fifths being given to the latter. Western Armenia was governed by Byzantine generals, while an Armenian king ruled, the Church was naturally influenced by these violent political changes, although the loss of civil independence and the partition of the land could not destroy its organization or subdue its spirit. Persecution only quickened it into greater activity, and had the effect of bringing the clergy, the nobles, three men are prominently associated with this work, Mesrop, Patriarch Isaac, and King Vramshapuh, who succeeded his brother Khosrov IV in 389. In 394, with the help of blessing of Armenias Catholicos, Sahak Partev, Mesrop, as noted, had spent some time in a monastery preparing for a missionary life. With the support of Prince Shampith, he preached the Gospel in the district of Goghtn near the river Araxes, converting many heretics, again, the Holy Scriptures and the liturgy, being written in Syriac, were, to a large extent, unintelligible to the faithful. Hence the constant need of translators and interpreters to explain the Word of God to the people, Mesrop, desirous to remedy this state of things, resolved to invent a national alphabet, in which undertaking Isaac and King Vramshapuh promised to assist him. It is hard to exactly what part Mesrop had in the fixing of the new alphabet. According to his Armenian biographers, he consulted Daniel, a bishop of Mesopotamia, and Rufinus, with their help and that of Isaac and the king, he was able to give a definite form to the alphabet, which he probably adapted from the Greek. Others, like Lenormant, think it derived from the Avestan, mesrops alphabet consisted of thirty-six letters, two more were added in the twelfth century. The first sentence in Armenian written down by St, the result of the work of Isaac and Mesrop, says St. It is historically proven, that Saint Mesrop himself taught in Amaras monastery of Artskah region of Armenia, but his activity was not confined to Eastern Armenia
Mesrop Mashtots
–
Painting by Stepanos Nersisian (1815–84), kept at the Pontifical Residence at the
Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin
Mesrop Mashtots
–
Mesrop Mashtots creating the Armenian alphabet, by
Francesco Maggiotto (1750-1805).
Mesrop Mashtots
–
Mesrop Mashtots, by the Venetian painter
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770). Fresco at
Würzburg Residence in
Bavaria.
Mesrop Mashtots
–
Illustration of Mesrop Mashtots from a 1776 Armenian manuscript
33.
Tamaz Gamkrelidze
–
Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi, Georgian SSR. His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze is also an Academic, a famous mathematician, Tamaz Gamkrelidze graduated from the Faculty of Oriental Studies of the Tbilisi State University in 1952. Since 1964 Gamkrelidze has been a professor of university, and since 1966 the Head of the Chair of Structural. In 1973-2006 he was a Director of the Tsereteli Institute of Oriental Studies and he is the author of many outstanding works in the fields of Indo-European linguistics, Ancient languages, Theoretical linguistics, Structural and Applied Linguistics and Kartvelology. He is a proponent of the glottalic theory of Proto-Indo-European consonants. In 1988-1995 he edited the Journal of the Russian Academy of Science Voprosi Yazikoznanya and he has received the Lenin Prize, the Humboldt International Prize and the Ivane Javakhishvili Prize of the Georgian Academy of Sciences. From 1992 to 2005 Gamkrelidze was a member of the Parliament of Georgia, the Akkado-Hittite syllabary and the problem of the origin of the Hittite script, Archiv Orientalni. 1960 Anatolian languages and the problem of Indo-European migration to Asia Minor, tokyo,1970 Alphabetic writing and the old Georgian script. New York, Caravan Books,1994 with V. V. Ivanov, Indoevropjskij jazyk i indoevropejcy, xcvi +1328 p. English translation, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, A reconstruction and historical analysis of a proto-language and a proto-culture. Berlin–New York, Mouton de Gruyter,1,1994,2,1995 with V. V.13, ivo Hajnal, ed. Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, Selected writings. Linguistic sign, typology and language reconstruction, Georgian Academy of Sciences Glottalic theory Home Page of Tamaz Gamkrelidze Georgian Academy of Sciences Tbilisi State University
Tamaz Gamkrelidze
–
Tamaz (Thomas) V. Gamkrelidze
34.
Aramaic alphabet
–
The ancient Aramaic alphabet is adapted from the Phoenician alphabet and became distinctive from it by the 8th century BCE. It was used to write the Aramaic language and had displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet for the writing of Hebrew, the letters all represent consonants, some of which are also used as matres lectionis to indicate long vowels. Rather, it is a different type, the earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below, Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised, its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by Old Persian. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, the Aramaic script would survive as the essential characteristics of the Iranian Pahlavi writing system. A group of 30 Aramaic documents from Bactria has been recently discovered, an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria, the widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, the Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets, as they stood by the Roman era, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. A cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, the Old Turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic, in particular via the Pahlavi or Sogdian alphabets, as suggested by V. Thomsen, or possibly via Karosthi. Aramaic is also considered to be the most likely source of the Brahmi script, ancestor of the Brahmic family of scripts, today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the Hebrew alphabet. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the Syriac alphabet, Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identity of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature. In Maloula, one of few surviving communities in which a Western Aramaic dialect is still spoken and they started to use the Syriac alphabet instead. In Aramaic writing, Waw and Yodh serve a double function, originally, they represented only the consonants w and y, but they were later adopted to indicate the long vowels ū and ī respectively as well. In the latter role, they are known as matres lectionis or mothers of reading. Ālap, likewise, has some of the characteristics of a mater lectionis because in initial positions, it indicates a glottal stop, among Jews, the influence of Hebrew often led to the use of Hē instead, at the end of a word
Aramaic alphabet
–
Bilingual Greek and Aramaic inscription by the
Mauryan emperor
Ashoka the Great at
Kandahar,
Afghanistan, 3rd century BC
35.
Armenian Apostolic Church
–
The Armenian Apostolic Church is the national church of the Armenian people. Part of Oriental Orthodoxy, it is one of the most ancient Christian communities, Armenia was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in the early 4th century. The church claims to have originated in the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and it is sometimes referred to as the Armenian Orthodox Church or Gregorian Church. It is also known as the Armenian Church. The Armenian Church believes apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus, according to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD. After this, Bartholomew came to Armenia, bringing a portrait of the virgin Mary, Bartholomew then converted the sister of Sanatruk, who once again martyred a female relative and the apostle who converted her. Both apostles ordained native bishops before their execution, and some other Armenians had been ordained outside of Armenia by James the Just. According to Eusebius and Tertullian, Armenian Christians were persecuted by kings Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III, ancient Armenias adoption of Christianity as a state religion has been referred to by Nina Garsoïan as probably the most crucial step in its history. This conversion distinguished it from its Iranian and Mazdean roots and protected it from further Parthian influence, other scholars as well have stated that the acceptance of Christianity by the Arsacid-Armenian rulers was partly in defiance of the Sassanids. When King Trdat IV made Christianity the state religion of Armenia between 301 and 314, it was not a new religion there. It had penetrated the country from at least the third century, Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated. Upon his return, Gregory tore down shrines to idols, built churches and monasteries, while meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ descending to the earth and striking it with a hammer. From that spot arose a great Christian temple with a huge cross and he was convinced that God intended him to build the main Armenian church there. With the kings help he did so in accord with his vision and he renamed the city Etchmiadzin, which means the place of the descent of the only-begotten. Initially the Armenian church participated in the church world. Its Catholicos was represented at the First Council of Nicea and the First Council of Constantinople, although unable to attend the Council of Ephesus, the Catholicos Isaac Parthiev sent a message agreeing with its decisions. Christianity was strengthened in Armenia in the 5th century by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the theologian, monk. Before the 5th century, Armenians had a language
Armenian Apostolic Church
–
Etchmiadzin Cathedral, the mother church of the Armenian Apostolic Church
Armenian Apostolic Church
Armenian Apostolic Church
–
Baptism of
Tiridates III.
Armenian Apostolic Church
–
Procession of Armenian Priests.
36.
Caucasian Albanian alphabet
–
It was one of only two indigenous alphabets ever developed for speakers of indigenous Caucasian languages to represent any of their languages, the other being the Georgian alphabet. The Armenian language, the language of Caucasus with its own alphabet, is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. Koriun, a pupil of Mesrop Mashtots, in his book The Life of Mashtots, wrote about the circumstances of its creation, Then there came and visited them an elderly man, an Albanian named Benjamin. The alphabet was in use from its creation in the early 5th century through the 12th century, and was used not only formally by the Church of Caucasian Albania, but also for non-religious means. Although mentioned in sources, no examples of it were known to exist until its rediscovery in 1937 by a Georgian scholar, Professor Ilia Abuladze. 7117, an Armenian language manual from the 15th century and this manual presents different alphabets for comparison, Armenian, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Georgian, Coptic, and Caucasian Albanian among them. The Caucasian Albanian alphabet came with a comment in Armenian, Ałuanic girn e - Աղուանից գիրն է - that is translated from Armenian as the letters from Albania, Abuladze made an assumption that this alphabet was based on Georgian letters. Between 1947 and 1952, archaeological excavations at Mingachevir under the guidance of S, the Udi language, spoken by some 8,000 people, mostly in Azerbaijan but also in Georgia and Armenia, is considered to be the last direct continuator of the Caucasian Albanian language. 49 of the characters are found in the Sinai palimpsests, several punctuation marks are also present, including a middle dot, a separating colon, an apostrophe, paragraph marks, and citation marks. The Caucasian Albanian alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in June,2014 with the release of version 7.0
Caucasian Albanian alphabet
–
Matenadaran
MS No. 7117, fol. 142r
Caucasian Albanian alphabet
–
Mesrop Mashtots by
Francesco Maggiotto (1750-1805). Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian medieval evangelizer and enlightener, invented the Gargarean ("Caucasian Albanian") alphabet in the 5th century, shortly after creating the
Armenian script.
Caucasian Albanian alphabet
–
A capital from a 5th-century church with an inscription using Caucasian Albanian lettering, found at
Mingachevir in 1949
37.
Koryun
–
Koryun was the earliest Armenian-language historian. Writing in the century, his Life of Mashtots contains many details about the evangelization of Armenia. Having received his education under Mesrob Mashtots, Koryun went to Byzantium for higher studies. He was a friend of Eznik Koghbatsi and Ghevond. Later, he was appointed Bishop of Georgia and he has been listed among the junior translators. His style is original, but somewhat obscure due to grammatical irregularities, to him have been attributed the translations of the three apocryphal books of the Maccabees. Koryun was the origin of the claim that the Georgian alphabet was created by Mesrob Mashtots, after the death of Mashtots, Koryun was tasked by Hovsep Hoghotsmetsi, one of the spiritual leaders at that time, to start writing Mesrops biography. Now his work is known as Varq Mashtotsi and he finished his work before the Avarayr battle in 451 and new political developments in the region. In the modern period it was translated into Russian, English, French and German
Koryun
–
References [edit]
38.
Epigraphic
–
Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist, for example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and it is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme to a lengthy document. Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography, when compared to books, most inscriptions are short. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery, epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary, the study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a quite separate from the nature of the text. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however, in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of Linear B were revealed to be used for economic. Informal inscribed texts are graffiti in its original sense, the science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first, individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius, August Wilhelm Zumpt, Theodor Mommsen, Emil Hübner, Franz Cumont, Louis Robert. The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has published in Berlin since 1863. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions, New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically, all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6 and this volume has the greatest number of inscriptions, volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin and this marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world
Epigraphic
–
The
Rosetta Stone in the
British Museum.
Epigraphic
–
Petroglyphs in
Wadi Rum (
Jordan)
Epigraphic
–
Trilingual inscription of
Xerxes at
Van Fortress in Turkey
Epigraphic
–
The high medieval
Prüfening dedicatory inscription, composed in
Latin and stamped in
Roman square capitals
39.
Pavle Ingorokva
–
Pavle Ingorokva was a Georgian historian, philologist, and public benefactor. He graduated from the University of St. Petersburg, in 1917 he was one of the founders of the Union of Georgian Writers. In 1917-1919 he was a member of the National Council of Georgia, on May 26,1918 Ingorokva signed the Act of Independence of Georgia. In 1921 he protested the occupation of Georgia by the Bolshevist Russia, in 1924-1925, he was the editor-in-chief of the Georgian scientific and literary Journal Kavkasioni. The Journal was closed by the Bolshevik regime, in 1925 Ingorokva founded the Publishing House Kartuli Tsigni. This Publishing House published works of Ilia Chavchavadze in the XI volumes, in 1933 Kartuli Tsigni was closed. In 1929-1940 Ingorokva was a Head of the Department of Manuscripts of the State Museum of Georgia, in 1958 he was one of the founders of the Institute of Manuscripts. He was also a member of the Commission on Study of The Knight in the Panthers Skin of the Georgian Academy of Sciences, List of Georgians Rustveliana, Tbilisi,1926,200 pp. The Georgian inscriptions of Antique - Bulletin of the Institute of Language, History and Material Culture, vol. X, Tbilisi,1941, pp. 411–427 The old Georgian chronicle Moktsevai Kartlisai, xI-B, Tbilisi,1942, pp. 259–320 Giorgi Merchule, kartveli mcerali meate sauvunisa, narkvevi zveli Sakartvelos literaturis, kulturis da saxelmcip oebrivi cxovrebis istoriidan. Tbilisi,1954,1000 pp. Ilia Chavchavadze, Tbilisi,1951,200 pp
Pavle Ingorokva
–
Pavle Ingorokva
40.
Boustrophedon
–
Boustrophedon /ˌbuːstrəˈfiːdən/ is a kind of bi-directional text, mostly seen in ancient manuscripts and other inscriptions. Every other line of writing is flipped or reversed, with reversed letters, rather than going left-to-right as in modern European languages, or right-to-left as in Arabic and Hebrew, alternate lines in boustrophedon must be read in opposite directions. Also, the characters are reversed, or mirrored. It was a way of writing in stone in Ancient Greece. By analogy, the term may be used in areas to describe this kind of alternation of motion or writing. For example, it is used to describe the print head motion of certain dot matrix printers. In that case, while the print head moves in opposite directions on alternate lines, the Hungarian folklorist Gyula Sebestyén writes that ancient boustrophedon writing resembles how the Hungarian rovás-sticks of old Hungarian writing were made by shepherds. The notcher holds the stick in his left hand, cutting the letters with his right hand from right to left. When the first side is complete, he flips the stick over vertically, when unfolded horizontally, the final result is writing which starts from right to left, and continues from left to right in the next row, with letters turned upside down. Sebestyén states that the ancient boustrophedon writings were copied from such wooden sticks with cut letters, the wooden boards and other incised artifacts of Rapa Nui also bear a boustrophedonic script called Rongorongo, which remains undeciphered. In Rongorongo the text in alternate lines was rotated 180 degrees rather than mirrored, the Luwian language had a hieroglyph version, hieroglyphic Luwian, that read boustrophedon. The Hieroglyphic Luwian is read boustrophedon, with the direction of any individual line pointing into the front of the animals or body parts constituting certain hieroglyphs. However, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs with their numerous ideograms and logograms which show an easy directionality, a modern example of boustrophedonics is the numbering scheme of sections within survey townships in the United States and Canada. In both countries, survey townships are divided into a 6-by-6 grid of 36 sections, public Land Survey System, Section 1 of a township is in the northeast corner, and the numbering proceeds boustrophedonically until Section 36 is reached in the southeast corner. Canadas Dominion Land Survey also uses boustrophedonic numbering, but starts at the southeast corner, Rongorongo is the current theory of the first written language on Easter Island. It is believed to be written in boustrophedonics, yet no accurate translation has been deciphered, Rongorongo shares many characteristics with other Polynesian languages groups. The term is used by postmen in the United Kingdom to describe street numbering which proceeds serially in one direction then turns back in the other and this is in contrast to the more common method of odd and even numbers on opposite sides of the street. In art history, it means that you read from bottom left in a series of pictures
Boustrophedon
–
Ancient Greek boustrophedon inscription,
Gortyn code, Crete, 5th century BC
Boustrophedon
–
The
Forum inscription (one of the oldest known Latin inscriptions) is written boustrophedon, albeit irregularly: reading from top to bottom, lines 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16 run from right to left; lines 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, and 15, from left to right; 8, 9, and 16 are upside down. (From a rubbing by
Domenico Comparetti.)
Boustrophedon
–
Notice in Avoiuli script written using boustrophedon
41.
Acute angle
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Acute angle
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
42.
Chi Rho
–
The Chi-Rho symbol was used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as part of a military standard. Constantines standard was known as the Labarum, Early symbols similar to the Chi Rho were the Staurogram and the IX monogram. In pre-Christian times, the Chi-Rho symbol was also to mark a particularly valuable or relevant passage in the margin of a page, some coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes were marked with a Chi-Rho. The Chi Rho symbol has two Unicode codepoints, U+2627 ☧ Chi Rho in the Miscellaneous symbols block and U+2CE9 ⳩ Coptic symbol Khi Ro in the Coptic block and that very day Constantines army fought the forces of Maxentius and won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, outside Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea gave two different accounts of the events, in a memoir of the Roman emperor that Eusebius wrote after Constantines death, a miraculous appearance is said to have come in Gaul long before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. At noon, Constantine saw a cross of light imposed over the sun, attached to it, in Greek characters, was the saying Τούτῳ Νίκα. Not only Constantine, but the army saw the miracle. That night, Christ appeared to the Roman emperor in a dream and told him to make a replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in battle. Eusebius wrote in the Vita that Constantine himself had told him this story and confirmed it with oaths late in life when I was deemed worthy of his acquaintance, indeed, says Eusebius, had anyone else told this story, it would not have been easy to accept it. Eusebius also left a description of the labarum, the standard which incorporated the Chi-Rho sign. After Constantine, the Chi-Rho became part of the imperial insignia. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence demonstrating that the Chi-Rho was emblazoned on the helmets of some Late Roman soldiers, coins and medallions minted during Emperor Constantines reign also bore the Chi-Rho. By the year 350, the Chi-Rho began to be used on Christian sarcophagi, the usurper Magnentius appears to have been the first to use the Chi-Rho monogram flanked by Alpha and Omega, on the reverse of some coins minted in 353. In Roman Britannia, a mosaic pavement was uncovered at Hinton St. Mary, Dorset. Another Romano-British Chi-Rho, in fresco, was found at the site of a villa at Lullingstone, the symbol was also found on Late Roman Christian signet rings in Britain. Though the letters are one after the other and the X and P not combined in a monogram. Famous examples are in the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, the X was regarded as the crux decussata, a symbol of the cross, this idea is found in the works of Isidore of Seville and other patristic and Early Medieval writers. In some other works like the Carolingian Godescalc Evangelistary, XPS in sequential letters, Alpha and Omega Chi Rho Christian symbolism Christogram Ichthys Labarum Merchants mark Media related to Chi Rho at Wikimedia Commons
Chi Rho
–
Missorium depicting Emperor Constantine's son Constantius II accompanied by a guardsman with the Chi-Rho depicted on his shield.
Chi Rho
–
The Chi-Rho symbol.
Chi Rho
–
Coin of
Magnentius with large Chi-Rho at ecliptic angles and including the
Alpha and Omega.
Chi Rho
–
The Chi-Rho symbol ☧,
Catacombs of San Callisto,
Rome.
43.
Phoenician alphabet
–
The Phoenician alphabet, called by convention the Proto-Canaanite alphabet for inscriptions older than around 1050 BC, is the oldest verified alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad consisting of 22 letters, all consonants and it was used for the writing of Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language, used by the civilization of Phoenicia. The Phoenician alphabet is derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs and it became one of the most widely used writing systems, spread by Phoenician merchants across the Mediterranean world, where it evolved and was assimilated by many other cultures. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Another derivative script is the Aramaic alphabet, which was the ancestor of the modern Arabic script, the Modern Hebrew script is a stylistic variant of the Aramaic script. The Greek alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Phoenician was usually written from right to left, although there are texts written in boustrophedon. The earliest known inscriptions are the so-called Proto-Sinaitic script sporadically attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the late Middle. The script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC, the Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the Proto-Canaanite script of the Bronze Age collapse period. Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet -- such as Greek, Old Italic, Anatolian, and the Paleohispanic scripts -- were very successful. This simple system contrasted with the scripts in use at the time, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Another reason for its success was the trading culture of Phoenician merchants. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt, Phoenician had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came in contact with it. As mentioned above, the script was the first widespread phonetic script and its simplicity not only allowed it to be used in multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. The Phoenician alphabet was first uncovered in the 17th century, and it was at first believed that the script was a direct variation of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This idea was popular due to the recent decipherment of hieroglyphs. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems, nor to hieratic or cuneiform, the theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single man conceiving it, to the Hyksos people forming it from corrupt Egyptian
Phoenician alphabet
–
Phoenician alphabet
44.
Taw
–
Taw, tav, or taf is the twenty-second and last letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Tāw, Hebrew Tav ת, Aramaic Taw, Syriac Taw ܬ, and Arabic Tāʼ ت. Its original sound value is /t/, the Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek tau, Latin T, and Cyrillic Т. Taw is believed to be derived from the Egyptian hieroglyph meaning mark The letter is named tāʼ , the plural form of Arabic letter ت is tāʼāt, a palindrome. Recently the isolated ت has been used online as an emoticon, an alternative form called tāʼ marbūṭah is used at the end of words to mark feminine gender for nouns and adjectives. It denotes the final sound /-a/ and, when in construct state, regular tāʼ, to distinguish it from tāʼ marbūṭah, is referred to as tāʼ maftūḥah. In words such as risālah رسالة, tāʼ marbūṭah is denoted as h, historically, it was pronounced as the /t/ sound in all positions, but in coda positions it eventually developed into a weakly aspirated /h/ sound, this /h/ itself was eventually left unpronounced. When a word ending with a tāʼ marbūṭah is suffixed with a case ending or any other suffix. For example, the word رسالة is pronounced as risāla in pausa but is pronounced risālatu in the nominative case, the pronunciation is /t/, just like a regular tāʼ , but the identity of the character remains a tāʼ marbūṭah. Note that the isolated and final forms of this letter combine the shape of hāʼ , when words containing the symbol are borrowed into other languages written in the Arabic alphabet, tāʼ marbūṭah usually becomes either a regular ه or a regular ت. Hebrew spelling, תָו The letter tav in modern Hebrew usually represents a voiceless alveolar plosive, the letter tav is one of the six letters which can receive a dagesh kal diacritic, besides bet, gimel, dalet, kaph and pe. Three of them – bet, kaph and pe – have their sound changed in modern Hebrew from the fricative to the plosive by adding a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, the other three – including tav – do not change their pronunciation with or without a dagesh, but have had alternate pronunciations at other times and places. In traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation, tav represents an /s/ without the dagesh, in some Sephardi areas, some Chassidic groups, as well as Yemen, tav without a dagesh represented a voiceless dental fricative /θ/, and tav with the dagesh is the plosive /t/. In traditional Italian pronunciation, tav without a dagesh is sometimes /s/, in gematria, tav represents the number 400, the largest single number that can be represented without using the sophit forms. In representing names from languages, a geresh or chupchik can also be placed after the tav. Tav is the last letter of the Hebrew word emet, which means truth, the midrash explains that emet is made up of the first, middle, and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Sheqer, on the hand, is made up of the 19th, 20th. Thus, truth is all-encompassing, while falsehood is narrow and deceiving, in Jewish mythology it was the word emet that was carved into the head of the golem which ultimately gave it life
Taw
–
Hieroglyph
45.
Chi (letter)
–
Chi is the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet, pronounced /ˈkaɪ/ or /ˈkiː/ in English. Its value in Ancient Greek was a velar stop /kʰ/. In Koine Greek and later dialects it became a fricative along with Θ and Φ, in front of low or back vowels and consonants, it is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative, as in German ach. Chi is romanized as ⟨ch⟩ in most systematic transliteration conventions, in addition, in Modern Greek, it is often also romanized as ⟨h⟩ or ⟨x⟩ in informal practice. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 600, in ancient times, some local forms of the Greek alphabet used the chi instead of xi to represent the /ks/ sound. This was borrowed into the early Latin language, which led to the use of the letter X for the sound in Latin. Chi was also included in the Cyrillic script as the letter Х, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the minuscule chi is the symbol for the voiceless uvular fricative. Chi is the basis for the name literary Chiastic structure and the name of Chiasmus, in Platos Timaeus, it is explained that the two bands that form the soul of the world cross each other like the letter Χ. Platos analogy, along several other examples of chi as a symbol occur in Thomas Brownes discourse The Garden of Cyrus. Chi or X is often used to abbreviate the name Christ, when fused within a single typespace with the Greek letter Rho, it is called the labarum and used to represent the person of Jesus Christ. These characters are used only as mathematical symbols, stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style. In statistics, the term chi-squared or χ2 has various uses, including the distribution, the chi-squared test. In algebraic topology, Chi is used to represent the Euler characteristic of a surface, in neurology, the optic chiasm is named for the letter Chi because of its Χ-shape. In chemistry, the fraction and electronegativity may be denoted by the lowercase χ. In rhetoric, both chiastic structure and the figure of speech Chiasmus derive from their names from the shape of the letter Chi. In engineering, chi is used as a symbol for the factor of relevant buckling loads in the EN1993. In graph theory, a lowercase chi is used to represent a graphs chromatic number
Chi (letter)
–
The Greek alphabet on a
black figure vessel, with a cross-shaped chi.
46.
Latin alphabet
–
The classical Latin alphabet, also known as the Roman alphabet, is a writing system originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. During the Middle Ages the Latin alphabet was used for writing Romance languages, direct descendants of Latin, as well as Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and these Latin alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets. Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case and it is generally believed that the Romans adopted the Cumae alphabet, a variant of the Greek alphabet, in the 7th century BC from Cumae, a Greek colony in Southern Italy. The Ancient Greek alphabet was in turn based upon the Phoenician abjad, from then on, ⟨G⟩ represented the voiced plosive /ɡ/, while ⟨C⟩ was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive /k/. The letter ⟨K⟩ was used rarely, in a small number of words such as Kalendae. After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters ⟨Y⟩ and ⟨Z⟩ to write Greek loanwords, an attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters, ⟨Z⟩ was given its Greek name, zeta. This scheme has continued to be used by most modern European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet, for the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation, for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet. Diacritics were not regularly used, but they did occur sometimes, the commonest being the apex used to long vowels. However, in place of taking an apex, the i was written taller. For example, what is today transcribed Lūciī a fīliī was written ⟨lv́ciꟾ·a·fꟾliꟾ⟩ in the inscription at right, the primary mark of punctuation was the interpunct, which was used as a word divider, though it fell out of use after 200 AD. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals and it was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that. It led to Uncial, a script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin. This script evolved into the medieval scripts known as Merovingian and Carolingian minuscule, prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter. With the fragmentation of power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages. The languages that use the Latin script today generally use letters to begin paragraphs and sentences. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. g, alle Schwestern der alten Stadt hatten die Vögel gesehen. The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire
Latin alphabet
–
The
Duenos inscription, dated to the 6th century BC, shows the earliest known forms of the
Old Latin alphabet.
Latin alphabet
–
This map shows the countries in the world that use a Latin alphabet as the sole official (or de facto official) national script in dark green. The lighter green indicates the countries that use Latin as a co-official script at the national level.
Latin alphabet
–
The apices in this first-century inscription are very light. (There is one over the ó in the first line.) The vowel I is written taller rather than taking an apex. The interpuncts are comma-shaped, an elaboration of a more typical triangular shape.
Latin alphabet
–
Jeton from
Nuremberg, ca. 1553
47.
Tamar of Georgia
–
Tamar the Great reigned as the Queen of Georgia from 1184 to 1213, presiding over the apex of the Georgian Golden Age. A member of the Bagrationi dynasty, her position as the first woman to rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title mepe, Tamar was successful in neutralizing this opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the decline of the hostile Seljuq Turks. Tamar was married twice, her first union being, from 1185 to 1187, to the Rus prince Yuri, whom she divorced and expelled from the country, defeating his subsequent coup attempts. For her second husband Tamar chose, in 1191, the Alan prince David Soslan and she remains an important symbol in Georgian popular culture and has been canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church as the Holy Righteous Queen Tamar, with her feast day commemorated on 14 May. Tamar was born in circa 1160 to George III, King of Georgia, and his consort Burdukhan, while it is possible that Tamar had a younger sister, Rusudan, she is only mentioned once in all contemporary accounts of Tamars reign. The name Tamar is of Hebrew origin and, like other biblical names, was favored by the Georgian Bagrationi dynasty because of their claim to be descended from David, the second king of Israel. Tamars youth coincided with an upheaval in Georgia, in 1177, her father. Prince Demna, castrated and blinded on his uncles order, did not survive the mutilation and soon died in prison, once the rebellion was suppressed and the pretender eliminated, George went ahead to co-opt Tamar into government with him and crowned her as co-ruler in 1178. By doing so, the king attempted to preempt any dispute after his death, at the same time, he raised men from the gentry and unranked classes to keep the dynastic aristocracy away from the center of power. For six years, Tamar was a co-ruler with her father upon whose death, in 1184, Tamar continued as the monarch and was crowned a second time at the Gelati cathedral near Kutaisi. She inherited a strong kingdom, but the centrifugal tendencies fostered by the great nobles were far from being quelled. The energetic involvement of Tamars influential aunt Rusudan and the Georgian Catholicos-Patriarch Michael IV Mirianisdze was crucial for legitimizing Tamars succession to the throne, however, the young queen was forced into making significant concessions to the aristocracy. She had to reward the Catholicos-Patriarch Michaels support by making him a chancellor and this attempt at feudal constitutionalism was rendered abortive when Tamar had Qutlu Arslan arrested and his supporters were inveigled into submission. Yet, Tamars first moves to reduce the power of the aristocratic élite were unsuccessful and she failed in her attempt to use a church synod to dismiss the Catholicos-Patriarch Michael, and the noble council, darbazi, asserted the right to approve royal decrees. Even the queens first husband, the Rus prince Yuri, was forced on her by the nobles. Pursuant to dynastic imperatives and the ethos of the time, the nobles required Tamar to marry in order to have a leader for the army and to provide an heir to the throne. Their choice fell on Yuri, son of the murdered prince Andrei I Bogolyubsky of Vladimir-Suzdal, the choice was approved by Tamars aunt Rusudan and the prince was brought to Georgia to marry the queen in 1185. Yuri proved to be an soldier, but a difficult person
Tamar of Georgia
–
Tamar at the church of Dormition in
Vardzia
Tamar of Georgia
–
Tamar (left) and George III (right). The earliest surviving portrait of Tamar from the church of the
Dormition at Vardzia, c. 1184–1186
Tamar of Georgia
–
Tamar as depicted on a 13th-century mural from the
Kintsvisi monastery
Tamar of Georgia
–
The ruined cave-town of Vardzia
48.
George IV of Georgia
–
George IV Lasha of the Bagrationi Dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1213 to 1223. A son of Queen Regnant Tamar and her consort David Soslan, George IV continued Tamar’s policy of strengthening of the Georgia feudal state. He put down the revolts in neighbouring Muslim vassal states in the 1210s, however, the Mongol approach to the Georgian borders made the Crusade plan unrealistic. The first Mongol expedition defeated two Georgian armies in 1221–1222 and left through Inner Caucasus, georgians suffered heavy losses in this war and the King himself was severely wounded. King Georgi IV went to Bagavan, Armenia, to secure his sister’s marriage to the Shah of Shirvan, Lasha George became an invalid and died prematurely in Bagavan at the age of 31. He was succeeded by his sister Rusudan, George Lasha was known as an open minded person and met much criticism from a conservative feudal society. The nobles and Christian clergymen rejected his wife and failed to recognize her as queen and she was a girl from a family of commoners. Ultimately, the King had to compromise and divorced her formally, refusing, however, some medieval sources characterize George IV as a wise ruler and brave warrior, while others point to his immoral life style and addiction to mysticism and even Sufism. He was survived by a son David, George was buried at Gelati monastery. Die militärischen Triumphe der Georgier und ein wenig beachtetes Erdbeben an der Grenze Armenisch-Kilikiens, Le Muséon,122, 3-4, pp. 423–447
George IV of Georgia
–
Fresco of George IV Lasha
George IV of Georgia
–
Charter of King George IV.
49.
Illuminated capital
–
In a written or published work, an initial or drop cap is a letter at the beginning of a word, a chapter, or a paragraph that is larger than the rest of the text. The word is derived from the Latin initialis, which means standing at the beginning, an initial often is several lines in height and in older books or manuscripts, sometimes ornately decorated. In illuminated manuscripts, initials with images inside them, such as illustrated here, are known as historiated initials. They were an invention of the Insular art of the British Isles in the eighth century, Initials containing, typically, plant-form spirals with small figures of animals or humans that do not represent a specific person or scene are known as inhabited initials. Certain important initials, such as the Beatus initial or B of Beatus vir. at the opening of Psalm 1 at the start of a vulgate Latin psalter and these specific initials, in an illuminated manuscript, also were called Initiums. The classical tradition was slow to use letters for initials at all. The radical innovation of insular manuscripts was to make much larger, not indented, and for the letters immediately following the initial also to be larger. Subsequently they became larger still, coloured, and penetrated farther and farther into the rest of the text, the decoration of insular initials, especially large ones, was generally abstract and geometrical, or featured animals in patterns. Historiated initials were an Insular invention, but did not come into their own until the later developments of Ottonian art, Anglo-Saxon art, and the Romanesque style in particular. After this period, in Gothic art large paintings of scenes tended to go in rectangular framed spaces, in the very early history of printing the typesetters would leave blank the necessary space, so that the initials could be added later by a scribe or miniature painter. Later initials were printed using separate blocks in woodcut or metalcut techniques, the initial may sit on the same baseline as the first line of text, at the same margin, as it does here. This is the easiest to typeset on a computer, including in HTML, an example follows, Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat, duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum, alternatively, the initial may be in the left margin, with the text indented, as shown here. In word processors and HTML, this may be implemented using a table with two cells, one for the initial and one for the rest of the text, the difference between this and a true drop cap may be seen when the text extends below the initial. For example, With a drop cap, the initial sits within the margins and runs several lines deep into the paragraph and this keeps the left and top margins of the paragraph flush. In modern computer browsers, this may be achieved with a combination of HTML and CSS by using the float, left, a CSS-only solution alternatively can use the, first-letter pseudo-element. An example of this format is the paragraph, orem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit
Illuminated capital
–
A historiated illuminated initial
Illuminated capital
–
In principio from the start of the
Gospel of John 9th century
Illuminated capital
–
Greek biblical text from
Papyrus 46, of c. 200, with no initials, punctuation, and barely spaces between words
Illuminated capital
–
5th century
Codex Alexandrinus with initials in left margin
), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X,[32] though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin.
.png)
.png)
→ 
→ 
.png){kind=small}
(sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print.
.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
..svg){kind=small}
. Even when all three are written, they're generally not all the same size, as they are in print, but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it..svg){kind=small}
..svg){kind=small}
, like a Latin ⟨h⟩..svg){kind=small}
. Another variation features a triangular bowl.
.jpg)
.jpg)
4
