1.
Joshua Reynolds
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Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA was an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits. He promoted the Grand Style in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect and he was a founder and first president of the Royal Academy of Arts, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723 the third son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds and his father had been a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, but did not send any of his sons to the university. One of his sisters was Mary Palmer, seven years his senior, author of Devonshire Dialogue, in 1740 she provided £60, half of the premium paid to Thomas Hudson the portrait-painter, for Joshuas pupilage, and nine years later advanced money for his expenses in Italy. His other siblings included Frances Reynolds and Elizabeth Johnson, as a boy, he came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardsons An Essay on the Theory of Painting, having shown an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable London portrait painter Thomas Hudson, who had been born in Devon. Hudson had a collection of old master drawings, including some by Guercino, although apprenticed to Hudson for four years, Reynolds only remained with him until summer 1743. Having left Hudson, Reynolds worked for some time as a portrait-painter in Plymouth Dock and he returned to London before the end of 1744, but following his fathers death in late 1745 he shared a house in Plymouth Dock with his sisters. In 1749, Reynolds met Commodore Augustus Keppel, who invited him to join HMS Centurion, of which he had command, while with the ship he visited Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, and Minorca. From Minorca he travelled to Livorno in Italy, and then to Rome, while in Rome he suffered a severe cold, which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. Reynolds travelled homeward overland via Florence, Bologna, Venice, and he was accompanied by Giuseppe Marchi, then aged about 17. Apart from a brief interlude in 1770, Marchi remained in Reynolds employment as an assistant for the rest of the artists career. Following his arrival in England in October 1752, Reynolds spent three months in Devon, before establishing himself in London, where he remained for the rest of his life. He took rooms in St Martins Lane, before moving to Great Newport Street and he achieved success rapidly, and was extremely prolific. In 1760 Reynolds moved into a house, with space to show his works and accommodate his assistants. Alongside ambitious full-length portraits, Reynolds painted large numbers of smaller works, in the late 1750s, at the height of the social season, he received five or six sitters a day, each for an hour. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 guineas for a full-length portrait, the clothing of Reynolds sitters was usually painted either by one of his pupils, his studio assistant Giuseppe Marchi, or the specialist drapery painter Peter Toms. Lay figures were used to model the clothes and he had an excellent vantage from his house, Wick House, on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780
2.
Althorp
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Althorp is a Grade I listed stately home, estate and small civil parish in Daventry District, Northamptonshire, England of about 13,000 acres. By road it is about 6 miles northwest of the county town of Northampton and it has been held by the prominent aristocratic Spencer family for more than 500 years, and has been owned by Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer since 1992. It was also the home of his sister, Lady Diana Spencer later Princess of Wales, before her marriage to Charles, Prince of Wales. Althorp is mentioned as a hamlet in the Domesday Book as Olletorp. By 1505 there were no longer any tenants living there, and in 1508, Althorp became one of the prominent stately homes in England. The mansion dates to 1688, replacing a house that was once visited by Charles I. The Spencer family amassed an art collection and other valuable household items. During the 18th century, the became a major cultural hub in England. After falling on hard times, John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer, known as the Red Earl, in 1892 sold much of the collection to Enriqueta Rylands, who was building the University of Manchester Library. Many of Althorps furnishings were sold off during the twentieth century, mathematical tiles were added to the exterior, encasing the brick, and four Corinthian pilasters were added to the front. The grand hall entrance to the house, Wootton Hall, was cited by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as the noblest Georgian room in the county. The Great Dining Room in the east wing extension of the house was added in 1877 to designs by John Macvicar Anderson, numerous fireplaces and furnishings were brought to Althorp from Spencer House in London during the Blitz for safekeeping and still remain. The Picture Gallery stretches for 115 feet on the first floor of the west wing, and is one of the best remaining examples of the original Tudor oak woodwork and ambiance in the mansion. It has a collection of portraits, including Anthony van Dycks War and Peace, a John de Critz portrait of James I, a Mary Beale portrait of Charles II. Some £2 million was spent on redecorating the house in the 1980s, in total, the grounds of Althorp estate contain 28 listed buildings and structures, including nine planting stones. The former falconry, now a Grade I listed building, was built in 1613, Gardeners House is listed as a Grade II* listed building in its own right, as are the Grade II listed West and East Lodges. The mustard-yellow Grade II listed Stable Block, designed by architect Roger Morris with a Palladian influence, was ordered by Charles, Fifth Earl of Sutherland in the early 1730s. The French landscape architect André Le Nôtre was commissioned to lay out the park and grounds in the 1660s, following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, she was interred on a small island in the middle of the ornamental Round Oval lake
3.
Northamptonshire
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Northamptonshire, archaically known as the County of Northampton, is a county in the East Midlands of England. In 2011, it had a population of 629,000, the county is administered by Northamptonshire County Council and seven non-metropolitan district councils. Northamptonshire is the southernmost county in the East Midlands region, apart from the county town of Northampton, other large population centres include Kettering, Corby, Wellingborough, Rushden and Daventry. Northamptonshires county flower is the cowslip, there are two more possible hill-forts at Arbury Hill and Thenford. In the 1st century BC, most of what later became Northamptonshire became part of the territory of the Catuvellauni, a Belgic tribe, the Catuvellauni were in turn conquered by the Romans in 43 AD. The Roman road of Watling Street passed through the county, there were other Roman settlements at Northampton, Kettering and along the Nene Valley near Raunds. A large fort was built at Longthorpe, after the Romans left, the area eventually became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, and Northampton functioned as an administrative centre. The Mercians converted to Christianity in 654 AD with the death of the pagan king Penda, Northamptonshire was conquered again in 940, this time by the Vikings of York, who devastated the area, only for the county to be retaken by the English in 942. Consequently, it is one of the few counties in England to have both Saxon and Danish town-names and settlements, the county was first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, as Hamtunscire, the scire of Hamtun. The North was added to distinguish Northampton from the other important Hamtun further south, Rockingham Castle was built for William the Conqueror and was used as a Royal fortress until Elizabethan times. In 1460, during the Wars of the Roses, the Battle of Northampton took place, the now-ruined Fotheringhay Castle was used to imprison Mary, Queen of Scots, before her execution. George Washington, the first President of the United States of America, was born into the Washington family who had migrated to America from Northamptonshire in 1656. George Washingtons ancestor, Lawrence Washington, was Mayor of Northampton on several occasions and it was George Washingtons great-grandfather, John Washington, who emigrated in 1656 from Northants to Virginia. Before Washingtons ancestors moved to Sulgrave, they lived in Warton, King Charles I was imprisoned at Holdenby House in 1647. In 1823 Northamptonshire was said to a pure and wholesome air because of its dryness. Its livestock were celebrated, Horned cattle, and other animals, are fed to extraordinary sizes, in summer, the county hosted a great number of wealthy families. Country seats and villas are to be seen at every step, Northamptonshire is still referred to as the county of spires and squires because of the numbers of stately homes and ancient churches. In the 18th and 19th centuries, parts of Northamptonshire and the area became industrialised
4.
Devonshire House
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Devonshire House in Piccadilly was the London residence of the Dukes of Devonshire in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was built for William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, in the Palladian style, completed circa 1740, it stood empty after World War I and was demolished in 1924. Many of Britains great peers maintained large London houses that bore their names, all of these have been long demolished, except Burlington and Lansdowne, both of which have been substantially altered. Today the site is occupied by a building known as Devonshire House. The house was occupied by Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland. The house, a mansion built by Hugh May, had been purchased by William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire in 1696. As part of the agreement, Lord Berkeley undertook not to build on part of the land he retained that lay directly behind the house. The cause was attributed to careless labourers, ironically, the Dukes former London residence, Old Devonshire House, at 48 Boswell Street, Bloomsbury, survived both its successors until the Blitz of World War II. During the 18th century, existing forms of entertainment began to change and large sophisticated receptions came into fashion, often taking the form of concerts, initially, hosts would hire one of many new assembly rooms built to indulge the fashion. The Duke of Devonshire, an owner of vast estates, belonged to the latter category, thus the fire of the Devonshire House in 1733 provided the opportunity to build a house at the height of contemporary fashion. For his architect, the 3rd Duke chose the fashionable architect William Kent, the house was constructed between 1734 and about 1740. Chiswick House was later to come, other estates, into the Devonshires possession through the marriage of the 4th Duke to Lady Charlotte Boyle, in typical Palladian fashion, Devonshire House consisted of a corps de logis flanked by service wings. The severity of the design, of three storeys in eleven bays, caused one critic to liken the mansion to a warehouse. In the Dukes sitting room, a case over the chimneypiece contained the best of his collection of engraved gems and Renaissance. Such a prominent commission could hardly fail to be included in Vitruvius Britannicus and its purpose, too, was identical, to display wealth and consequently power. Thus a great house, by its size and design. At Devonshire House, Kents exterior stairs led up to a piano nobile, inconspicuous pairs of staircases are tucked into modest sites at either hand, for the upstairs was strictly private. Greeted at the head of the stairs, they then flowed in a convenient circuit rather retracing their steps and this design was first exemplified by the now-demolished Norfolk House completed in 1756
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
Derby Cathedral
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The Cathedral of All Saints, is a cathedral church in the city of Derby, Derbyshire, England. It is the seat of the Bishop of Derby, the church was founded in the mid-10th century as a royal collegiate church. It became a cathedral in 1927, the main body of the church as it stands today is a Neoclassical rebuilding by James Gibbs, completed in 1725. The tower dates from the 16th century, and a retrochoir was added in the 20th century, the original church was probably founded by King Edmund I in about 943 as a royal collegiate church, however, no traces of its structure survive. According to the Domesday assessors, it belonged to the King, the current cathedral dates from the 14th century, although it appears to be based on an earlier medieval building, which drawings show was about the same size as the present church. It may be that it became unstable and was pulled down. The 212-foot tower dates from 1510 to 1532 and was built in the popular Perpendicular Gothic style of the time, twelve large carved grotesque animal figures top the tower, three per face, whilst the carved heads of two green men adorn either side of the main West Door. The sandstone used in the construction is Ashover Grit, sourced from nearby Duffield Bank quarry. Under the Protestant persecutions of Queen Mary, Joan Waste was tried for heresy at the cathedral in 1556, the execution took place on the Burton Road in Derby. The fabric of the church appears to have deteriorated from the middle of the 17th century. In February 1723, desirous of a new building, the vicar Dr. Michael Hutchinson unilaterally decided to demolish the church, accepting the fait accompli handed to them, the Corporation of Derby then headed the subscription list for a new church to be built. A plaque within the South Aisle marks Dr Hutchinsons own significant financial contribution to this fund, encountering numerous disputes, Hutchinson eventually resigned in 1728, dying some eighteen months later with numerous outstanding debts. With the original 1530s tower remaining standing, the rest of the church was rebuilt to a Neo-Classical design of 1725 by James Gibbs, to offset the rather austere interior, Gibbs introduced a wrought-iron screen which extended across the entire width of the church. It was built by the local iron-smith and gate-maker, Robert Bakewell and its first sermon was preached on 25 November 1725. The building, previously known as All Saints Church, became a cathedral by Order in Council on 1 July 1927, the church was later extended eastwards with the addition of a retrochoir designed by Sebastian Comper, constructed between 1967 and 1972. It is a Grade I listed building, the entrance gates are also by Robert Bakewell, but these were only moved to the cathedral from St Marys Gate in 1957. The entrance gates were refurbished in 2012 and renamed the Queen Elizabeth II Gates to celebrate the Queens Diamond Jubilee, notable 20th-century additions are the stained-glass windows designed by Ceri Richards, and the bronze crucifix by Ronald Pope. In 1927 a new clock was installed by John Smith & Son, Derby clockmakers, replacing one reputed to have made by George Ashmore in 1738
7.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
8.
William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire
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William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, KG, was a British nobleman, aristocrat, and politician. He was invited to join the Cabinet on three occasions, but declined each offer and he was Lord High Treasurer of Ireland and Governor of Cork, and Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. The 5th Duke is best known for his first wife Georgiana, at the age of about twenty, Devonshire toured Italy with William Fitzherbert which is where they commissioned the pair of portraits by Pompeo Batoni. By his first wife, he had one son, and two daughters, Lady Georgiana Little G Cavendish, later the Countess of Carlisle, and Lady Harriet Harryo Cavendish, later the Countess Granville. The title of Baron Clifford fell into abeyance between them, and the present Earl of Carlisle and the present Earl Granville have inherited their titles from Georgiana, Georgiana Cavendish became a socialite who gathered around her a large circle of literary and political friends. She was painted by Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds, the Gainsborough painting was disposed of by the 5th Duke and was recovered only much later, after many vicissitudes. By his second wife, Lady Elizabeth Foster, he had no legitimate issue, the Dukes daughter by Lady Elizabeth, Caroline, was given a different surname from her brother, St. Jules. Caroline St. Jules married the Hon. George Lamb, a brother of the 2nd Viscount Melbourne, Caroline and George Lamb had no issue. The 5th Duke also had a daughter—Charlotte, given the surname Williams—by his mistress, Charlotte Spencer and his first child was born shortly after his marriage to Lady Georgiana Spencer. Charlotte was later married off suitably, the fifth Duke was closely involved with the nearby spa town of Buxton. He used the profits from his mines to transform the town into a replica of Bath, including the Crescent Hotel and an octagonal set of stables. In the film The Duchess, about Georgiana, the fifth Duke is played by Ralph Fiennes, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Devonshire
9.
Georgiana Howard, Countess of Carlisle
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Georgiana Dorothy Howard, Countess of Carlisle was a British noblewoman. She was born nine years of childless marriage between William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire and his wife Lady Georgiana Spencer, the political hostess. As such, she was a member of one of the countrys grandest and richest families, in 1801, the young Georgiana married George Howard, Viscount Morpeth, later becoming Countess of Carlisle upon her husbands accession in 1825. Their twelve children included the 7th and 8th Earls of Carlisle, another child, the Duchess of Sutherland, was Mistress of the Robes and a close friend to Queen Victoria. Her mother was Lady Georgiana Spencer, the political hostess. The new baby, born during a labour, arrived after nine years of childlessness. A month after her birth, Little G was christened alongside her cousin Frederick at the church in Wimbledon Park – the same place the Duke and Duchess married nine years earlier. The Duke had predicted their first child would be a girl and was disappointed, the Devonshire title and wealth was still destined to pass to a separate branch of the family unless the couple produced a male heir. A sister, Harriet, was two years later, the two sisters would remain close all their lives. In 1790 the Duke and Duchess finally had a son, William Cavendish, in the early 1790s, the Duke and Duchess separated after she bore an illegitimate child to her lover, Charles, Earl Grey. She went to the continent, only returning in late 1793, the Duchess had not seen her children for two years, and observed upon her return that Georgiana is very handsome while Harriet was still fat and William very cruel to me. The Duchess was also saddened to find that Little G, then ten-years old, the young girl would not let her mother out of her sight, and had developed strong religious sensibilities centring on her own perceived sins. In 1800, the Duchess prepared Little G for her presentation at court, the task was difficult, débutantes were expected to display grace and dignity or face the ruin of their first London season. However, young Georgiana had not inherited her mothers poise and ease of movement and her court dress, complemented with the Cavendish diamonds, was considered a dramatic success Soon after, she came out in society during a ball held in her honour. Potential suitors in marriage included Lord John Russell and George Howard, Russell was nearly twenty years older than Georgiana, while Howard was approximately eleven years her senior. The Duchess of Devonshire favoured Morpeth, who was the eldest son of the 5th Earl of Carlisle, Morpeth met Georgiana for the first time at the coming out ball, and he was invited back to a house party at Chatsworth House later that year. No engagement occurred, however, to convince his daughter to agree to the match, the Duke of Devonshire offered Georgiana a £30,000 dowry and she did not agree until Christmas later that year, marrying Morpeth on 21 March 1801 when she was seventeen. Lady Holland characterised it as a match in every respect
10.
Harriet Leveson-Gower, Countess Granville
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Henrietta Elizabeth Harriet Leveson-Gower, Countess Granville was a British peeress and society hostess. She was born in Devonshire House as the daughter of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire by his wife. Despite her parents turbulent marriage, Harriet had a happy childhood, to help her escape this awkward domestic situation, Harriets maternal aunt Henrietta arranged for her niece to marry her lover of seventeen years, Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Granville. The couples marriage proved to be happy, and it produced five children, Granville served as his countrys ambassador to France intermittently from 1824 to 1841, and he was awarded an earldom in 1833. With her position, Harriet acted as hostess to Parisian society and she died in 1862 of a stroke, having been widowed fifteen years. Lady Henrietta Elizabeth Cavendish was born at Devonshire House on 29 August 1785, known as Harriet or Harryo to her family, the baby was named after Georgianas sister Henrietta Ponsonby and her friend Lady Elizabeth Foster. Her parents marriage had been unhappy from the start, the Duchess had difficulty bringing her pregnancies to term and her mother distracted herself by becoming immersed in society, and was soon known as a political hostess and leader of fashion. Despite the state of her parents marriage, Cavendish had a happy childhood and she was devoted to her mother, and was fond of, but rarely saw, her aloof father. Her governess Selina Trimmer was a daughter of the childrens writer Sarah Trimmer. In May 1799, Cavendish was confirmed in Westminster Abbey alongside her cousin, the historian Janet Gleeson describes Cavendish as slightly plump in appearance, in possession of a clever, funny, and perceptive personality. In 1802, Cavendishs cousin John Ponsonby, Viscount Duncannon, whom she had known her entire life, Cavendish was unsure whether she cared for him enough, and they agreed to wait a year before deciding whether they liked each other well enough to marry. Their two families, especially his mother Lady Bessborough approved of the match, but Cavendish was still undecided, John angrily refused that he was not ready to marry her after all, nor bear rules to be prescribed to him by any woman living. He became engaged to Fane shortly thereafter, the Duchess of Devonshire died in March 1806, and Cavendishs life at home became unhappy. Her father had been involved in a relationship with Lady Elizabeth Foster for years, as the unmarried adult daughter, this role should have been taken by Cavendish, not by Foster. From 1801 onwards, Cavendish wrote to her sister almost daily until the death in 1858. Three years after her mothers 1806 death, the Duke married Foster, with her mother dead, Cavendishs aunt Henrietta Ponsonby felt obligated to help her niece escape a difficult home situation. For her part, Cavendish had been critical of her aunt in the past but now turned to her for affection, support, and as a reminder of her mother. Lord Granville had been Henriettas own lover by now for seventeen years, nevertheless, Henrietta encouraged her niece to consider marriage with the thirty-seven-year-old Granville
11.
William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire
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William George Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire KG, PC, styled Marquess of Hartington until 1811, was a British peer, courtier, nobleman, and Whig politician. Known as the Bachelor Duke, he was Lord Chamberlain of the Household between 1827 and 1828 and again between 1830 and 1834, the Cavendish banana is named after him. Born in Paris, France, Devonshire was the son of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire and he was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He lost both his parents while still in his youth, his mother died in 1806 and his father in 1811 when, aged 21, along with the title, he inherited eight stately homes and some 200,000 acres of land. Politically Devonshire followed in the Whig family tradition and he supported Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery and reduced factory working hours. He held office as Lord Chamberlain of the Household under George Canning, in 1827 he was sworn of the Privy Council and made a Knight of the Garter. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to the Russian Empire on the coronation of Czar Nicholas I in 1826, Devonshire was also Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire between 1811 and 1858 and carried the Orb at the coronation of George IV in 1821. However, increasing deafness from an early age prevented him taking an even greater part in public life. Devonshire had a major interest in gardening and horticulture, and devoted himself sedulously to the care and nurture of his vast estates and his major projects including the wholesale rebuilding of the village of Edensor, and significant improvement to his several stately houses and their gardens. Paxton greatly expanded the gardens at Chatsworth, including the construction of a 277 foot long conservatory, Devonshire, himself a keen horticulturalist, was elected President of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1838, a position in which he served for twenty years until his death. It was this interest which led him to establish the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew as a botanic garden. The worlds most commercially exploited banana, the Cavendish, was named in his honour and he had acquired an early specimen, which he raised in his glasshouse, and this plant is the progenitor of almost all the worldwide varieties of Cavendish banana. Devonshire was also patron of The Derby Town and County Museum, in that position, he was instrumental in the creation of the Derby Museum and Art Gallery in 1836. Devonshire was a friend of the Prince Regent. Other friends included Antonio Canova and Charles Dickens, much of Devonshires private correspondence, including letters to his mistresses, was destroyed by his Victorian relatives. He intended to marry Lady Caroline Ponsonby, his cousin, but she married William Lamb, Devonshire died at Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, in January 1858, aged 67 and left an estate valued at £500,000 in his will. As he was unmarried the dukedom passed to his cousin William Cavendish and his junior title of Baron Clifford fell into abeyance between his sisters, Georgiana, Countess of Carlisle, and Harriet, Countess Granville. James Lees-Milne, The Bachelor Duke, Life of William Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, ISBN 0-7195-4920-5 Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Devonshire
12.
Eliza Courtney
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The Duchess was forced by her husband to relinquish Eliza shortly after her birth, to be raised by Charles Greys parents, Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey and Elizabeth Grey, Countess Grey. The Duchess came to visit Eliza in secret, Eliza named her firstborn daughter Georgiana. Eliza Courtney was born in France, in Aix-en-Provence on 20 February 1792 and she was brought to Falloden, Northumberland in northern England and adopted by her paternal grandparents. Unlike her mothers legitimate children from her marriage, Eliza was not raised as part of the Devonshire House set in London and her mother, Georgiana, could not acknowledge her daughter and visited her in secret until her own death. Lord B. has this moment askd me whether she is not the Governess, Eliza was not informed of her true parentage until after the death of Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire. In 1809 her quasi-sister Lady Hannah Althea Grey, widow of George Edmund Byron Bettesworth, married the Member of Parliament and trader the Rt. Five years later, on 10 December 1814 in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, Eliza married Lt. Col. Robert Ellice, at some point he served in South America and was present at the capture of Buenos Aires. Ellice was acting Governor-General of Malta for five-and-a-half months, from 13 May to 27 October 1851, in the 1856 Websters, he is listed as having a residence at 57 Park Street, Mayfair. Eliza Courtney, Mrs Ellice, had three daughters and two sons and her daughter Georgiana was born on 12 October 1817. On 4 November 1846, Georgiana Ellice married Hugh Horatio Seymour, Seymour was the son of Lt. Col. A younger brother of Col. Hugh Seymour was Colonel Sir Horace Seymour and his grandson was Sir Horace James Seymour GCMG CVO, a diplomat who was British Minister in Tehran from 1936 to 1939 and British Ambassador to China,1942 to 1946. One of Sir Horaces grandsons, James Seymour is married to Anya Hindmarch, Eliza had another daughter, also named Eliza, the following year, in 1818. This Eliza married Henry Bouverie William Brand in 1838, after a distinguished speakership of the House of Commons, Elizas husband was created Viscount Hampden, later still he inherited from his brother the Barony of Dacre, as 23rd in line. Descendants include the present Lord Monk Bretton, Sarah, Duchess of York, Eliza Ellice Brand died on 8 March 1899 at Pelham House, Lewes. Alexandra married the Rev. H. Harvey, Elizas first son, Robert, was born on 1 January 1816. In March 1853, he married Eglantine Charlotte Louisa Balfour, third daughter of Lt-General Robert Balfour of Balbirnie, Robert Ellice died on 19 December 1858. In 1880 his son, Major Edward Charles Ellice, DSO, J. P. M. P. succeeded his first cousin once removed, Edward Ellice II, to the Ellice estate at Invergarry, Inverness-shire. Like him Margaret Georgiana was a descendant of Eliza Courtney, through Elizas second daughter Eliza and her brother was Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Viceroy of India and was created 1st Marquess of Willingdon
13.
John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer
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John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer was a British peer and politician. Spencer was born in 1734, at his home, Althorp. He was the son of Hon. John Spencer and Georgiana Caroline Carteret, Spencer was MP for Warwick from 1756 to 1761. He was also High Steward of St Albans in 1772 and Mayor of St Albans in 1779, on 3 April 1761, he was created Baron Spencer of Althorp and Viscount Spencer by George III, and on 1 November 1765, he was created Viscount Althorp and Earl Spencer. On 20 December 1755, Spencer privately married Georgiana Poyntz, daughter of Stephen Poyntz and they had five children, Lady Georgiana Spencer, married William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, and had issue. George John Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer Lady Henrietta Frances Spencer, married Frederick Ponsonby, 3rd Earl of Bessborough, Lady Charlotte Spencer, died in infancy. Lady Louisa Spencer, died in infancy and he was the great-great-great-great-grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales. Spencer died in 1783, aged 48 in Bath, and was buried in the vault at St Marys Church, Great Brington. 1734-1756, Mr John Spencer 1756-1761, Mr John Spencer MP1761, Mr John Spencer 1761-1765, The Right Honourable The Viscount Spencer 1765-1783, The Right Honourable The Earl Spencer Spencer, Althorp, The Story of an English House
14.
Georgiana Spencer, Countess Spencer
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Margaret Georgiana Spencer, Countess Spencer, was an English philanthropist. She was born at St Jamess Palace as the daughter of a diplomat, in 1754, she married John Spencer, one of the wealthiest men of the era. A love match, the resulted in the births of three surviving children, which included Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire. The Spencers became earl and countess in 1765, a reward granted by the Duke of Newcastle for Johns political loyalty to the Whig party, Lady Spencer was a noted philanthropist, and was in communication with a large network of charitable organisations. Her correspondence with a friend represents the largest private collection of letters in the British Library, Lord and Lady Spencer were generous patrons, and frequently hosted plays and concerts at their London estate, Spencer House, which they built in 1764. Margaret Georgiana Poyntz, known as Georgiana to her family, was born on 8 May 1737 at St Jamess Palace, the fourth surviving child of Stephen Poyntz and Anna Maria Mordaunt. Georgianas mother, a maid of honour to Queen Caroline, was the daughter of Brigadier-General the Hon. Lewis Mordaunt, Georgiana had four siblings, three brothers and one sister. Stephen Poyntz died when Georgiana was thirteen, leaving the family, never rich, in 1754, seventeen-year-old Georgiana Poyntz met twenty-year-old John Spencer, who had inherited enormous wealth from his great-grandmother, Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough. She considered him handsomer than an angel, and they felt an instant attraction for each other and she wrote to a friend, I will own it, and never deny it that I do love Spencer above all men on Earth. On his return they recognised their love had persisted, and shortly after his birthday they married in a ceremony on 20 December 1755 at Althorp. The ceremony, held in a bedroom, occurred during a ball held in Spencers honour with five hundred guests in attendance. The marriage was made five days later, and the couple was presented at court during the following year. Their early years together were happy, and their eldest child, Georgiana preferred her firstborn, Dear little Gee, to her younger children, George and Henrietta. The Spencers owned many estates, but preferred to reside at Althorp. In 1764, the moved to their newly built London residence. Intended to be worthy of Spencers large collection of antiquities, the residence took seven years. A Whig, in 1756 John entered the House of Commons as MP for Warwick, and in 1761 was awarded a viscountcy by the leader of the party, the Duke of Newcastle. Newcastles party fell into opposition in 1762, and Spencers loyalty was rewarded with an earldom on the return to power in 1765
15.
Spencer family
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The Spencer family is one of Britains preeminent aristocratic families. Over time, several members have been made knights, baronets. Hereditary titles held by the Spencers include the dukedom of Marlborough, the earldoms of Sunderland and Spencer, two prominent members of the family during the 20th century were Sir Winston Churchill and Diana, Princess of Wales. The family is descended in the line from Henry Spencer. In the 16th century they claimed that Henry was a descendant of the branch of the ancient House Le Despencer. The descent of the family from the Medieval Despencers has been debunked, the Spencers were granted a coat of arms in 1504, Azure a fess Ermine between 6 sea-mews’ heads erased Argent which bears no resemblance to that used by the family after c. 1595, which was derived from the Despencer arms, Quarterly Argent and Gules in the second, Round argued that the Despencer descent was fabricated by Richard Lee, a corrupt Clarencieux King of Arms. Citing Round, The Complete Peerage dismissed the alleged Despencer descent as an elaborate imposture which is now incapable of deceiving the most credulous, of course, the heirs to the Prince of Wales, Princes William and Harry are half Spencers. A close relative of Henry Spencer was John Spencer, who in 1469 had become feoffee of Wormleighton in Warwickshire and a tenant at Althorp in Northamptonshire in 1486. His nephew, Sir John Spencer, first made a living by trading in livestock and other commodities, Wormleighton was bought in 1506, the manor house was completed in 1512. In 1508, Spencer also purchased the estate of Althorp with its moated house and he had grazed sheep here from the 1480s. Impressed by the quality of the land, he bought it. At that time, his estate and mansion in Warwickshire were considerably larger, in 1511 he made further purchases to acquire the villages of Little Brington and Great Brington as well their parish church of St Mary the Virgin, from Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset. By putting down roots at Althorp, Spencer provided what was to become a home for the next 19 generations, in 1519 he was knighted by King Henry VIII, died three years later and was buried in the new family chapel at Great Brington. The Spencers rose to opulent prominence during the 16th century, Sir John Spencers grandson Sir John Spencer was a Knight of the Shire for Northamptonshire. The Spencers’ administration of their Northamptonshire and Warwickshire estates was admired, sheep from their pastures were purchased for breeding and it is probable that the family’s success as farmers was rarely equalled in the century. In the late 16th century, the latter Sir John Spencers grandson Sir Robert Spencer represented Brackley in Parliament, in 1601, he was made a Knight of the Garter, and created Baron Spencer, of Wormleighton, in the Peerage of England in 1603. During the reign of King James I he was reputed to be the richest man in England, Lord Spencer then instantly replied, When my ancestors as you say were keeping sheep, your ancestors were plotting treason
16.
British nobility
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The British nobility refers to the noble families of the United Kingdom. In everyday speech, the British nobility consists of peers and their families, { however, members of the peerage carry the titles of Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount and Baron. Peers ranked from Marquess to Baron are frequently referred to generically as Lords, however, the Scottish Baron, an official title of nobility in the United Kingdom, is addressed as The Baron of X. The untitled nobility consists of all those who bear formally matriculated, or recorded, other than their designation, such as Gentleman or Esquire, they enjoy no privilege other than a position in the formal orders of precedence in the United Kingdom. Scottish lairds names include a description of their lands in the form of a territorial designation, in Scotland, a territorial designation implies the rank of Esquire, thus this is not normally added after the name, Lairds are part of Scotlands landed gentry and—where armigerous —minor nobility. The Peerage is a term used both collectively to refer to the body of peerage titles, and individually to refer to a specific title. All modern British honours, including peerage dignities, are created directly by the British monarch, the Sovereign is considered the fount of honour, and as the fountain and source of all dignities cannot hold a dignity from himself, cannot hold a British peerage. Before the twentieth century, peerages were generally hereditary and, descended in the male line. The eldest son of a Duke, Marquess or Earl almost always one of his fathers subsidiary titles as a courtesy title, for instance. The modern peerage system is a vestige of the custom of English kings in the 12th and 13th centuries in summoning wealthy individuals to form a Parliament. The economic system at the time was manorialism, and the privilege of being summoned to Parliament was related to the amount of land one controlled. In the late 14th century, this began to be granted by decree. Non-hereditary positions began to be created again in 1867 for Law Lords, in 1958, the Life Peerages Act enabled life peers to sit in the House of Lords, and from then on the creation of hereditary peerages rapidly became obsolete, almost ceasing after 1964. This, however, is only a convention and was not observed by former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, who asked the Queen to create three hereditary peerages. Until changes in the century, only a proportion of those holding Scottish and Irish peerages were entitled by that title to sit in the House of Lords. Until constitutional reforms in 1999, possession of a title in the peerage entitled its holder to a seat in the House of Lords. Since then, only 92 hereditary peers are entitled to sit in the House of Lords, of which 90 are elected by the hereditary peers by ballot and replaced on death. Typically, those due to inherit a peerage—or indeed have done so, in recent times—have been educated at one of the public schools
17.
House of Cavendish
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Cavendish is the surname of a British noble family, also known as the House of Cavendish. S. Their principal seat, Welbeck Abbey in Nottinghamshire, came to them through the Cavendish connection, charles Roger Dod, Peerage, Baronetage, and Knightage, Volume 15,544. William Courthope, Debretts Complete Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, sir Egerton Brydges, A Biographical Peerage of the Empire of Great Britain,86
18.
Diana, Princess of Wales
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Diana, Princess of Wales, was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Diana was born into a family of British nobility with royal ancestry and was the child and third daughter of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp. She grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, in 1975, after her father inherited the title of Earl Spencer, she became known as Lady Diana Spencer. She came to prominence in February 1981 when her engagement to Prince Charles was announced and her wedding to the Prince of Wales on 29 July 1981, held at St Pauls Cathedral, reached a global television audience of over 750 million people. While married, Diana bore the titles Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Duchess of Rothesay, the marriage produced two sons, the princes William and Harry, who were then respectively second and third in the line of succession to the British throne. As Princess of Wales, Diana undertook royal duties on behalf of the Queen and she was celebrated for her charity work and for her support of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. She was involved with dozens of charities including Londons Great Ormond Street Hospital for children, Diana remained the object of worldwide media scrutiny during and after her marriage, which ended in divorce on 28 August 1996. Media attention and public mourning were extensive after her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997, Diana was born on 1 July 1961, in Park House, Sandringham, Norfolk. She was the fourth of five children of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp, the Spencer family has been closely allied with the British Royal Family for several generations. Both of Dianas grandmothers had served as ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, on 30 August 1961, Diana was baptised at St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, with wealthy commoners as godparents. Diana had three siblings, Sarah, Jane, and Charles and her infant brother, John, died shortly after his birth one year before Diana was born. The desire for an added strain to the Spencers marriage. Diana grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, the Spencers leased the house from its owner, Queen Elizabeth II. The Royal Family frequently holidayed at the neighbouring Sandringham House, and Diana played with Princes Andrew, Diana was seven years old when her parents divorced. Her mother later had an affair with Peter Shand Kydd and married him in 1969, Diana lived with her mother in London during her parents separation in 1967, but during that years Christmas holidays, Lord Althorp refused to let Diana return to London with Lady Althorp. Shortly afterwards he won custody of Diana with support from his former mother-in-law, Ruth Roche, in 1972, Lord Althorp began a relationship with Raine, Countess of Dartmouth, the only daughter of Alexander McCorquodale and Dame Barbara Cartland. They married at Caxton Hall, London in 1976, as an upper-class child at the time, Diana was first educated under the supervision of her governess, Gertrude Allen. She began her education at Silfield Private School in Gayton, Norfolk, and moved to Riddlesworth Hall School, an all-girls boarding school near Diss
19.
Henrietta Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough
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Henrietta Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough, born Lady Henrietta Frances Spencer, was the wife of Frederick Ponsonby, 3rd Earl of Bessborough, and mother of the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb. Her father, John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer, was a great-grandson of John Churchill and her sister was Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire. Being the youngest child, Harriet was often left in England when her parents, as a child, Harriet was frail and sickly, which led her mother to send her abroad for schooling, thinking that foreign air would help strengthen her. However, she grew into a woman of exceptional beauty and intelligence, witty, well-read. On 27 November 1780, Harriet married Viscount Duncannon, an Anglo-Irish nobleman who later became The 3rd Earl of Bessborough and their marriage was a difficult one, because Harriet and her husband were both avid gamblers, they often found themselves in debt. Frederick, Lord Bessborough, was known to be abusive of Harriet, often humiliating her at public gatherings. In 1790, her husband began divorce proceedings, but, under pressure from both families, agreed to drop them. Harriet had numerous lovers during her marriage, as she once remarked I can never love a little, among her more notable lovers were Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the playwright and Whig politician, and Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Granville, who became her most enduring lover. Her affair with Granville produced two children, Harriet Emma Arundel Stewart, wife of George Godolphin Osborne, 8th Duke of Leeds. Harriet managed to hide her pregnancies from her husband, this was difficult in an era when the aristocracy might make extended visits of many months abroad or to friends country homes. She later sadly remarked that for seventeen years she had loved to idolatry, however, she came to believe that he loved her least of all the men in her life, although I once believed otherwise. Recognizing his need to marry for purposes of his career, she did not oppose. Of her younger admirers, her favourite was The Hon. William Lamb, although Harriet was anxious for Caroline to marry early, she had misgivings as to whether William and Caroline were well suited. However, due to her fondness for William, she gave her consent to their marriage, Richard Sheridans feelings for her became an obsession. Harriet often accompanied her sister to political events as well as soirees and she was also very close to her sister Georgianas best friend, Lady Elizabeth Foster, with whom she often was seen in public. Harriet died on 11 November 1821, in Florence, Italy at the age of 60, following the death of her youngest grandchild, Henry, according to Lord David Cecil, she died peacefully and without regrets, worn out as she was by a life of emotional turmoil. Cecil describes her as a woman of indescribable distinction, media related to Henrietta, Countess of Bessborough at Wikimedia Commons
20.
George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer
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George John Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer KG PC DL FRS FSA, styled Viscount Althorp from 1765 to 1783, was a British Whig politician. He notably served as Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 in the Ministry of All the Talents and his godparents were King George II, the Earl Cowper and his great-aunt the Dowager Viscountess Bateman. His sister Lady Georgiana married the Duke of Devonshire and became a famed Whig hostess and he was educated at Harrow School from 1770 to 1775 and he won the schools Silver Arrow in 1771. He then attended Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1776 to 1778 and he acceded to the earldom upon the death of his father in 1783. Lord Spencer was Whig Member of Parliament for Northampton from 1780 to 1782 and he was sworn of the Privy Council in 1794 and served under William Pitt the Younger as Lord Privy Seal in 1794 and as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1794 to 1801. He was later Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 under Lord Grenville in the Ministry of All the Talents. Lord Spencer was also High Steward of St Albans from 1783 to 1807, Mayor of St Albans in 1790, President of the Royal Institution from 1813 to 1825 and Commissioner of the Public Records in 1831. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1780 and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1785 and he was appointed to the Order of the Garter in 1799. On 18 February 1793, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northamptonshire, Spencer was noted for his interest in literature and particularly in early examples of printing. He was the instigator and first President of the Roxburghe Club, Lord Spencer married Lady Lavinia Bingham, daughter of Charles Bingham, 1st Earl of Lucan, on 6 March 1781. They had nine children, John Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer Lady Sarah Spencer, married William Lyttelton, 3rd Baron Lyttelton, Hon. Richard Spencer, died in infancy. Sir Robert Cavendish Spencer, died unmarried at sea, Hon. William Spencer, died in infancy. Lady Harriet Spencer, died in infancy, Lady Georgiana Charlotte Spencer, married Lord George Quin, son of Thomas Taylour, 1st Marquess of Headfort, and had issue. Vice-Admiral Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer The Very Reverend Hon. George Spencer (later known as Father Ignatius Spencer, Lady Spencer died in June 1831, aged 68. Lord Spencer survived her by three years and died in November 1834, aged 76, at Althorp, and was buried in the village of Great Brington on 19 November of that year. 1758–1761, Mr George J. Spencer 1761–1765, The Honourable George J
21.
Lady Caroline Lamb
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Her husband was The Hon. William Lamb, who later became Viscount Melbourne and Prime Minister. However, she was never the Viscountess Melbourne because she died before Melbourne succeeded to the peerage, hence, as a small child she was considered delicate and for her health spent much time in the country. She travelled with her mother and other family to Italy, where she made a recovery from an illness caused by worms that nearly ended her life. During childhood she became close to Lady Harriet Cavendish, who was only three months older. Lady Morgan reported in her memoirs that Lady Caroline told her that she had grown up as a tomboy, while many scholars have accepted this at face value, published works of correspondence about her family members make it extremely unlikely. The grandmother she shared with her Cavendish cousins, the formidable Dowager Lady Spencer, was dedicated to promoting education. This governess was Miss Selina Trimmer, who was the daughter of Mrs Sarah Trimmer and she taught them an extensive curriculum, considerably beyond mere literacy. There is a published letter Lady Caroline wrote on 31 October 1796 that not only demonstrates her literacy, Lady Caroline was exceptionally well educated at home, and also attended a school in Hans Place, London. In her early years, she not only wrote prose and poetry. These courtly skills stood her in good stead and she spoke French and Italian fluently, was skilled at Greek and Latin, and also enjoyed music and drama. In June 1805, at the age of nineteen, Lady Caroline Ponsonby married the Hon. William Lamb, an up-and-coming politician, although their meeting had been shrewdly orchestrated by William Lambs mother, theirs was a love match. The couple had become mutually captivated during a visit to Brocket Hall in 1802 and their union produced a son, George Augustus Frederick, born on 11 August 1807, and a premature daughter, born in 1809 who died within 24 hours. Lady Caroline was physically ill-suited to childbirth and suffered long periods after each one. Her son was born with mental problems that may have been a type of autism. The stress of their sons ill health, combined with William Lambs consuming career ambitions, from March to August 1812, Lady Caroline embarked on a well-publicized affair with Lord Byron. She had spurned the attention of the poet on their first meeting, subsequently giving Byron what became his lasting epitaph when she described him as mad, bad, and dangerous to know. Byrons response to her enticements, was to visit her because of her social status as a niece of the Duchess of Devonshire. Lady Caroline and Lord Byron publicly decried each other as they pledged their love over the following months
22.
Lord Byron
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon
23.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
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General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, Prince of Mindelheim, KG, PC, was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs. It was not until the accession of Queen Anne in 1702 that Marlborough reached the zenith of his powers and secured his fame and fortune. His marriage to the hot-tempered Sarah Jennings – Annes intimate friend – ensured Marlboroughs rise, first to the Captain-Generalcy of British forces, but his wifes stormy relationship with the Queen, and her subsequent dismissal from court, was central to his own fall. Incurring Annes disfavour, and caught between Tory and Whig factions, Marlborough, who had brought glory and success to Annes reign, was forced from office and went into self-imposed exile. He returned to England and to influence under the House of Hanover with the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714, Marlboroughs insatiable ambition made him the richest of all Annes subjects. His family connections wove him into the fabric of European politics and his leadership of the allied armies consolidated Britains emergence as a front-rank power. He successfully maintained unity among the allies, thereby demonstrating his diplomatic skills, Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill of Glanvilles Wootton in Dorset, by his wife Elizabeth Drake, fourth daughter of Sir John Drake of Ash in the parish of Musbury in Devon. The Churchill family are stated by the Devon historian William George Hoskins to have originated at the estate of Churchill, in the parish of Broadclyst in Devon, although Winston had paid off the fine by 1651, it had impoverished him. From this episode may derive the Churchill family motto, Fiel Pero Desdichado, Winston Churchill and his wife Elizabeth Drake had at least nine children, only five of whom survived infancy. The eldest daughter, Arabella Churchill, was born on 28 February 1649, John Churchill, the two younger sons were George Churchill, an admiral in the Royal Navy, and Charles Churchill, a general who served on campaign in Europe with his eldest brother John. His descendant and biographer the Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, asserted that the conditions at Ashe might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions, first a hatred of poverty. And secondly the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant, after the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 his fathers fortunes took a turn for the better, although he remained far from prosperous. The Kings own penury meant the old Cavaliers received scant financial reward, thus in 1665, Johns sister Arabella became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde, the Duchess of York. Some months later John,15, joined her at court serving as page to Annes husband, James, Duke of York, the Duke of Yorks passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on young Churchill. Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks, on 14 September 1667, he obtained a commission as Ensign in the Kings Own Company in the 1st Guards, later to become the Grenadier Guards. That is unlikely, and even Sir Winston S. Churchill says There is, indeed, the known facts are that he was commissioned Ensign in September 1667, as above. By February 1671, John Churchill was back in London and duelling with Sir John Fenwick, but his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous. You are a rascal, said Charles, but I forgive you because you do it to get your bread
24.
St James's
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St Jamess is a central district in the City of Westminster, London, forming part of the West End. In the 17th century the area developed as a location for the British aristocracy. Anciently part of the parish of St Martin in the Fields, since the Second World War the area has transitioned from residential to commercial use. The St James name is derived from the dedication of a 12th-century leper hospital to Saint James the Less, the hospital site is now occupied by St Jamess Palace. The area became known as Clubland because of the presence of gentlemens clubs. Until the Second World War, St Jamess remained one of the most exclusive residential enclaves in London, notable residences include St Jamess Palace, Clarence House, Marlborough House, Lancaster House, Spencer House, Schomberg House, Norfolk House and Bridgewater House. St Jamess was in the ancient parish of St Martin in the Fields in the Liberty of Westminster, attempts made in 1664,1668 and 1670 to separate St Jamess from the parish were resisted by St Martins vestry. The building of St Jamess Church, Piccadilly in 1684 forced the issue, the parish stretched from Oxford Street in the north to Pall Mall in the south. It roughly corresponded to the contemporary St Jamess area, but extended into parts of Soho, land south of Pall Mall remained in St Martin in the Fields parish and St Jamess Park was split between the parishes of St Martin and St Margaret. St Jamess Palace was an area and not part of any parish. A select vestry was created for the new parish, for elections to Westminster City Council, the area is part of the St Jamess ward. The ward includes Covent Garden, Strand, Westminster and part of Mayfair, St Jamess is bounded to the north by Piccadilly, to the west by Green Park, to the south by The Mall and St. Jamess Park and to the east by Haymarket. Notable streets include, St Jamess Square, which many of its original houses but is mostly in office use. The London Library is located there, Jermyn Street, an upmarket retail street best known for bespoke shirtmakers and shops offering the finest gentlemens attire. Pall Mall, which many of Londons gentlemens clubs. Haymarket was once the best known centre of prostitution in London and it contains two historic theatres, the Haymarket Theatre and Her Majestys Theatre. Carlton House Terrace, a pair of terraces of houses designed by John Nash overlooking St. Jamess Park. St Jamess Street which runs down from Piccadilly to St Jamess Palace, St Jamess is a predominantly commercial area with some of the highest rents in London and, consequently, the world
25.
Angelica Kauffman
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Maria Anna Angelika Kauffmann RA, usually known in English as Angelica Kauffman, was a Swiss Neoclassical painter who had a successful career in London and Rome. Remembered primarily as a painter, Kauffmann was a skilled portraitist, landscape. She was one of the two founding members of the Royal Academy in London in 1768. Kauffman was born at Chur in Graubünden, Switzerland and her family moved to Morbegno in 1742, then Como in Lombardy in 1752 at that time under Austrian rule. In 1757 she accompanied her father to Schwarzenberg in Vorarlberg/Austria where her father was working for the local bishop and her father, Joseph Johann Kauffmann, was a relatively poor man but a skilled Swiss muralist and painter, who was often traveling for his work. He trained Angelica and she worked as his assistant, moving through Switzerland, Austria, Angelica, a child prodigy, rapidly acquired several languages from her mother, Cleophea Lutz, including German, Italian, French and English. She also showed talent as a musician and was forced to choose between opera and art and she quickly chose art as a Catholic priest told Kauffman that the opera was a dangerous place filled with seedy people. By her twelfth year she had known as a painter, with bishops. In 1754, her mother died and her decided to move to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long duration followed and she became a member of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in 1762. In 1763 she visited Rome, returning again in 1764, from Rome she passed to Bologna and Venice, everywhere feted for her talents and charm. Writing from Rome in August 1764 to his friend Franke, Winckelmann refers to her popularity, she was painting his picture. She may be styled beautiful, he adds, and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi, in 1765, her work appeared in England in an exhibition of the Free Society of Artists. She moved to England shortly after and established herself as a leading artist, while in Venice, Kauffman was persuaded by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the British ambassador, to accompany her to London. One of the first pieces she completed in London was a portrait of David Garrick, the rank of Lady Wentworth opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the royal family especially showing her great favor. Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his pocket-book her name as Miss Angelica or Miss Angel appears frequently, and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment which she returned by her Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds. In 1767 Kauffman was seduced by an imposter going under the name Count Frederick de Horn, whom she married and it was probably owing to Reynoldss good offices that she was among the signatories to the petition to the king for the establishment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 she appears with R. A. after her name, and she contributed the Interview of Hector and Andromache, and three other classical compositions
26.
St Mary's Church, Wimbledon
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St Marys Church, Wimbledon, is a Church of England church and is part of the Parish of Wimbledon, south-west London, England. It has existed since the 12th century and may be the church recorded in the Domesday Book in the Mortlake Hundred and it is still in active use today, and has been grade II* listed since 1949. There have been four churches on the site since 1086, The Medieval Church — 11th century to 13th century, the Second Church — Late 13th century until 1786. The Georgian Church — 1780s to 1840s, the Victorian Church — Completed in 1843 and exists today. The present church dates from 1843, and was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, then working for the architects Messers Scott and Moffat. Scott was given the brief of building the church without exceeding a strict budget of £4000 and it is still possible to see these older parts today. Another visibly notable addition was the tower and spire, which is 196 feet tall, the beams in the chancel roof were re-discovered during renovation work of the chancel in 1860. They are thought to be Medieval in origin, the beams are decorated with a chevron and flower pattern and were restored in 1993 as part of the churchs 150th anniversary celebrations. The oldest memorial in the dates back to 1537 in memory of Philip and Margaret Lewston. Edward Cecil, 1st Viscount Wimbledon, Lord of the Manor of Wimbledon, D.1638 Sir Theodore Janssen, Lord of the Manor of Wimbledon. One of the founders of the Bank of England, director of the South Sea Company and stripped of his assets because of the South Sea Bubble fiasco. D.1748 At the east end of the churchyard is the mausoleum of Sir Joseph William Bazalgette, the renowned engineer of the Embankment. There is also a stone to Sir Joseph within the church. Fellowship House was built in 1974 and replaced a small room above a shop in Wimbledon Village and it was used for many activities both by the church and outside groups. Today, it is a day nursery during the week and is used by the church at weekends, the Parish Office is located in Fellowship House. The Garden Hall was completed in 2003 due to the need of space for church activities. The building is of modern design, and has won architectural awards, one wall is a large glass window, part of which opens to give access to the grass area outside. It was officially opened on 3 May 2003 by Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy
27.
Elizabeth Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire
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Elizabeth Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, was an English novelist and duchess. She is best known as Lady Elizabeth Foster, the friend of Georgiana Cavendish. Elizabeth supplanted the Duchess, gaining the affections of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, known as Bess, she was born Elizabeth Christiana Hervey in a small house in Horringer, St Edmundsbury, Suffolk. Her father, Frederick Hervey, later became the fourth Earl of Bristol, in 1776, Elizabeth married Irishman John Thomas Foster. He was a first cousin of the brothers John Foster, last Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, the Fosters had two sons, Frederick and Augustus John Foster. Their only daughter, also named Elizabeth, was born prematurely on 17 November 1778, when her father succeeded as the earl in 1779, she became Lady Elizabeth Foster. The couple resided after 1779 with her parents at Ickworth House in Suffolk, the marriage was not a success, and the couple separated within five years, plausibly after Foster had a relationship with a servant. Foster retained custody of their sons and did not allow the boys to see Bess for 14 years, in May 1782, Bess met the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire in Bath, and quickly became Georgianas closest friend. From this time, she lived in a triad with Georgiana and her husband, William, the 5th Duke of Devonshire, for about 25 years. She bore two children by the Duke, a daughter, Caroline St Jules, and a son, Augustus. Georgiana grew ill and died in 1806, three years later, Bess married the duke and became the Duchess of Devonshire, there is some evidence that Quin fathered an illegitimate son by her, who became the noted physician Frederic Hervey Foster Quin. Quin joined the Duchess as her travelling physician in Rome in December 1820, Lady Elizabeth was a friend of the French author Madame de Staël, with whom she corresponded from about 1804. Lady Elizabeth Foster was depicted by Hayley Atwell in the 2008 film The Duchess, blackie & Son, London, Glasgow & Dublin,1898. Vere Foster, her grandson, was a renowned Irish philanthropist and educationalist, brian Masters, Georgiana Duchess of Devonshire, Hamish Hamilton,1981. Amanda Foreman, Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, Caroline Chapman & Jane Dormer, Elizabeth and Georgiana, John Wiley & Sons Inc.2002. Archival material relating to Elizabeth Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire
28.
City of Bath
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Bath is a city in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England, known for its Roman-built baths. In 2011, the population was 88,859, Bath is in the valley of the River Avon,97 miles west of London and 11 miles south-east of Bristol. The city became a World Heritage Site in 1987, the city became a spa with the Latin name Aquæ Sulis c. AD60 when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valley of the River Avon, Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre, the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the properties of water from the springs. Many of the streets and squares were laid out by John Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable, Jane Austen lived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following the Bath Blitz in World War II, the city has software, publishing and service-oriented industries. Theatres, museums, and other cultural and sporting venues have helped make it a centre for tourism with more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors to the city each year. There are several museums including the Museum of Bath Architecture, Victoria Art Gallery, Museum of East Asian Art, the city has two universities, the University of Bath and Bath Spa University, with Bath College providing further education. Sporting clubs include Bath Rugby and Bath City F. C. while TeamBath is the name for all of the University of Bath sports teams. Bath became part of the county of Avon in 1974, and, the hills in the locality such as Bathampton Down saw human activity from the Mesolithic period. Several Bronze Age round barrows were opened by John Skinner in the 18th century, solsbury Hill overlooking the current city was an Iron Age hill fort, and the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. A long barrow site believed to be from the Beaker people was flattened to make way for RAF Charmy Down, messages to her scratched onto metal, known as curse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists. The tablets were written in Latin, and cursed people whom the writers felt had wronged them, for example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse, naming the suspects, on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a complex was built up over the next 300 years. Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, in the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted structure that housed the caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium. The town was given defensive walls, probably in the 3rd century. After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, in March 2012 a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig
29.
Love triangle
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A love triangle is usually a romantic relationship involving three people. While it can refer to two people independently romantically linked with a third, it implies that each of the three people has some kind of relationship to the other two. The relationships can be friendships, romantic, or familial. Romantic love is viewed as an exclusive relationship. Statistics suggest that, in Western society, wittingly or not, the term love triangle generally connotes an arrangement unsuitable to one or more of the people involved. One person typically ends up feeling betrayed at some point, a similar arrangement that is agreed upon by all parties is sometimes called a triad, which is a type of polyamory even though polyamory usually implies sexual relations. Within the context of monogamy, love triangles are inherently unstable, with unrequited love, in most cases, the jealous or rejected first party ends a friendship—and sometimes even starts a fight with—the second party over the third-party love interest. Though rare, love triangles have been known to lead to murder or suicide committed by the actual or perceived rejected lover, psychoanalysis has explored the theme of erotic love triangles and their roots in the Oedipal triangle. In such instances, you men who are attracted only by married woman. They need the husband to protect them from a full relationship. as women who repeatedly get involved with married men need the wives, alternatively, the hero or heroine has a choice between a seemingly perfect lover and an imperfect but endearing person. It has been suggested that a network is always needed to keep the triangle eternal. Calm yourself, says the husband, Ill be marrying again and it has been suggested that if men share a sense of brotherhood and they allow a woman into their relationship, an isosceles triangle is created automatically, as in Truffauts film Jules et Jim. In such cases, it cannot be fair to blame the quarrel of the twins on a woman. She is their common scapegoat. Their loyalties are torn, and – except in the best of cases – the one left injured can easily sway the feelings of the children against acknowledging this new relationship. – A mugs game, he told me, is breaking your back at midnight, Love triangles are a popular theme in entertainment, especially romantic fiction, including opera, romance novels, soap operas, romantic comedies, manga, tabloid talk shows, and popular music. Eric Berne termed that conflictual aspect of the love triangle Lets You and Him Fight, because of its dramatic qualities, LYAHF is the basis of much of the worlds literature, both good and bad. Young Adult literature has seen a rise in the popularity of the love triangle story structure, but the love triangle story structure has been around since before early classic writers like William Shakespeare and Alexandre Dumas. Shakespeares famous play Romeo and Juliet featured a triangle between Juliet, Romeo, and Paris. Although more subtle, Dumass classics The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers also feature love triangles strong enough to seek revenge and start a war
30.
Augustus Clifford
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Admiral Sir Augustus William James Clifford, 1st Baronet, CB was a British Royal Navy officer, court official, and usher of the Black Rod. Clifford was born in France in 1788, the son of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire. Not long after his birth, his mother brought him to England, to be wet-nursed by Louisa Augusta Marshall, wife of the Revd John Marshall, curate at Clewer, near Windsor, Clifford was educated at Harrow School, 1796-99. His parents married in 1809, their respective spouses having died and he married, on 20 October 1813, Lady Elizabeth Frances Townshend, sister of John Townshend, 4th Marquess Townshend. Each of his sons, Capt William RN, Robert and Charles succeeded their father in turn as the second, third, Clifford was a patron of the arts, and formed a unique collection of paintings, sculpture, etchings, engravings, and bijouterie. He died at his residence in the House of Lords in 1877, Clifford entered the Royal Navy as a midshipman in May 1800, and was promoted to a lieutenancy in 1806. He served at the reduction of Ste, lucie and Tobago in 1803, and throughout the operations in Egypt during 1807. He was at the capture of a convoy in the Bay of Rosas in 1809, after this, as captain, he was for many years actively employed in naval duties, being several times mentioned in the London Gazette for his courage in cutting-out expeditions and on other occasions. For some time he was engaged in attendance on the Lord High Admiral, Clifford recommissioned HMS Herald on 27 May 1826 to carry the Duke of Devonshire on an embassy to Russia. In 1828, in another vessel, Clifford took Lord William Bentinck out to India as governor-general and this was his last service afloat, he was not actively employed after 1831. He reached the rank of rear-admiral 23 March 1848, vice-admiral 27 September 1855, Admiral of the Blue 7 November 1860 and he was Member of Parliament for Bandon 1818–20, for Dungarvan, 1820–2, and again for Bandon from 23 July 1831 to 3 Dec.1832. He was nominated a Commander of the Order of the Bath on 8 December 1815, knighted on 4 August 1830, and created a baronet on 4 August 1838. His half-brother, the 6th Duke of Devonshire, appointed him on 25 July 1832 Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, on various occasions between 1843 and 1866 he acted as deputy lord great chamberlain of England, in the absence of Lord Willoughby dEresby. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Clifford. Portraits of Sir Augustus William James Clifford, 1st Bt at the National Portrait Gallery, London Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Augustus Clifford
31.
Thomas Gainsborough
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Thomas Gainsborough FRSA was an English portrait and landscape painter, draughtsman, and printmaker. He surpassed his rival Sir Joshua Reynolds to become the dominant British portraitist of the half of the 18th century. He painted quickly, and the works of his maturity are characterised by a light palette and he preferred landscapes to portraits, and is credited as the originator of the 18th-century British landscape school. Gainsborough was a member of the Royal Academy. He was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, the youngest son of John Gainsborough, a weaver and maker of woollen goods, and his wife, the artist spent his childhood at what is now Gainsboroughs House, on Gainsborough Street. The original building survives and is now a dedicated House to his life. Gainsborough was allowed to leave home in 1740 to study art in London and he assisted Francis Hayman in the decoration of the supper boxes at Vauxhall Gardens, and contributed to the decoration of what is now the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children. In 1746, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr, a daughter of the Duke of Beaufort. The artists work, then consisting of landscape paintings, was not selling well. He returned to Sudbury in 1748–1749 and concentrated on painting portraits, in 1752, he and his family, now including two daughters, moved to Ipswich. Commissions for personal portraits increased, but his clientele included mainly local merchants and he had to borrow against his wifes annuity. The Artists family and Self-Portrait In 1759, Gainsborough and his moved to Bath. There, he studied portraits by van Dyck and was able to attract a fashionable clientele. In 1761, he began to work to the Society of Arts exhibition in London. He selected portraits of well-known or notorious clients in order to attract attention, the exhibitions helped him acquire a national reputation, and he was invited to become a founding member of the Royal Academy in 1769. His relationship with the academy was not a one and he stopped exhibiting his paintings in 1773. In 1774, Gainsborough and his moved to London to live in Schomberg House. A commemorative blue plaque was put on the house in 1951, in 1777, he again began to exhibit his paintings at the Royal Academy, including portraits of contemporary celebrities, such as the Duke and Duchess of Cumberland
32.
Wet nurse
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A wet nurse is a woman who breast feeds and cares for anothers child. Wet nurses are employed when the mother is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself, wet-nursed children may be known as milk-siblings, and in some cultures the families are linked by a special relationship of milk kinship. Mothers who nurse each others babies are engaging in an act known as cross-nursing or co-nursing. A wet nurse can help when a natural mother is unable or chooses not to feed the infant. Before the development of baby formulas in the 20th century, when a mother was unable to breastfeed her baby, there are many reasons why a mother is unable to lactate or to produce sufficient breast milk. Reasons include the serious or chronic illness of the mother and her treatment which creates a difficulty to nursing. Additionally, a mothers taking drugs may necessitate a wet nurse if a drug in any way changes the content of the mothers milk. There was also an increased need for wet nurses under circumstances when the rates of infant abandonment by mothers, some women choose not to breastfeed for social reasons. Many of these women were found to be of the upper class, some women chose to hire wet nurses purely to escape from the confining and time-consuming chore of breastfeeding. Wet nurses have also used when a mother cannot produce sufficient breast milk, i. e. the mother feels incapable of adequately nursing her child. Wet nurses tend to be common in places where maternal mortality is high. A woman can act as a wet-nurse if she is lactating. It was once believed that a wet-nurse must have recently undergone childbirth and this is not necessarily true, as regular breast suckling can elicit lactation via a neural reflex of prolactin production and secretion. Some adoptive mothers have been able to establish lactation using a breast pump so that they could feed an adopted infant, dr Gabrielle Palmer states, Wet nursing is an ancient practice, common to many cultures. It has been linked to class, where monarchies, the aristocracy. Lactation inhibits ovulation in women, thus the practice has a rational basis. Poor women, especially those who suffered the stigma of giving birth to a child, sometimes had to give their baby up, temporarily or permanently. Many cultures feature stories, historical or mythological, involving superhuman, supernatural, human, the Bible refers to Deborah, a nurse to Rebekah wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob and Esau, who appears to have lived as a member of the household all her days
33.
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey
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Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, KG, PC, known as Viscount Howick between 1806 and 1807, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 22 November 1830 to 16 July 1834. A member of the Whig Party, he backed significant reform of the British government and was among the architects of the Reform Act 1832. His government also saw the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, in addition to his political achievements, he has come to be associated with Earl Grey tea, named after him. He had four brothers and two sisters, Grey was elected to Parliament for the Northumberland constituency on 14 September 1786, aged just 22. He became a part of the Whig circle of Charles James Fox, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and the Prince of Wales and he was the youngest manager on the committee for prosecuting Warren Hastings. No advantage of fortune or connection was wanting that could set off to the height his splendid talents, at twenty-three he had been thought worthy to be ranked with the veteran statesmen who appeared as the delegates of the British Commons, at the bar of the British nobility. All who stood at that bar, save him alone, are gone, culprit, advocates, to the generation which is now in the vigour of life, he is the sole representative of a great age which has passed away. Grey was also noted for advocating Parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation and his affair with the Duchess of Devonshire, herself an active political campaigner, did him little harm although it nearly caused her to be divorced by her husband. In 1806, Grey, by then Lord Howick owing to his fathers elevation to the peerage as Earl Grey, following Foxs death later that year, Howick took over both as Foreign Secretary and as leader of the Whigs. The government fell from power the year, and, after a brief period as a member of parliament for Appleby from May to July 1807, Howick went to the Lords. He continued in opposition for the next 23 years, there were times during this period when Grey came close to joining the Government. In 1811, the Prince Regent tried to court Grey and his ally William Grenville to join the Spencer Perceval ministry following the resignation of Lord Wellesley, Grey and Grenville declined because the Prince Regent refused to make concessions regarding Catholic Emancipation. Greys relationship with the Prince was strained further when his daughter and heiress, Princess Charlotte. On the Napoleonic Wars, Grey took the standard Whig party line, Grey was then slow to recognise the military successes of Moores successor, the Duke of Wellington. In 1826, believing that the Whig party no longer paid any attention to his opinions, when Wellington became Prime Minister in 1828, George IV singled out Grey as the one person he could not appoint to the Government. In 1830, following the death of George IV and when the Duke of Wellington resigned on the question of Parliamentary reform, in 1831, he was made a member of the Order of the Garter. His term was a one, seeing passage of the Reform Act 1832, which finally saw the reform of the House of Commons. It was the issue of Ireland which precipitated the end of Greys premiership in 1834, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Lord Stanley, however, preferred coercive measures
34.
Salon (gathering)
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These gatherings often consciously followed Horaces definition of the aims of poetry, either to please or to educate. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings, the salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century, one important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664, Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve. Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were held in the bedroom. This practice may be contrasted with the formalities of Louis XIVs petit lever. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry, the historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, as recently as the 1940s, salons hosted by Gertrude Stein gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character, contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnêteté, but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint a picture of the salons. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or schools of civilité salons were instead at the heart of the philosophic community. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons
35.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
36.
Marie Antoinette
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Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
37.
Yolande de Polastron
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She was considered one of the great beauties of pre-Revolutionary society, but her extravagance and exclusivity earned her many enemies. Yolande Martine Gabrielle de Polastron was born in Paris in the reign of King Louis XV and her parents were Jean François Gabriel, Count of Polastron, seigneur de Noueilles, Venerque and Grépiac, and Jeanne Charlotte Hérault de Vaucresson. As was customary with aristocrats, most of whom more than one Christian name. While Gabrielle was still an infant, her parents moved to the family Château of Noueilles, when Gabrielle was three, her mother died and her welfare was entrusted to an aunt, who arranged for her to receive a convent education. At the age of 16, Gabrielle was betrothed to Jules François Armand, comte de Polignac, marquis de Mancini, whom she married on 7 July 1767, polignacs family had a well-bred ancestry similar to Gabrielles family, and was in equally uncomfortable financial straits. At the time of his marriage, Polignac was serving in the Régiment de Royal Dragons, within a few years of the marriage, Jules and Gabrielle had two children, a daughter Aglaé and a son. Two more sons followed several years later, including Jules, prince de Polignac who became the minister of France in 1829. Most surviving portraits show her to be pretty, one historian said that Gabrielle, in her portraits by Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, generally looks like some harvested and luscious fruit. She had dark hair, very pale white skin and, perhaps most unusually. Compiling the contemporary accounts of her, one historian has summarised her physical appearance thus. With her cloud of dark hair, her big eyes, her neat nose, the cost of maintaining oneself at the court of Versailles was ruinous and Gabrielle replied that her husband did not have the money to finance a permanent move to the palace. Determined to keep her new favourite by her side, the Queen agreed to settle the many outstanding debts. She was, however, resented by other members of the entourage, particularly the Queens confessor and her chief political adviser. Charismatic and beautiful, Gabrielle became the leader of the Queens exclusive circle. She was considered by many of her friends to be elegant, sophisticated, in 1780, her husband was given the title of duc de Polignac, thus making her duchesse, a further source of irritation to the courtiers. By the late 1780s, thousands of pornographic pamphlets alleged that Gabrielle was the Queens lesbian lover and those who were not themselves swept into the whirlpool, stood at the marge contemplating it with astonishment. The Queens hand was guided by the violet-eyed, the lovely. In 1782, the Governess to the Children of France, Victoire de Rohan, princesse de Guéméné, the Queen replaced the princess with Gabrielle
38.
Elizabeth Lamb, Viscountess Melbourne
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Elizabeth Lamb, Viscountess Melbourne was one of the most influential of the political hostesses of the extended Regency period, and the wife of Whig politician Peniston Lamb, 1st Viscount Melbourne. She was the mother of William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, because of her numerous love affairs, the paternity of her children is a matter of dispute. Elizabeth Milbanke was baptised on 15 October 1751 in the village of Croft-on-Tees, North Yorkshire, elizabeths brother was Sir Ralph Noel, 6th Baronet, the family resided at Halnaby Hall, Yorkshire. Her father was a politician, and her grandfather was John Hedworth. Elizabeth was privately educated and learned French and poetry composition, two years later, Elizabeth met Sir Peniston Lamb, 2nd Baronet, they married in London on 13 April 1769. The couple lived at Melbourne House in Piccadilly and Elizabeth quickly became a figure in London Whig society. She was apparently unaffected by her husbands infidelity early in their marriage with actress and courtesan Sophia Baddeley, Peniston was raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Lord Melbourne, Baron of Kilmore, in 1770 and Viscount Melbourne in 1781. As well as Melbourne House, the family had residences at Brocket Hall in Hertfordshire. From the start of her marriage, Lady Melbourne cultivated friendships that helped her position in society and these relationships were frequently with men, some of whom became lovers. She was noted for discretion in her affairs, she remarked that no man was safe with anothers secrets. Unlike her daughter-in-law, Lady Caroline Lamb, who conducted a public extramarital affair with Lord Byron. She was highly intelligent, if not intellectual, it was said of her that, within the narrow limits of her experience. She was a mother and worked tirelessly to advance the careers of all her children. William, though admitting that his mothers life was not blameless, called her the most sagacious woman ever knew. After the marriage in 1774 of Lady Georgiana Spencer to William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, Lady Melbourne became a friend of. The two women were painted, alongside their friend, sculptor Anne Damer, by Daniel Gardner as the Three Witches in his 1775 painting Witches Round the Cauldron, Lady Melbourne featured as the character of Lady Besford in the Duchess novel The Sylph. By the late 1770s, Lady Melbourne was romantically involved with George Wyndham, there was a rumour that the Earl had bought her from a previous lover, Lord Coleraine, for £13,000. Egremont remained unmarried, probably due to Lady Melbournes influence and it is believed that he was the father of Lady Melbournes children William, Emily and possibly Frederick
39.
Horace Walpole
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Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford — also known as Horace Walpole — was an English art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, south-west London and his literary reputation rests on his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto and his Letters, which are of significant social and political interest. He was the son of the first British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, as Horace Walpole was childless, on his death his barony descended to his cousin of the same surname, who was created the new Earl of Orford. Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, like his father, he received early education in Bexley, he was also educated at Eton College and Kings College, Cambridge. Walpoles first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom Walpole became strongly attached, at Eton he formed with Charles Lyttelton and George Montagu the Triumvirate, a schoolboy confederacy. More important were another group of friends dubbed the Quadruple Alliance, Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, at Cambridge Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian. Walpole came to accept the nature of Middletons attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition. Walpole ceased to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, according to one biographer his love for his mother was the most powerful emotion of his entire life. the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it. Walpole did not have any relationships with women, he has been called a natural celibate. Walpoles sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation, many contemporaries described him as effeminate. Biographers such as Timothy Mowl explore his possible homosexuality, including a passionate, some previous biographers such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, however, have interpreted Walpole as asexual. Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum, Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will whereby he left Gray all his belongings. They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day and they then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April. Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen, in early June they left Paris for Rheims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyons, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons. In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence. Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany and wrote Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, tutor to the Earl of Plymouth, a mixture of Whig history and Middletons teachings. In February 1740 Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII, Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit all the antiquities. At social occasions in Rome he saw the Old Pretender James Francis Edward Stuart, Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July
40.
Frances Burney
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For the playwright Frances Burney, niece of the novelist, see Frances Burney. Frances Burney, also known as Fanny Burney and after her marriage as Madame dArblay, was an English satirical novelist, diarist and playwright. She was born in Lynn Regis, now Kings Lynn, England, on 13 June 1752, to the musician and music historian Dr Charles Burney and his first wife, Esther Sleepe Burney. The third of six children, she was self-educated and began writing what she called her scribblings at the age of ten, in 1793, aged 41, she married a French exile, General Alexandre DArblay. Their only son, Alexander, was born in 1794, after a lengthy writing career, and travels during which she was stranded in France by warfare for more than ten years, she settled in Bath, England, where she died on 6 January 1840. Frances Burney was a novelist, diarist and playwright, in all, she wrote four novels, eight plays, one biography and twenty volumes of journals and letters. She has gained respect in her own right, but also foreshadows such novelists of manners with a satirical bent as Jane Austen. She published her first novel, Evelina, anonymously in 1778, when the books authorship was revealed, it brought her almost immediate fame due to its unique narrative and comic strengths. She followed it with Cecilia in 1782, Camilla in 1796, all Burneys novels explore the lives of English aristocrats, and satirise their social pretensions and personal foibles, with an eye to larger questions such as the politics of female identity. The exception was Edwy and Elgiva, which unfortunately was not well received by the public, today critics are returning to her novels and plays with renewed interest in her outlook on the social lives and struggles of women in a predominantly male-oriented culture. Scholars continue to value Burneys diaries as well for their depictions of English society in her time. Her early novels were read and enjoyed by Jane Austen, whose own title Pride, william Makepeace Thackeray is reported to have drawn on the first-person account of the Battle of Waterloo, recorded in her diaries, while writing Vanity Fair. Frances Burneys early career was affected by her relationship with her father. Many feminist critics thus see her as an author whose natural talent for satire was somewhat stifled by the pressures exerted on female authors of the age. But Burney persisted in writing despite the setbacks, when her comedies were poorly received, she returned to novel writing, and later tried her hand at tragedy. She supported both herself and her family with the proceeds of her novels, Camilla and The Wanderer. Frances was the child in a family of six. Her elder siblings were Esther and James, the younger Susanna Elizabeth, Charles, of her brothers, James became an admiral and sailed with Captain James Cook on his second and third voyages
41.
Nathaniel Wraxall
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He entered the employment of the East India Company in 1769, and served as judge-advocate and paymaster during the expeditions against Gujarat and Bharuch in 1771. In the following year he left the service of the company, among them were notably baron Frederik Ludvig Ernst Bülow, and count Ernst Schimmelmann. Wraxall at their suggestion undertook to endeavour to persuade the king to act on her behalf and he was able to secure an interview with her at Celle Castle in September 1774. His exertions are told in his Posthumous Memoirs, as the queen died on 11 May 1775, his schemes came to nothing and he complained that he was out-of-pocket, but George III took no notice of him for some time. In 1777 he travelled again in Germany and Italy and he published his Memoirs of the Kings of France of the Race of Valois, to which he appended an account of his tour in the Western, Southern and Interior Provinces of France. In 1778 he went again on his travels to Germany and Italy, in 1780 he entered Parliament for Hindon in Wiltshire, then for Ludgershall on 3 April 1784 in the Tory imterest. He was still a supporter of Pitt when he was elected for Wallingford on 16 June 1790, little is known of his later years except that he was made a baronet by the prince regent in 21 December 1813. His Historical Memoirs appeared in 1815, when he removed to Wraxall House, Charlton Kings. Both they and the Posthumous Memoirs are very readable and have historical value. Wraxall believed that the Government of the day, furious at his truthfulness, was behind an action which sent him to prison for three months in 1816. Hence the posthumous publication of the later memoirs and he died suddenly at Dover on 7 November 1831, whilst travelling to Naples. Wraxall married Miss Jane, daughter of Peter Lascelles, in 1789 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel William. Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel William, first baronet, preface to The Historical and Posthumous Memoirs of Sir N. W. Wraxall, by H. B. Nathaniel William Wraxall MP for Wallingford
42.
Waste collector
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Waste and recycling pickup work is physically demanding and it exposes workers to a number of occupational hazards. Statistics show waste collection to be one of the most dangerous jobs, at even more dangerous than police work. In many developing countries, the first people to tackle the waste collection are pickers working in the economy, i. e. they may be self-financing through recycling, repairing. Examples include the bottley-wallah, recycler of many sorts of materials in India, castes such as the Zabbaleen in Egypt, many varieties of English have a range of names for waste collectors, from formal job titles for municipal employees, to colloquial and regional terms. Eugène Poubelle, French official, who ordered in 1884 that all Paris landlords supply their tenants with covered garbage containers. Alfred P. Doolittle, a common dustman, My Fair Lady from the play, Broadway,1956, London,1958. California Occupational Guide Number 460, Mechanical - Skilled Occupations, Refuse Collectors, state of California, Employment Development Department
43.
Women's rights
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In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men. Although males seem to have dominated in many cultures, there are some exceptions, for example, in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution of resources. Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra, Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal status based on the Confucian law. In Imperial China, the Three Obediences promoted daughters to obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands, Women could not inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law also featured seven different types of divorces, the status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century, for the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding, foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus limiting the activities of women. Due to the custom that men and women should not be near each other. This resulted in a tremendous need for doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women, this College was located in Guangzhou, China, the College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese womens social status. During the Republic of China and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally bought and these women were known as Mui Tsai. The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution. However, in 1949 the Republic of China had been overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao Zedong, in May 1950 the Peoples Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women
44.
Suffragette
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Suffragettes were members of womens organizations in the late-19th and early-20th centuries which advocated the extension of the franchise, or the right to vote in public elections, to women. It particularly refers to militants in the United Kingdom such as members of the Womens Social and Political Union, suffragist is a more general term for members of the suffrage movement. The term suffragette is particularly associated with activists in the British WSPU, led by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst, Women in South Australia achieved the same right and became the first to obtain the right to stand for parliament in 1895. Women in Britain over the age of 30, meeting certain property qualifications, were given the right to vote in 1918, opinion amongst historians today is divided as to whether the militant tactics of the suffragettes helped or hindered their cause. British suffragettes were mostly women from upper and middle-class backgrounds, frustrated by their social, mill introduced the idea of womens suffrage on the platform he presented to the British electorate in 1865. He was subsequently joined by men and women fighting for the same cause. The term suffragette was first used as a term of derision by the journalist Charles E, hands in the London Daily Mail to describe activists in the movement for womens suffrage, in particular members of the Womens Social and Political Union. But the women he intended to ridicule embraced the term saying suffraGETtes implied not only that they wanted the vote, the National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies, founded in 1897, was formed from local suffrage societies. The union was led by Millicent Fawcett, who believed in constitutional campaigning, issuing leaflets, organising meetings and presenting petitions, in 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded a new organisation, the Womens Social and Political Union. She thought the movement would have to become radical and militant if it was going to be effective, the Daily Mail gave them the name Suffragettes. Some radical techniques used by the suffragettes, especially hunger strikes, were learned from Russian exiles from tsarism who had escaped to England, many suffragists at the time, and most historians since, have argued that the actions of the militant suffragettes damaged their cause. Opponents at the time saw evidence that women were too emotional, from 1909, the Pank-A-Squith board game was sold by the WSPU to raise awareness of their campaign and raise money. The name is derived from Pankhurst the surname of the leaders of the WSPU, and Asquith, the surname of the Prime Minister at the time and a largely hated figure by the movement. The Peoples History Museum in Manchester has a Pank-A-Squith board game on display in the main galleries, one suffragette, Emily Davison, died under the Kings horse Anmer at the Epsom Derby of 4 June 1913. It is debated whether she was trying to pin a Votes for Women banner on the Kings horse or not, many of her fellow suffragettes were imprisoned and refused food as a scare tactic against the government. The Liberal government of the day led by Asquith responded with the Cat, another prominent British Suffragette, Sophia Duleep Singh was almost forgotten for 70 years. In the early-20th century until the First World War, approximately one thousand suffragettes were imprisoned in Britain, most early incarcerations were for public order offences and failure to pay outstanding fines. The first suffragettes to be imprisoned were Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney in October 1905 and this cause was taken up by the Womens Social and Political Union, a large organisation in Britain, that lobbied for womens suffrage led by militant suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst
45.
Charles James Fox
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His father Henry, a leading Whig of his day, had similarly been the great rival of Pitts famous father. He rose to prominence in the House of Commons as a forceful and eloquent speaker with a notorious and colourful life, though his opinions were rather conservative. Fox became a prominent and staunch opponent of George III, whom he regarded as a tyrant, he supported the American Patriots. Briefly serving as Britains first Foreign Secretary in the ministry of the Marquess of Rockingham in 1782, he returned to the post in a coalition government with his old enemy Lord North in 1783. After Pitts death in January 1806, Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the Ministry of All the Talents of William Grenville, before he died on 13 September 1806, aged 57. Fox was born at 9 Conduit Street, London, the surviving son of Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, and Lady Caroline Lennox. Henry Fox was an ally of Robert Walpole and rival of Pitt the Elder and he had amassed a considerable fortune by exploiting his position as Paymaster General of the forces. Foxs elder brother, Stephen became 2nd Baron Holland and his younger brother, Henry, had a distinguished military career. The stories of Charless over-indulgence by his father are legendary. It was said that Charles once expressed a desire to break his fathers watch and was not restrained or punished when he duly smashed it on the floor. In later life he was always to have carried a copy of Horace in his coat pocket. On this trip, Charles was given an amount of money with which to learn to gamble by his father. These three pursuits – gambling, womanising and the love of things and fashions foreign – would become, once inculcated in his adolescence, Fox entered Hertford College, Oxford, in October 1764, although he would later leave without taking a degree, rather contemptuous of its nonsenses. For the 1768 general election, Henry Fox bought his son a seat in Parliament for the West Sussex constituency of Midhurst, though Charles was still nineteen, thus he spent much of his early years unwittingly manufacturing ammunition for his later critics and their accusations of hypocrisy. A supporter of the Grafton and North ministries, Fox was prominent in the campaign to punish the radical John Wilkes for challenging the Commons and he thus opened his career by speaking in behalf of the Commons against the people and their elected representative. Consequently, both Fox and his brother, Stephen, were insulted and pelted with mud in the street by the pro-Wilkes London crowds, however, between 1770 and 1774, Foxs seemingly promising career in the political establishment was spoiled. Behind these incidents lay his familys resentment towards Lord North for refusing to elevate the Holland barony to an earldom, but the fact that such a young man could seemingly treat ministerial office so lightly was noted at court. George III, also observing Foxs licentious private behaviour, took it to be presumption and he drifted from his rather unideological family-oriented politics into the orbit of the Rockingham Whig party
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