1.
Earl
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An earl /ɜːrl/ is a member of the nobility. The title is Anglo-Saxon in origin, akin to the Scandinavian form jarl, in Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages and was replaced by duke. In later medieval Britain, it became the equivalent of the continental count, however, earlier in Scandinavia, jarl could also mean a sovereign prince. For example, the rulers of several of the petty kingdoms of Norway had the title of jarl, alternative names for the rank equivalent to Earl/Count in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era. In modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess, a feminine form of earl never developed, instead, countess is used. The term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, proto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse jarl, came to signify the rank of a leader. The Norman-derived equivalent count was not introduced following the Norman conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. In the other languages of Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as, Welsh iarll, Irish and Scottish Gaelic iarla, Scots yarl or yerl, Cornish yurl. An earl has the title Earl of when the title originates from a placename, in either case, he is referred to as Lord, and his wife as Lady. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady, younger sons are styled The Honourable, and daughters, The Lady. In the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of, and successive sons as younger of. In Anglo-Saxon England, earls had authority over their own regions and right of judgment in provincial courts and they collected fines and taxes and in return received a third penny, one-third of the money they collected. In wartime they led the kings armies, some shires were grouped together into larger units known as earldoms, headed by an ealdorman or earl. Under Edward the Confessor earldoms like Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, Earls originally functioned essentially as royal governors. Though the title of Earl was nominally equal to the duke, unlike them. After the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror tried to rule England using the traditional system, shires became the largest secular subdivision in England and earldoms disappeared. The Normans did create new earls like those of Herefordshire, Shropshire and their power and regional jurisdiction was limited to that of the Norman counts. There was no longer any administrative layer larger than the shire, Earls no longer aided in tax collection or made decisions in country courts and their numbers were small
2.
Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland
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Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland KG was an English nobleman. He was a grandee and one of the wealthiest peers of the court of Elizabeth I, under James I, Northumberland was a long-term prisoner in the Tower of London. He is known for the circles he moved in as well as for his own achievements and he acquired the sobriquet The Wizard Earl, from his scientific and alchemical experiments, his passion for cartography, and his large library. His mild deafness and slight speech impediment did not prevent him becoming an important intellectual and cultural figure of his generation. He was born at Tynemouth Castle in Northumberland, England, the son of Henry Percy, 8th Earl of Northumberland and his father died, an apparent suicide, in the Tower of London, where he was being questioned about his allegedly treasonable dealings with Mary Queen of Scots. His mother was Katherine Neville, daughter and co-heiress of John Neville and he was brought up a Protestant, as his father had been, taking instruction from the vicar of Egremont. This did not prevent suspicions in later life, particularly when he associated with Charles Paget, around 1586, he first employed the artist Nicolas Hilliard paying 60 shillings for his portrait. They had four children, Lady Dorothy Percy, married Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester, Lady Lucy Percy, married as his second wife James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle. Henry Percy, Baron Percy of Alnwick, died unmarried, through his eldest daughter Dorothy, Countess of Leicester, he is an ancestor of Diana, Princess of Wales. Though it did produce a heir, Algernon, the marriage was not successful, and the couple separated after a time, despite efforts by the Queen. The Percy family was still largely Catholic, while Northumberland was at least nominally Protestant and he said that English Catholics would accept James as king if he reduced the persecution of Catholics. Northumberland employed Thomas Percy as a rent-collector at Syon House, Thomas was the great-grandson of the 4th Earl of Northumberland, but was unscrupulous, with 34 charges of dishonesty brought against him. Henry wrote to James It were a pity to lose a good Kingdom for not tolerating a mass in a corner, through Thomas Percy, Henry received loosely worded assurances of religious tolerance from James. Brooke led the Main Plot against James, and Raleigh soon lost his freedom, Northumberland, on the other hand, was appointed to the Privy Council. Thomas Percy went on to one of the five conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. When the plot was discovered, Percy fled and was besieged at Holbeache House in Warwickshire, on 8 November 1605, a marksman shot dead both Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy with a single bullet. As a result, the Earl of Northumberland was suspected of being part of the plot and he also paid a fine of £30,000. Still a rich man, Northumberland made himself comfortable in the Tower of London and he took over Martin Tower, and had a covered-over bowling alley installed
3.
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare
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Gerard FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, also known in Irish as Gearóid Óg, was a leading figure in 16th-century Irish History. In 1513 he inherited the title of Earl of Kildare and position of Lord Deputy of Ireland from his father and he was the son of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and his first wife Alison FitzEustace, daughter of Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester. Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare was born in 1487 in Maynooth and he is referred to in the Irish annals as Gearóit Óge and as Garrett McAlison, after his mother, Alison FitzEustace, daughter of Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester. In 1496, Gerald was detained by Henry VII at his court as a hostage for his fathers fidelity. In April 1502, at the age of 15, he played the role in the funeral ceremony for Henry VIIs eldest son Arthur. In 1503, he was soon permitted to return with his father to Ireland. The next year he was appointed Lord Treasurer, in August 1504 he commanded the reserve at the Battle of Knockdoe, where his rashness and impetuosity were the cause of some loss. On the death of his father in 1513 he succeeded to the title, Henry VIII soon afterwards appointed him Lord-Deputy. His brother-in-law, Lord Slane succeeded him as Lord Treasurer and this energetic action was so highly approved by the King that he granted the Earl the customs of the ports in the County of Down – rights repurchased by the Crown from the 17th Earl in 1662. In 1516 the Earl invaded Imayle in the Wicklow Mountains, and he then marched into Ely OCarroll, in conjunction with his brother-in-law the Earl of Ormond, and James, son of the Earl of Desmond. They captured and razed the Castle of Lemyvannan, took Clonmel, and in December he returned to Dublin laden with booty, hostages, on the 6 October of the same year his Countess died at Lucan, County Dublin, and was buried at Kilcullen. Next year,1518, his enemies having accused him of maladministration, he appointed a deputy and he was removed from the government, and the Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk appointed in his stead. He appears to have accompanied the King to France in June 1520, and was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, where he was distinguished by his bearing and retinue. On this occasion he met the Kings first cousin, Lady Elizabeth Grey, whom he married a few months afterwards, reports now came from Ireland that he was secretly striving to stir up the chieftains against the new Deputy. He was permitted to return in January 1523, at about this date he founded the College of Maynooth, which flourished until suppressed in 1538. He signaled his return to Ireland by an expedition into Leix in company with the Lord Mayor of Dublin, having burnt several villages, they were caught in an ambuscade, and after considerable loss retreated with some difficulty to Dublin. In consequence of disputes and misunderstandings between the Earl of Kildare and Ormond, now Lord-Deputy, they appealed to the King, accusing each other of malpractices and treasons. Before long, however, their mutual hatred blazed forth again in consequence of the murder of James Talbot, one of Ormonds followers, by the retainers of Kildare
4.
Elizabeth Grey, Countess of Kildare
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Elizabeth Grey, Countess of Kildare, was an English noblewoman, and the second wife of Irish peer Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare. Her father was Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset and she went to France in 1514 as one of the Maids of Honour of Mary Tudor, Queen of France, and remained to serve the latters successor, Queen Claude, in the same capacity. Elizabeths paternal grandmother was Elizabeth Woodville, Queen consort of King Edward IV of England, Elizabeth had 13 siblings, including her eldest brother Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset, who succeeded their father when he died in September 1501, when she was about four years old. Two years later, their mother, Cecily married Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire and she was appointed one of the Maids of Honour to Princess Mary Tudor in 1514, and accompanied her to France when the princess set out to marry King Louis XII. She remained at the French court when Queen Marys other English ladies were sent home, Elizabeths fellow English Maids of Honour, who also were allowed to remain behind in Queen Claudes household, were Anne Boleyn, and Mary Boleyn. Elizabeth was one of Queen Catherine of Aragons attendants at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 and she married Gerald Gearóid Og FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare in London in about 1522. His first wife, Elizabeth Zouche had died, leaving him a son, Thomas, by his marriage to Elizabeth, who was Henry VIIIs cousin, Gerald gained much influence at court. Elizabeth was styled as the Countess of Kildare, the match, while advantageous to Gerald, was also partially based on the physical attraction the couple had for one another. Historian Mary Anne Everett Green described Gerald as having been handsome in appearance. He had been a husband to his first wife. According to historian Barbara Jean Harris, Elizabeth married Gerald against her fathers will and she added the following as means of explanation for the money, forasmuch as the said marriage is honourable and I and all her friends have cause to be content with the same. In 1523, Elizabeth returned with her husband to Ireland, where he served as Lord Deputy of Ireland, extant letters she wrote home to England, show that Elizabeth had taken a keen interest in the Irish political situation. Together Gerald and Elizabeth had at least six children, Lord Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare, known to history as The Wizard Earl, married Mabel Browne, by whom he had issue. Lady Elizabeth FitzGerald, known as The Fair Geraldine, married firstly, Sir Anthony Browne, Lord Edward FitzGerald, married Agnes Leigh, by whom he had issue, including Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Kildare. Lady Mary FitzGerald, married Richard Nugent, 3rd Baron Delvin, Lord Thomas FitzGerald Lady Cecily FitzGerald In 1531, a private Act of Parliament assured her an income of £200 per annum as well as the Irish manor of Portlester. In October 1533, Elizabeth brought her daughter, Elizabeth FitzGerald to the English court, later, Elizabeth Grey was allegedly part of the conservative faction at court who plotted against Queen Anne. Elizabeths husband, the Earl of Kildare, who was imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of corruption and plotting rebellion in Ireland, Elizabeth had remained with him, nursing him throughout his imprisonment from July 1534 until his death on 12 December. The Earl had received a wound at the end of 1532 in an attack he had led against the OCarroll clan at Birr
5.
Duke of Leinster
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Duke of Leinster is a title in the Peerage of Ireland and the premier dukedom in that peerage. The viscounty of Leinster is in the Peerage of Great Britain, the barony of Kildare in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, the courtesy title of the eldest son and heir of the Duke of Leinster is Marquess of Kildare. The family seat now is Oakley Park, near Abingdon, Oxfordshire and this branch of the Welsh-Norman FitzGerald dynasty, which came to Ireland in 1169, were initially created Earls of Kildare. The earldom was created in 1316 for John FitzGerald, Two senior FitzGeralds, Garret Mór FitzGerald and his son, Garret Óg FitzGerald served as Lords Deputy of Ireland. The tenth Earl, Thomas FitzGerald, known as Silken Thomas, was attainted, in 1554, Thomass half-brother and only male heir, Gerald FitzGerald, was created Earl of Kildare in the Peerage of Ireland. He was subsequently restored to the original Patent in 1569, as 11th earl, the second earldom became extinct in 1599, although the original earldom survived. The family was based in Maynooth Castle in Maynooth in County Kildare. In later centuries the family owned estates in Waterford with their country residence being a Georgian house called Carton House which had replaced the castle in County Kildare, in Dublin, the Earl built a large townhouse residence on the southside of Dublin called Kildare House. When the Earl was awarded a dukedom and became Duke of Leinster, one of its occupants was Lord Edward FitzGerald, who became an icon for Irish nationalism through his involvement with the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which ultimately cost him his life. Leinster House was sold by the Leinsters in 1815, in 1924 it bought the building for parliamentary use. It has remained the parliament house of the Irish state, the Dukes of Leinster had by the early 20th century lost all their property and wealth. Their Carton House seat was sold, as later on was their residence in Waterford. The family now live in a property in Ramsden, Oxfordshire. A controversial claim by the descendants of the 5th Duke was made and failed. Paul FitzGerald and his supporters claimed that Lord Desmond faked his death, instead, it was passed down through her fathers brothers family. It was alleged that an archivist had acknowledged the package had once existed, the Baron Falconer of Thoroton, Lord Chancellor, and Harriet Harman, Minister of State in the Department for Constitutional Affairs, gave due consideration to this claim. The claim was dismissed by Lord Falconer despite a 30-year campaign by Paul FitzGeralds family reputedly costing £1.3 million, the Lord Chancellor adjudicated that the title was to remain with the existing holder, the 9th Duke, Maurice FitzGerald. Paul FitzGerald has a right of appeal against the Lord Chancellors verdict by petitioning Her Majesty The Queen, in 2010, however, DNA evidence was presented that indicates that Paul FitzGerald is related to the wife of the 5th Duke, the former Lady Hermione Duncombe
6.
FitzGerald dynasty
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The FitzGerald dynasty is an Irish Hiberno-Norman or Cambro-Norman dynasty. The dynasty has also referred to as the Geraldines. They were established by the conquest of large swathes of Irish territory by the sons and grandsons of Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor, Gerald was a Norman castellan in Wales, and is the male progenitor of the Fitzgerald dynasty. Geralds Welsh wife Nest ferch Rhys is the progenitor of the Fitzgeralds. She was the daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr, last King of Deheubarth, through her the Fitzgeralds are descended from the Welsh rulers of Deheubarth as well as related to the Tudors who are descended from the same Welsh royal line. Consequently, the Fitzgeralds are cousins to the Tudors through Nest, in his poetry, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, referred to Elizabeth FitzGerald as Fair Geraldine. The main branches of the family are, the FitzGeralds of Kildare and its current head is Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster. The Lord of Lanstephan was a participant in the 1169 Norman invasion of Ireland. The FitzGerald dynasty has played a role in Irish history. Gearóid Mór, 8th Earl of Kildare and his son Gearóid Óg, 9th Earl of Kildare, were Lord Deputy of Ireland in the late Fifteenth and early Sixteenth centuries respectively. The FitzGerald dynasty became so intermingled with the native Gaelic Irish that they were often described as more Irish than the Irish themselves. The best example of this is Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond, although made Lord Chief Justice of Ireland in 1367, Gerald wrote poetry in the Irish language, most famously the poem Mairg adeir olc ris na mnáibh. Indeed, although an accomplished poet in Norman French, Gerald was instrumental in the move by the FitzGeralds of Desmond toward greater use of the Irish language, the surname FitzGerald comes from the Norman tradition of adding Fitz, meaning son of before the fathers name. So, Fitz Gerald means in Old Norman and in Old French son of Gerald, Gerald itself is a Germanic compound of ger, spear, and waltan, rule. Variant spellings include Fitz-Gerald and the modern Fitzgerald, the name can also be used as two separate words Fitz Gerald. For more on the Kildare Geraldines, see Duke of Leinster, lady Edward FitzGerald, known as Pamela, wife of Lord Edward FitzGerald. The line of the Earls of Desmond has been extinct since the 17th century and their branch of the dynasty continues only in their distant collateral kinsmen, Irelands hereditary knights. Thus in fact represent a sister branch to the FitzGeralds of Desmond
7.
Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare
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Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare, also known as Silken Thomas, was a leading figure in 16th century Irish history. Thomas Fitzgerald was born in London in 1513, the son of Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare and his first wife Elizabeth Zouche, in February 1534, his father was summoned to London and appointed the 21-year-old Thomas deputy governor of Ireland in his absence. In June 1534 Thomas heard rumours that his father had been executed in the Tower of London and he summoned the Council to St. Roused by this he threw down the sword of state and rushed from the hall, followed by his adherents. The council sent an order for his immediate arrest to the Lord Mayor of Dublin, the Earl of Desmond and many of his fathers oldest and best friends reasoned with him, but he was not to be turned from his purpose. As Vice-Deputy, Kildare had under his control most of the Pale fortresses, Dublin Castle alone held out for the King of England. Lord Offaly called the lords of the Pale to the siege of the Castle, goods and chattels belonging to the Kings subjects he declared forfeited, and he announced his intention of exiling or putting to death all born in England. He sent messengers to his cousin and friend Lord Butler, son of the Earl of Ormond, offering to divide the kingdom with him if he would join his cause, but Butler refused. Several children of the citizens of Dublin in different parts of the Pale were seized as hostages for the behavior of the city. In July, he attacked Dublin Castle, but his army was routed and he ordered the execution at Clontarf of John Alen, who had tried to mediate, this lost him support from the clergy. According to a tradition, the killers, John Teeling and Nicholas Wafer, misunderstood his order, given in Irish. By this time his father had taken ill and died in London, and he had succeeded as 10th earl. The surrendered garrison was put to death, which known as the Maynooth Pardon. Thomas had wrongly assumed that his cause would attract overwhelming support, but Henrys new policy also outlawed Lutheranism, and so Henry was not finally excommunicated until 1538. In July, Lord Leonard Grey arrived from England as Lord Deputy of Ireland, Fitzgerald, seeing his army melting away and his allies submitting one by one, asked pardon for his offences. He was still a formidable opponent, and Grey, wishing to avoid a conflict, guaranteed his personal safety. In October 1535 he was sent as a prisoner to the Tower, despite Greys guarantee, he was executed with his five uncles at Tyburn on 3 February 1537. Silken Thomass revolt caused Henry to pay attention to Irish matters. In particular the powers of the deputy were curbed, and policies such as surrender
8.
Tyburn
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Tyburn was a village in the county of Middlesex close to the current location of Marble Arch and the southern end of Edgware Road in present-day London. It took its name from the Tyburn Brook, a tributary of the River Westbourne and it was also known as Gods Tribunal, in the 18th century. The village was one of two manors of the parish of Marylebone, which was named after the stream, St Marylebone being a contraction of St Marys church by the bourne. Tyburn was recorded in the Domesday Book and stood approximately at the west end of what is now Oxford Street at the junction of two Roman roads, the predecessors of Oxford Street and Edgware Road were roads leading to the village, later joined by Park Lane. In the 1230s and 1240s the village of Tyburn was held by Gilbert de Sandford, Eleanor had been the wife of King Henry II who encouraged her sons Henry and Richard to rebel against her husband, King Henry. In 1236 the city of London contracted with Sir Gilbert to draw water from Tyburn Springs, water was supplied free to all comers. Tyburn had significance from ancient times and was marked by a monument known as Oswulfs Stone, the stone was covered over in 1851 when Marble Arch was moved to the area, but it was shortly afterwards unearthed and propped up against the Arch. It has not been seen since 1869, public executions took place at Tyburn, with the prisoners processed from Newgate Prison in the City, via St Giles in the Fields and Oxford Street. After the late 18th century, when executions were no longer carried out in public, they were carried out at Newgate Prison itself, the first recorded execution took place at a site next to the stream in 1196. William Fitz Osbert, the populist leader of the poor of London, was cornered in the church of St Mary le Bow and he was dragged naked behind a horse to Tyburn, where he was hanged. In 1571, the Tyburn Tree was erected near the modern Marble Arch, the Tree or Triple Tree was a novel form of gallows, consisting of a horizontal wooden triangle supported by three legs. The Tree stood in the middle of the roadway, providing a landmark in west London. After executions, the bodies would be buried nearby or in later times removed for dissection by anatomists, the crowd would sometimes fight over a body with surgeons, by fear that dismemberment could prevent the resurrection of the body on Judgement Day. The first victim of the Tyburn Tree was Dr John Story, a plaque to the Catholic martyrs executed at Tyburn in the period 1535 -1681 is located at 8 Hyde Park Place, the site of Tyburn convent. The gallows seem to have replaced several times, probably because of reasons of wear. After some acts of vandalism, in October 1759 it was decided to replace the permanent structure with new moving gallows until the last execution in Tyburn, the executions were public spectacles and proved extremely popular, attracting crowds of thousands. The enterprising villagers of Tyburn erected large spectator stands so that as many as possible could see the hangings, on one occasion, the stands collapsed, reportedly killing and injuring hundreds of people. This did not prove a deterrent, however, and the continued to be treated as public holidays
9.
County Donegal
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County Donegal is a county of Ireland. It is part of the Border Region of the Republic of Ireland and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Donegal in the south of the county. Donegal County Council is the council for the county and Lifford serves as the county town. The population of the county is 158,755 according to the 2016 census and it has also been known as Tyrconnell, after the historic territory of the same name. In terms of size and area, it is the largest county in Ulster, uniquely, County Donegal shares a small border with only one other county in the Republic of Ireland – County Leitrim. The greater part of its border is shared with three counties of Northern Ireland, County Londonderry, County Tyrone and County Fermanagh. While Lifford is the county town, Letterkenny is by far the largest town in the county with a population of 19,588, Letterkenny and the nearby city of Derry form the main economic axis of the northwest of Ireland. Indeed, what became the City of Derry was officially part of County Donegal up until 1610, there are two Gaeltacht districts in the west, The Rosses, centred on the town of Dungloe, and Gweedore. Another Gaeltacht district is located in the north-west, Cloughaneely, centred on the town of Falcarragh, the most northerly part of the island of Ireland is the location for three peninsulas of outstanding natural beauty, Inishowen, Fanad and Rosguill. The main population centre of Inishowen, Irelands largest peninsula, is Buncrana, in the east of the county lies the Finn Valley. The Laggan district is centred on the town of Raphoe, according to the 1841 Census, County Donegal had a population of 296,000 people. As a result of famine and emigration, the population had reduced by 41,000 by 1851, by the time of the 1951 Census the population was only 44% of what it had been in 1841. The 2006 Census, undertaken by the States Central Statistics Office, had County Donegals population standing at 147,264, according to the 2011 Census, the countys population had grown to 161,137. It has an indented coastline forming natural sea loughs, of which both Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle are the most notable. The Slieve League cliffs are the sixth-highest sea cliffs in Europe, the climate is temperate and dominated by the Gulf Stream, with warm, damp summers and mild wet winters. Two permanently inhabited islands, Arranmore and Tory Island, lie off the coast, Irelands second longest river, the Erne, enters Donegal Bay near the town of Ballyshannon. The River Erne, along with other Donegal waterways, has been dammed to produce hydroelectric power, the River Foyle separates part of County Donegal from parts of both counties Londonderry and Tyrone. A survey of the marine algae of County Donegal was published in 2003
10.
County Monaghan
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County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 60,483 according to the 2011 census, the county has existed since 1585, when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgíalla agreed to join the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Monaghan is the fifth smallest of the Republics 26 counties in area and fourth smallest by population. It is the smallest of Ulsters nine counties in size and also the smallest in terms of population, Cremorne Dartree Farney Monaghan Trough 1. Ballybay =1,461 Notable mountains include Slieve Beagh, Mullyash Mountain and Coolberrin Hill, lakes include Lough Avaghon, Dromore Lough, Drumlona Lough, Lough Egish, Emy Lough, Lough Fea, Inner Lough, Muckno Lough and White Lough. Notable rivers include the River Fane, the River Glyde, the Ulster Blackwater, Monaghan has a number of forests, including Rossmore Forest and Dartrey Forest. Managed by Coillte since 1988, the majority of trees are conifers, due to a long history of intensive farming and recent intensive forestry practices, only small pockets of native woodland remain. The Finn Bridge is a crossing point over the River Finn to County Fermanagh. Lead was formerly mined in County Monaghan, Mines included Annaglogh Lead Mines and Lisdrumgormley Lead Mines. In 1585, the English lord deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, visited the area and they requested that Ulster be divided into counties and land in the kingdom of Airgíalla be apportioned to each of the McMahon chiefs. A commission was established to accomplish this and County Monaghan came into being, the county was subdivided into five baronies, Farney, Cremorne, Dartrey, Monaghan and Truagh, which was left under the control of the McKenna chieftains. After the defeat of the rebellion of Hugh ONeill, The ONeill and the Ulster chieftains in 1603, the lands were instead left in the hands of the native chieftains. In the Irish Rebellion of 1641 the McMahons and their allies joined the rebellion of Irish Catholics. Following their defeat, some colonisation of the county place with Scottish and English families. County Monaghan is traversed by the derelict Ulster Canal, however Waterways Ireland are embarking on a scheme to reopen the canal from Lough Erne into Clones, Monaghan is divided into four local electoral areas, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan. The towns of Ballybay, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan are represented by nine-member town councils which deal with matters such as the provision of utilities
11.
The Pale
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The Pale or the English Pale was the part of Ireland that was directly under the control of the English government in the late Middle Ages. It had been reduced by the late 15th century to an area along the east coast stretching from Dalkey, south of Dublin, the inland boundary went to Naas and Leixlip around the Earldom of Kildare, towards Trim and north towards Kells. In this district, many townlands have English or French names, the Norman invasion of Ireland, beginning in 1169, brought much of Ireland briefly under the theoretical control of the Plantagenet Kings of England. From the 13th century onwards, the Hiberno-Norman occupation in the rest of Ireland at first faltered, across most of Ireland the Normans increasingly assimilated into Irish culture after 1300. They made alliances with neighbouring autonomous Gaelic lords, in the long periods when there was no large royal army in Ireland, the Norman lords, like their Gaelic neighbours in the provinces, acted as effectively independent rulers in their own areas. Parts can still be seen west of Clane on the grounds of what is now Clongowes Wood College, the military power of the crown itself was greatly weakened by the Hundred Years War, and the Wars of the Roses. The Parliament of Ireland was created, often sitting at Drogheda until the Tudors took greater interest in Irish affairs from 1485, the Pale generally consisted of fertile lowlands which were easier for the garrison to defend from ambush than hilly or wooded ground. For reasons of trade and administration, a version of English became the official language and its closest modern derivative is said to be the accent used by natives of Fingal. In 1366, so that the English Crown could assert its authority over the settlers, a parliament was assembled in Kilkenny, the statute decreed that inter-marriage between English settlers and Irish natives was forbidden. It also forbade the settlers using the Irish language and adopting Irish modes of dress or other customs, the adoption of Gaelic Brehon property law, in particular, undermined the feudal nature of the Lordship. The Act was never implemented successfully, even in the Pale itself, at a higher social level, there was extensive intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords, beginning not long after the invasion. The tax base shrank to a fraction of what it had been in 1300. There was a proverb quoted by Sir John Davies that “whoso lives by west of the Barrow, lives west of the law. ”The earls of Kildare ruled as Lords Deputy from 1470, aided by alliances with the Gaelic lords. This lasted until the 1520s, when the earls passed out of royal favour, a book was published in 1596 entitled “A Perambulation of Leinster, Meath, and Louth, of which consist the English Pale”. The word pale derives ultimately from the Latin word pālus, meaning stake, from this came the figurative meaning of boundary and eventually the phrase beyond the pale, as something outside the boundary. Also derived from the concept was the idea of a pale as an area within which local laws were valid. The term was used not only for the Pale in Ireland but also for various other English colonial settlements, in addition, the term Pale of Settlement was applied to the area in the west of Imperial Russia where Jews were permitted to reside. This barrier consisted of a ditch, raised some ten or twelve feet from the ground, with a hedge of thorn on the outer side
12.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
13.
Francis I of France
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Francis I was the first King of France from the Angoulême branch of the House of Valois, reigning from 1515 until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and he succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died without a male heir. Francis reign saw important cultural changes with the rise of absolute monarchy in France, the spread of humanism and Protestantism, Jacques Cartier and others claimed lands in the Americas for France and paved the way for the expansion of the first French colonial empire. For his role in the development and promotion of a standardized French language, he became known as le Père et Restaurateur des Lettres. He was also known as François au Grand Nez, the Grand Colas, following the policy of his predecessors, Francis continued the Italian Wars. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony, he sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. When this was unsuccessful, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with the Muslim sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time. Francis was born on 12 September 1494 at the Château de Cognac in the town of Cognac, which at that time lay in the province of Saintonge, today the town lies in the department of Charente. Francis was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. His family was not expected to inherit the throne, as his third cousin King Charles VIII was still young at the time of his birth, as was his fathers cousin the Duke of Orléans, later King Louis XII. However, Charles VIII died childless in 1498 and was succeeded by Louis XII, the Salic Law prevailed in France, thus females were ineligible to inherit the throne. Therefore, the four-year-old Francis became the heir presumptive to the throne of France in 1498 and was vested with the title of Duke of Valois. In 1505, Louis XII, having fallen ill, ordered that his daughter Claude and Francis be married immediately, Claude was heiress to the Duchy of Brittany through her mother, Anne of Brittany. Following Annes death, the took place on 18 May 1514. Louis died shortly afterwards and Francis inherited the throne and he was crowned King of France in the Cathedral of Reims on 25 January 1515, with Claude as his queen consort. As Francis was receiving his education, ideas emerging from the Italian Renaissance were influential in France, some of his tutors, such as François Desmoulins de Rochefort and Christophe de Longueil, were attracted by these new ways of thinking and attempted to influence Francis. His academic education had been in arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, reading, spelling, Francis came to learn chivalry, dancing, and music and he loved archery, falconry, horseback riding, hunting, jousting, real tennis and wrestling. He ended up reading philosophy and theology and he was fascinated with art, literature, poetry and his mother, who had a high admiration for Italian Renaissance art, passed this interest on to her son
14.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556, through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four square kilometers and were the first to be described as the empire on which the sun never sets. Charles was the heir of three of Europes leading dynasties, the Houses of Valois-Burgundy, Habsburg, and Trastámara and he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and he was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I, as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, the personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish Empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy since the death of Louis the Pious. France recovered and the wars continued for the remainder of Charless reign, enormously expensive, they led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean, after seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, in the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by religious and political opposition to him. Once the rebellions were quelled the essential Castilian and Burgundian territories remained mostly loyal to Charles throughout his rule, Charles’s Spanish dominions were the chief source of his power and wealth, and they became increasingly important as his reign progressed. In the Americas, Charles sanctioned the conquest by Castillian conquistadors of the Aztec, Castillian control was extended across much of South and Central America. The resulting vast expansion of territory and the flows of South American silver to Castile had profound long term effects on Spain. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery. Upon Charles’s abdications, the Holy Roman Empire was inherited by his younger brother Ferdinand, the Spanish Empire, including the possessions in the Netherlands and Italy, was inherited by Charles’s son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century, Charles was born in 1500 as the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile in the Flemish city of Ghent, which was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life and he was tutored by William de Croÿ, and also by Adrian of Utrecht. He also gained a decent command of German, though he never spoke it as well as French, a witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is, I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse
15.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
16.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Verona
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The Diocese of Verona is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory in northern Italy. It has its seat in Verona, Veneto, St. Zeno having been the eighth bishop, the period of St. In the same Carmen mention is made of St. Firmus and St. Rusticus, martyred at Verona, Zeno is called a martyr in the Carmen and is placed in the time of Gallienus. At any rate the existence of a distinguished St. Zeno, Bishop of Verona, for the rest, we know from the sermons of St. Zeno how deeply paganism was still rooted in Verona in his time, particularly in the country districts. Nottingus was the first to denounce the heretic Godescalcus, adelardus was excommunicated for invading the monastery of Nonnantula. Ratherius, a Benedictine and an author, was thrice driven from his see by usurpers. He also fostered learning in the cathedral school, joannes was distinguished for sanctity and learning. Bruno, who wrote some interpretations of Scripture, was killed by one of his chaplains, there, too, was held the conclave which elected Pope Urban III, who spent nearly all of his brief pontificate at Verona. Bishops Jacopo da Breganze and Gerardo Cossadocca were exiled by the tyrant Ezzelino, manfredo Roberti suffered insult and imprisonment at the hands of the Ghibellines. Bonincontro died in the odour of sanctity, Pietro della Scala reformed the lives of the clergy and vainly endeavoured to bring the canons under his own jurisdiction instead of that of the Patriarch of Aquileia. When the Visconti dynasty obtained possession of Verona, Pietro was banished, francesco Condulmer founded the college of acolytes to add to the beauty of public worship and to form a learned and pious clergy, the school still exists. Ermolao Barbaro also did much for the reform of the diocese, Cardinal Giovanni Michiel was a munificent restorer of the cathedral and the episcopal palace, as also was Cardinal Marco Corner. For Gian Matteo Giberti, Pietro Lippomano and Luigi Lippomano see articles under their respective names, sebastiano Pisani was a zealous pastor. Giovanni Andrea Avogadro abdicated the see to return to the Society of Jesus, at Verona is the mother-house of the Sons of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and their college for the Central African missions. The Congregation of the Stimmatini was also founded at Verona on 4 November 1816 as Congregation of the Sacred Stigmata, erected, 3rd centuryLatin Name, VeronensisMetropolitan, Patriarchate of Venice History of Verona Timeline of Verona link title
17.
Ercole Gonzaga
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Ercole Gonzaga was an Italian Cardinal. Born in Mantua, he was the son of the Marquis Francesco Gonzaga and Isabella dEste and he studied philosophy at Bologna under Pietro Pomponazzi, and later took up theology. In 1520, or as some say,1525, Sigismondo renounced in his favour the See of Mantua and he was chosen to be a cardinal at the very young age of 20, this quick ascention to power being the fruit of the diplomatic mastery of Isabella Gonzaga. Notwithstanding his youth, he showed great zeal for reform, especially in his own diocese. His mode of life was stainless and a work of his, Vitae Christianae institutio. His charity was unbounded, and many men of talent. The popes employed him on many embassies, e. g. to the Emperor Charles V in 1530. Because of his prudence and his methods, he was a favourite with the popes, with Charles V, and Ferdinand I of Spain. From 1540 to 1556 he was guardian to the sons of his brother Federico II Gonzaga who had died. The elder of the boys, Francesco, died in 1550 and was succeeded by his brother Guglielmo, in the Papal conclave,1559 it was thought he would certainly be made pope, but the cardinals would not choose as pope a scion of a ruling house. In 1561 Pope Pius IV named him legate to the Council of Trent, for which he had from the beginning laboured by every means at his command. In its early stages, because not a few considered he was in favour of Communion under both kinds, he met with difficulties, and interested motives were attributed to him. He contracted fever at Trento, where he died, attended by Diego Laynez and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Ercole Gonzaga
18.
Duke of Mantua
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The Duke of Mantua was the ruler of the Lombard Duchy of Mantua, held by the Gonzaga family from 1328 to 1708. The Gonzaga family ruled initially as Captains General of the People until 1433, in 1530, Federico II received the title of Duke of Mantua. In 1531, the acquired the vacant Marquisate of Montferrat through marriage. Montferrats territories were ceded to the Duke of Savoy, the emperor compensated the Duke of Lorraine, heir in the female line of the Gonzaga, for the loss of Montferrat by ceding the Duchy of Teschen to the Lorraine. List of rulers of Mantua, 984-1708 A complete genealogical tree of the House of Gonzaga The House of Gonzaga, heirs to the sovereign marquessate of Mantua I Gonzaga di Mantova
19.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
20.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
21.
Reginald Pole
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Reginald Pole was an English cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and the last Roman Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury, holding the office from 1556 to 1558, during the Counter Reformation. Pole was born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire, on 12 March 1500. to Sir Richard Pole and Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury and his nursery is said to have been at Sheen Priory. He matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1512, and at Oxford was taught by William Latimer and Thomas Linacre, graduating with a BA on 27 June 1515. In February 1518, King Henry VIII granted him the deanery of Wimborne Minster, Dorset, after which he was Prebendary of Salisbury and he was also a canon in York, and had several other livings, although he had not been ordained a priest. Pole returned home in July 1526, when he went to France, Henry VIII offered him the Archbishopric of York or the Diocese of Winchester if he would support his divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Pole withheld his support and went into self-imposed exile in France and Italy in 1532, after his return he held the benefice of Vicar of Piddletown, Dorset, between 20 December 1532 and about January 1535/1536. In May 1536, Reginald Pole finally and decisively broke with the King, in 1531, he had warned of the dangers of the Boleyn marriage, he had returned to Padua in 1532, and received a last English benefice in December. Chapuys had suggested to Emperor Charles V that Pole marry the Lady Mary and combine their dynastic claims, the final break between Pole and Henry followed upon Thomas Cromwell, Cuthbert Tunstall, Thomas Starkey and others addressing questions to Pole on behalf of Henry. Henry wrote to the Countess of Salisbury, who in turn sent her son a letter reproving him for his folly, the incensed king, with Pole himself out of his reach, took a terrible revenge on Poles family. Although Poles mother and his brother had written to him in reproof of Poles attitude and action. In 1537 Pole, already a deacon, was created a cardinal, in 1539, Pole was sent to the Emperor to organise an embargo against England – the sort of countermeasure he had himself warned Henry was possible. Under interrogation, Sir Geoffrey said that Henry Pole, his eldest brother, Lord Montagu and they were committed to the Tower of London, and in January, with the exception of Geoffrey Pole, they were executed. In January 1539, Sir Geoffrey was pardoned, and Montagu and Exeter were tried and executed for treason, in 1540, Cromwell himself fell from favour and was himself executed and attainted. Margaret Pole was finally executed in 1541, protesting her innocence until the last – a highly publicised case which was considered a miscarriage of justice both at the time and later. Pole is known to have said that he would. never fear to call himself the son of a martyr, some 350 years later, in 1886, Margaret was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. Under some circumstances, that descent could have made Reginald – until he entered the clergy – a possible contender for the throne itself. Indeed, in 1535 Pole was considered by Eustace Chapuys, the Imperial ambassador to England, as a husband for Princess Mary. Pole was made a cardinal by Pope Paul III in 1536 and he also became Papal Legate to England in February 1536/1537
22.
Knights Hospitaller
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It was headquartered variously in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta, until it became known by its current name. Some scholars, however, consider that the Amalfitan order and hospital were different from Gerard Thoms order and it regained strength during the early 19th century as it redirected itself toward religious and humanitarian causes. In 1834, the order, by this time known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, acquired new headquarters in Rome, in 800, Emperor Charlemagne enlarged Probus hospital and added a library to it. About 200 years later, in 1005, Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah destroyed the hospital, in 1023, merchants from Amalfi and Salerno in Italy were given permission by the Caliph Ali az-Zahir of Egypt to rebuild the hospital in Jerusalem. The hospital, which was built on the site of the monastery of Saint John the Baptist and it was served by the Order of Saint Benedict. Gerard acquired territory and revenues for his order throughout the Kingdom of Jerusalem, under his successor, Raymond du Puy de Provence, the original hospice was expanded to an infirmary near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Initially the group cared for pilgrims in Jerusalem, but the order extended to providing pilgrims with an armed escort. Thus the Order of St. John imperceptibly became military without losing its charitable character. Raymond du Puy, who succeeded Gerard as Master of the Hospital in 1118, organised a militia from the orders members, in 1130, Pope Innocent II gave the order its coat of arms, a silver cross in a field of red. The Hospitallers and the Knights Templar became the most formidable military orders in the Holy Land, frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, pledged his protection to the Knights of St. John in a charter of privileges granted in 1185. The statutes of Roger de Moulins deal only with the service of the sick, the order numbered three distinct classes of membership, the military brothers, the brothers infirmarians, and the brothers chaplains, to whom was entrusted the divine service. In 1248 Pope Innocent IV approved a military dress for the Hospitallers to be worn during battle. Instead of a closed cape over their armour, they wore a red surcoat with a cross emblazoned on it. Many of the more substantial Christian fortifications in the Holy Land were built by the Templars, at the height of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Hospitallers held seven great forts and 140 other estates in the area. The two largest of these, their bases of power in the Kingdom and in the Principality of Antioch, were the Krak des Chevaliers, the property of the Order was divided into priories, subdivided into bailiwicks, which in turn were divided into commanderies. As early as the late 12th century the order had begun to achieve recognition in the Kingdom of England, as a result, buildings such as St Johns Jerusalem and the Knights Gate, Quenington in England were built on land donated to the order by local nobility. An Irish house was established at Kilmainham, near Dublin, after the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291, the Knights were confined to the County of Tripoli and, when Acre was captured in 1291, the order sought refuge in the Kingdom of Cyprus. His successor, Foulques de Villaret, executed the plan, and on 15 August 1310, after four years of campaigning
23.
Tripoli
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Tripoli is the capital city and the largest city of Libya. Tripoli, with its area, has a population of about 1.1 million people. The city is located in the part of Libya on the edge of the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting into the Mediterranean. Tripoli includes the Port of Tripoli and the countrys largest commercial and it is also the site of the University of Tripoli. The vast Bab al-Azizia barracks, which includes the family estate of Muammar Gaddafi, is also located in the city. Colonel Gaddafi largely ruled the country from his residence in this barracks, Tripoli was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. Due to the long history, there are many sites of archaeological significance in Tripoli. Tripoli may also refer to the shabiyah, the Tripoli District, Tripoli is also known as Tripoli-of-the-West, to distinguish it from its Phoenician sister city Tripoli, Lebanon known in Arabic as Ṭarābulus al-Sham meaning Levantine Tripoli. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean, describing its turquoise waters, Tripoli English pronunciation, /ˈtrɪpəli/ is a Greek name that means Three Cities, introduced in Western European languages through the Italian Tripoli. In Arabic, طرابلس it is called Ṭarābulus, compare Sanskrit, tri meaning the number 3, and pura meaning a fortress, castle, city or town. Hence, in Sanskrit Tripura also means Three Cities, the city then passed into the hands of the rulers of Cyrenaica, although the Carthaginians later wrested it from the Greeks. By the later half of the 2nd century BC it belonged to the Romans, who included it in their province of Africa, and gave it the name of Regio Syrtica. Around the beginning of the 3rd century AD, it known as the Regio Tripolitana. It was probably raised to the rank of a province by Septimius Severus. In spite of centuries of Roman habitation, the only visible Roman remains, apart from scattered columns, the fact that Tripoli has been continuously inhabited, unlike e. g. Following the conquest, Tripoli was ruled by dynasties based in Cairo, Egypt, for some time it was a part of the Berber Almohad empire and of the Hafsids kingdom. It was part of the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries, finding themselves in very hostile territory, the Knights enhanced the citys walls and other defenses. Though built on top of a number of buildings, much of the earliest defensive structures of the Tripoli castle are attributed to the Knights of St John
24.
Edward VI of England
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Edward VI was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine, the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was Englands first monarch to be raised as a Protestant. During his reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority, the Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and then by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, from 1551 Duke of Northumberland. Edwards reign was marked by problems and social unrest that, in 1549, erupted into riot. An expensive war with Scotland, at first successful, ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne-sur-Mer in exchange for peace, the transformation of the Church into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters. Although his father, Henry VIII, had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, in February 1553, at age 15, Edward fell ill. When his sickness was discovered to be terminal, he and his Council drew up a Devise for the Succession, Edward named his first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. This decision was disputed following Edwards death, and Jane was deposed by Mary nine days after becoming queen, during her reign, Mary reversed Edwards Protestant reforms, which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559. Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mothers room inside Hampton Court Palace and he was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, te Deums were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes. The Queen, however, fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications, Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that Divine Providence. Hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness, Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset. His father was delighted with him, in May 1538, Henry was observed dallying with him in his arms, and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people. That September, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Audley, reported Edwards rapid growth and vigour, the tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians. At the age of four, he fell ill with a quartan fever. Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan, lady mistress of the princes household and she was succeeded by Blanche Herbert, Lady Troy. Until the age of six, Edward was brought up, as he put it later in his Chronicle, the formal royal household established around Edward was, at first, under Sir William Sidney, and later Sir Richard Page, stepfather of Edward Seymours wife, Anne Stanhope
25.
Mary I of England
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Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
26.
Thomas Wyatt the Younger
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Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger was a rebel leader during the reign of Mary I of England, his rising is traditionally called Wyatts rebellion. He was also the son of the English poet and ambassador Sir Thomas Wyatt and he was the grandson of Sir Henry Wyatt and Anne Skinner, the daughter of John Skinner of Reigate, Surrey. Thomas Wyatt the Younger was raised Catholic and his godfather, the Duke of Norfolk had a significant influence on Wyatts upbringing. Throughout childhood, Thomas accompanied his father on a delegation to Spain where the Inquisition began, subsequently, at the young age of sixteen, Thomas Wyatt the Younger was married. He soon prospered off his fathers death in 1542 to Allington Castle, due to personal reasons, Wyatt the Younger fled the property and had a child named Francis Wyatt, whose mother was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Edward Darrel of Littlecote. Autumn of 1543, Wyatt joined a group of volunteers to take part in the siege of Landrecies, Wyatt established himself as a prominent figure in the military and was highly recognised by Thomas Churchyard. Next, Wyatt took part in the siege of Boulogne with responsible command, in 1547, he was elected Member of Parliament for Kent. In 1550, he was given the title of commissioner to delimit the English frontier in France but became ill, later, Wyatt claimed to have assisted Queen Mary against the Duke of Northumberland when the Duke threatened the throne for his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey. Thomas Wyatt viewed this decision as an injustice to the nation, according to Wyatt he never planned on protesting against the Queens marriage until he was approached by Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon, who wished to prevent the Queens plan. When the official announcement was published on 15 January, 1553–54, Wyatt. After several instigators were arrested, Wyatt became the leader of the rebellion and he then published a proclamation at Maidstone stating that his plan had been approved by dyvers of the best shire. Soon, Wyatt was responsible for commanding 1,500 men and he set up his command headquarters in Rochester. Shortly after he had established his headquarters, Queen Mary was informed of Wyatts plan, the Queen offered a pardon to followers of Wyatt who retreated peacefully to their homes within twenty-four hours. Despite this, Thomas Wyatt encouraged his followers to stay by falsely announcing imminent support from France and he was given a surprising advantage when the government instructed the Duke of Norfolk to approach Wyatt and his forces. The Dukes forces were inferior to Wyatt and the rebels, when the Duke came into contact with Wyatt, many of his own men joined the rebellion, which led the Duke to flee to Gravesend. Following these events, Wyatt and the four men who accompanied him marched through Gravesend. The government addressed this issue with great seriousness, in an effort to gain time, the government offered Wyatt an opportunity to establish demands, however, this was only a formality. By this point, Wyatt had been deemed a disloyal adversary in the eyes of the monarchy, on 2 February 1554, over twenty thousand men volunteered to aid the Queen as defenders against Wyatt and his troops
27.
Alchemy
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Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Egypt and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects, the perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a stone was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Islamic works on science, Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquitys belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers, the subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. The word alchemy was borrowed from Old French alquemie, alkimie, taken from Medieval Latin alchymia, the Arabic word is borrowed from Late Greek chēmeía, chēmía, with the agglutination of the Arabic definite article al-. This ancient Greek word was derived from the early Greek name for Egypt, Chēmia, based on the Egyptian name for Egypt, the Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek chymeia meaning ‘mixture’ and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry. Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents and these traditions general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and genetic relationships. It is still a question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule, mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and these included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus and his name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemys principal symbols, according to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the forty-two books of Hermes, covering all fields of knowledge. The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice and these writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria
28.
Kilkea Castle
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Kilkea Castle is located 5 km northwest of Castledermot, County Kildare, Ireland near the village of Kilkea on the R418 regional road from Athy to Tullow. It was a stronghold of the Fitzgeralds, earls of Kildare. Sir Walter de Riddlesford built a motte and bailey castle there in 1180. A grand daughter of his married Maurice Fitzgerald, 3rd baron of Offaly, sir Thomas de Rokeby, the Justiciar of Ireland, used the castle as his military base, and died here in 1356. The Earl died in 1585 and is supposed to return to the castle every seventh year mounted on a white charger. In 1634 the castle was leased to the Jesuit Order by the widow of the 14th Earl of Kildare and that year the order entertained the Archbishop Rinuccini, Papal Nuncio to the Confederation of Kilkenny at Kilkea. In the early eighteenth century the 19th Earl of Kildare decided to make Carton House the family seat and his role as informer did not prevent the castle which had been recently done up in fine style being sacked by military during the rebellion. After a fire in 1849 the 3rd Duke of Leinster, Lord Walter was a member of the Kildare Archaeological Society in 1891. He was editor of the Journals of the Association of the Preservation of the Memorial of Dead in Ireland from 1904 until his death in 1923, after Carton was sold in 1949 Kilkea Castle became the seat of the 8th Duke of Leinster. The castle and estate was sold by the Fitzgerald family in the early 1960s, Kilkea Castle was then run as a hotel for decades, but entered Examinership in 2009, as a result of the Irish financial crisis. It was closed and put up for sale but has since sold, the polar explorer Ernest Shackleton was born near Kilkea to a Quaker family that had been millers in the south Kildare area for over a century
29.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
30.
Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare
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Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare KG, known variously as Garret the Great or The Great Earl, was Irelands premier peer. He served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1477 to 1494 and his power was so great that he was called the uncrowned King of Ireland. Gerald FitzGerald, was the son of Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare and Jane FitzGerald, the Gaelicized Cambro-Norman FitzGerald dynasty had risen to become the premier Irish Gall or Old English peers in Ireland. They were descended from Gerald de Windsor and the Welsh Princess Nest ferch Rhys, the familys deep Gaelic roots have been down-played in recent days for contemporary political reasons. In fact, Lord Gearóid or Gerald was especially exemplifying of Irelands political and cultural autonomy as summarized in the phrase More Irish than the Irish themselves, the Lords of the Pale set up a breakaway Parliament in protest, and Edward IV was forced to re-install FitzGerald. He inherited the title of Earl of Kildare in 1478, however, Henry needed Fitzgerald to rule in Ireland, and at the same time could not control him. Simnels attempt to seize the throne ended in disaster at the Battle of Stoke and many of his supporters, Henry, now secure on his throne, could afford to be merciful and pardoned both Simnel and Kildare. He presided over a period of independence from English rule between 1477 and 1494. This independence ended when his enemies in Ireland seized power and had him sent to London as a traitor and he suffered a double blow, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London, and his wife Alison died soon after. He was tried in 1496, and used the trial to convince Henry VII that the factions in Ireland were false knaves. Gearóid returned to Ireland in triumph and he ruled Ireland with an iron fist. He suppressed a rebellion in the city of Cork in 1500 by hanging the citys mayor and he raised up an army against rebels in Connacht in 1504, defeating them at the Battle of Knockdoe. A year later, on an expedition against the OCarrolls, he was wounded while watering his horse in Kilkea. He was conveyed back to Kildare, where he died on or around 3 September 1513, Gerald has been described as a man whose exceptional charisma impressed all his contemporaries, Irish and English alike. Unlike his eldest son, who favoured diplomacy, he was described as being open and plain in his dealings, he was hot-tempered and unpredictable when young, in the 1972 BBC miniseries The Shadow of the Tower, FitzGerald is played by Gawn Grainger. A legend, retold by Nuala OFaoláin, says that Fitzgerald was skilled in the black arts, however, he would never let his wife see him take on other forms, much to her chagrin. After much pleading, he yielded to her, and turned himself into a goldfinch before her very eyes, a sparrowhawk flew into the room, seized the goldfinch, and he was never seen again. According to legend, the Great Earl and his soldiers now slumber in a cavern beneath the Curragh of Kildare, the Earl rises once every seven years on May Day, and rides around the Curragh on his steed
31.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
32.
Treason
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
33.
Dublin Castle
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Dublin Castle off Dame Street, Dublin, Ireland, was until 1922 the seat of the United Kingdom governments administration in Ireland, and is now a major Irish government complex. Most of it dates from the 18th century, though a castle has stood on the site since the days of King John, the first Lord of Ireland. The Castle served as the seat of English, then later British government of Ireland under the Lordship of Ireland, the Kingdom of Ireland, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921, the complex was handed over to the newly formed Provisional Government led by Michael Collins. The castle today is a major tourist attraction and conferencing destination, the building is also used for State dinners and most significantly, the inauguration of the presidents of Ireland. Dublin Castle fulfilled a number of roles through its history, the second in command in the Dublin Castle administration, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, also had his offices there. Over the years parliament and law courts met at the castle before moving to new purpose-built venues and it also served as a military garrison. Castle Catholic was a term for Catholics who were considered to be overly friendly with or supportive of the British administration. Upon formation of the Free State in 1922, the castle assumed for a decade the role of the Four Courts on the Liffey quays which had been damaged during the Civil War. It was decided in 1938 that the inauguration of the first President of Ireland, Douglas Hyde would take place in the castle, two dedicated conference facilities, The Hibernia Conference Centre and The Printworks, were install for the European Presidencies of 1990 and 2013. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city. The city wall directly abutted the castles northeast Powder Tower, extending north, in 1620 the English-born judge Luke Gernon was greatly impressed by the wall, a huge and mighty wall, foursquare, and of incredible thickness. The Poddle was diverted into the city through archways where the walls adjoined the castle, one of these archways and part of the wall survive buried underneath the 18th-century buildings, and are open to public inspection. The building survived until 1673, when it was damaged by fire, the Court of Castle Chamber, the Irish counterpart to the English Star Chamber, sat in Dublin Castle in a room which was specially built for it about 1570. The Castle sustained severe damage in 1684. Extensive rebuilding transformed it from medieval fortress to Georgian palace, United Irishmen General Joseph Holt, a participant in the 1798 Rising, was incarcerated in the Bermingham Tower before being transported to New South Wales in 1799. In 1884 officers at the Castle were at the centre of a homosexual scandal incited by the Irish Nationalist politician William OBrien through his newspaper United Ireland. In 1907 the Irish Crown Jewels were stolen from the Castle, suspicion fell upon the Officer of Arms, Sir Arthur Vicars, but rumours of his homosexuality and links to socially important gay men in London, may have compromised the investigation
34.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
35.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
36.
Parliament of Ireland
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The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops, while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise. The main purpose of parliament was to approve taxes that were levied by. Those who would pay the bulk of taxation, the clergy, merchants and landowners, in 1541 the parliament voted to create the Kingdom of Ireland. However, this Irish Parliament was a meeting of Irish nobles and bishops, later, in the 15th century, Irish parliaments began to invite representatives of the people. Among its most famous meeting places were Dublin Castle, the Bluecoat School, Chichester House and, its permanent home. The Irish Parliament was formally founded in 1297 by the Justiciar, John Wogan, to represent the Irish, in 1292 a less formal assembly of unelected nobles and merchants had raised £10,000, known as the lay subsidy. This tax was a fifteenth of the net worth of the chattels of wealthier citizens, the poor, the Parliament arose from and for citizens of the Lordship of Ireland, based on Norman laws and English practices. Magna Carta was extended in 1217 in the Great Charter of Ireland, alongside this reduced control grew a Gaelic resurgence that was political as well as cultural. In turn this resulted in numbers of the Anglo-Irish Old English nobility joining the independent Gaelic nobles in asserting their feudal independence. Eventually the crowns power shrank to a fortified enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. The Parliament thereafter became essentially the forum for the Pale community until the 16th century, the role of the Parliament changed after 1541, when Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor conquest of Ireland. Initially in 1537, the Irish Parliament approved both the Act of Supremacy, acknowledging Henry VIII as head of the Church and the dissolution of the monasteries, the Plantation of Ulster allowed English and Scottish Protestant candidates in as representatives of the newly formed boroughs in planted areas. Initially this gave Protestants a majority of 132-100 in the House of Commons, in the House of Lords the Catholic majority continued until the 1689 Patriot Parliament, with the exception of the Commonwealth period. Following the death of Cromwell and the end of the Protectorate, then, during the reign of James II of England, who had converted to Roman Catholicism, Irish Catholics briefly recovered their pre-eminent position as the crown now favoured their community. When James was overthrown in England, he turned to his Catholic supporters in the Irish Parliament for support, nonetheless, the franchise was still available to wealthier Catholics. Until 1728, Catholics voted in House of Commons elections and held seats in the Lords, for no particular reason, beyond a general pressure for Catholics to conform, they were barred from voting in the election for the first parliament in the reign of George II. Privileges were also limited to supporters of the Church of Ireland
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Mabel Browne, Countess of Kildare
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Mabel Browne, Countess of Kildare was the wife of Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare, Baron of Offaly. She was born into the English Roman Catholic Browne family whose members held prominent positions at the courts of the Tudor sovereigns for three generations, Mabel served as a gentlewoman of Queen Mary Is Privy Chamber, and enjoyed the Queens favour. Mabel was born in Sussex, England in about 1536, to Sir Anthony Browne, Knight of the Garter, Master of the Horse and her paternal grandparents were Sir Anthony Browne, Standard Bearer of England and Governor of Queenborough Castle, and Lucy Neville. Mabels maternal grandparents were Sir John Gage and Philippa Guildford and she had five brothers, including Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu, and two sisters. One of her aunts was Elizabeth Browne, a lady-in-waiting to Anne Boleyn, when Mabel was about seven years of age, in 1543, her father married Elizabeth FitzGerald, an Irish noblewoman celebrated as The Fair Geraldine in a sonnet by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. The Brownes were Roman Catholics, but even after the Dissolution of the Monasteries Mabels father enjoyed the favour of King Henry VIII when he was granted the estate of Battle Abbey in East Sussex. Mabel spent her childhood there and at Cowdray House in West Sussex, Mabels father died 6 May 1548, and his widow married secondly Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln. According to historian Mary Anne Everett Green in her Royal and Illustrious Ladies, FitzGerald was given his sobriquet on account of his interest in alchemy. They were married in the Chapel Royal during the reign of Queen Mary I, Mabel was a gentlewoman of Queen Marys Privy Chamber, and in February, the same year of his marriage to Mabel, FitzGerald had helped suppress the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt. Mabel went to live with her husband at Kilkea Castle, Kildare, in Ireland, together FitzGerald and Mabel had five children. Lady Elizabeth FitzGerald, married Donnchadh MacConchobhair OBrien, 4th Earl of Thomond, Lord Gerald FitzGerald, Lord Offaly, Lord Garratt, married in October 1578, Catherine Knollys, a granddaughter of Mary Boleyn. They had a daughter Lettice who married Sir Robert Digby and these were the direct ancestors of the celebrated 19th-century adventuress Jane Digby. Lord Henry Na Tuagh FitzGerald, 12th Earl of Kildare, married Lady Frances Howard, Lord William FitzGerald, 13th Earl of Kildare Lady Mary FitzGerald, married Christopher Nugent, 14th Baron Delvin, by whom she had issue. While Mabel had enjoyed the favour of Queen Mary, she was welcome at the court of the latters successor, Queen Elizabeth I. She was also a friend of Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria. According to author Vincent P. Carey, Mabel maintained a refuge, Elizabeth however had a certain fondness for him and refused to take any decisive action against him, he died in London in 1585, technically a free man, though he was forbidden to leave the city. Mabel died in Ireland on 25 August 1610 and she was about seventy-four years of age. Her last years were troubled by a lawsuit brought against her by her granddaughter Lettice Digby, Mabel admitted that the will had been altered but insisted that this had been done on legal advice
38.
Anthony Browne (died 1548)
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Sir Anthony Browne, KG was an English courtier, Master of the Horse and a Knight of the Shire. Anthony junior was thereby half-brother of William Fitzwilliam, 1st Earl of Southampton and his recorded royal service began in 1518, when he was appointed surveyor and master of hunting for the Yorkshire castles and Lordships of Hatfield, Thorne, and Conisbrough. He was included him in an embassy to hand over Tournai to Francois I, thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, knighted him on 1 July 1522. In 1525 he was lieutenant of the Isle of Man. He was ambassador to France in 1527, reporting home in increasingly anti-French terms, in 1539 he was appointed Master of the Horse for life. During the uprisings in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire in 1536, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, Browne was sent against the Catholic protesters to test his loyalty. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1540 and given ownership of Battle Abbey, confiscated by the Crown in 1538 as part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which he turned into a country house. When Henry VIII came to Rochester to meet Anne of Cleves, he first sent Anthony, as his Master of Horse, Anthony later declared that he was never more dismayed in his life, lamenting in his heart to see the Lady so far unlike that which was reported. Henry confided his own disappointment the next day to Anthony as they returned to Greenwich by barge and he was elected to Parliament as knight of the shire for Surrey in 1539 and re-elected in 1542,1545, and 1547. Sometime after 1540, he married Elizabeth Fitzgerald, daughter of Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare and they had two children who died young. Elizabeth was one of the beauties of the Court, known as the fair Geraldine. After his death she remarried Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln, as a conservative, he had to be careful not to be brought down by factional politics at the court of Henry VIII. He became so trusted by Henry that in the Kings latter years, Browne held a dry stamp of the Kings signature, by 1547, he was Keeper of Oatlands Palace. He died on 6 May 1548 at Byfleet, Surrey, and was buried at Battle in a tomb with his first wife and he was succeeded by his eldest son, Anthony. Browne was said to be a man and two members of his family were said to have been mistresses of Henry VIII. One, Mistress Browne, we do not know her first name, one piece of information, however, points to it being his sister, Elizabeth Browne, countess of Worcester. The ex-mistress was alleged to have been a mover in the downfall of Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth Browne was a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne Boleyn and the witness against her
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Master of the Horse
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The Master of the Horse was a position of varying importance in several European nations. The Magister Equitum served as the Dictators main lieutenant, the nomination of the Magister Equitum was left to the choice of the Dictator, unless a senatus consultum specified, as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be appointed. The Magister Equitum was granted a form of imperium, but at the level as a praetor. In the Dictators absence, the Magister Equitum became his representative and it was usually but not always necessary for the man nominated as Magister Equitum to have already held the office of Praetor. Accordingly, the Magister Equitum had the insignia of a praetor, the toga praetexta, the most famous Master of the Horse is Mark Antony, who served during Julius Caesars first dictatorship. After the constitutional reforms of Augustus, the office of Dictator fell into disuse, the title magister equitum was revived in the late Empire, when Constantine I established it as one of the supreme military ranks, alongside the Magister Peditum. Eventually, the two offices would be amalgamated into that of the Magister Militum, the title Constable, from the Latin comes stabuli or count of the stables, has a similar history. The Master of the Horse in the United Kingdom was once an important official of the sovereigns household, the master of the horse is the third dignitary of the court, and was always a member of the ministry, a peer and a privy councillor. All matters connected with the horses and formerly also the hounds of the sovereign, as well as the stables and coachhouses, the stud, mews and previously the kennels, are within his jurisdiction. The practical management of the Royal Stables and stud devolves on the chief or Crown Equerry, the Clerk Marshal had the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and was in waiting on the Sovereign on state occasions only. They were always officers of the army, and each of them was on duty for about the time as the lords. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, at the Coronation they assisted the groom of the stole in carrying the royal train. The current Master of the Horse is Samuel Vestey, 3rd Baron Vestey, today the Master of the Horse has a primarily ceremonial office, and rarely appears except on state occasions, and especially when the Sovereign is mounted. The Crown Equerry has daily oversight of the Royal Mews, which provides transport for the Sovereign. Train travel is arranged by the Royal Travel Office, which also co-ordinates air transport, the Pages of Honour, who appear only on ceremonial occasions, and the Equerries, were nominally under the authority of the Master of the Horse. The former are now controlled by the Keeper of the Privy Purse, the latter are effectively independent, and are functionally closer to the Private Secretarys Office. There are now three equerries to the Sovereign, and a number of extra equerries - usually retired officers with some connection to the Royal Household. The extra equerries are rarely if ever required for duty, for some years the senior Equerry has also held the position of Deputy Master of the Household
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Elizabeth FitzGerald, Countess of Lincoln
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Lady Elizabeth FitzGerald, Countess of Lincoln, also known as The Fair Geraldine, was an Irish noblewoman and a member of the celebrated FitzGerald dynasty. She became the wife of Sir Anthony Browne and later the third wife of English admiral Edward Clinton. She was the inspiration for The Geraldine, a written by Henry Howard. Queen Elizabeth I of England, whom Lady Elizabeth served as a lady-in-waiting, was her close friend and her half-brother was Thomas Silken Thomas FitzGerald. Her paternal grandparents were Gerald Garret Mor FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and Alison FitzEustace and her maternal great-grandmother was Queen Elizabeth Woodville. Lady Elizabeth was brought up at the Court of King Henry VIII as a companion to the infant Princess Elizabeth and she first arrived with her mother and one of her sisters in October 1533. In 1534, her father, who was imprisoned in the Tower of London on corruption charges, in 1537, at the age of ten, she became immortalised by the poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey as The Fair Geraldine in his sonnet The Geraldine. The poet was said to have been captivated by her childish beauty, there is no truth to the rumour that they were lovers as she was only ten years old at the time. Her younger brothers were raised alongside Prince Edward, who later became King Edward VI and she was sent to the household of Princess Mary at Hunsdon following the execution of her half-brother Silken Thomas and her five uncles for treason. Her eldest brother Gerald, the 11th Earl of Kildare, had gone on the run in Ireland, in Donegal, Gerald, along with other powerful Irish clans, who were related to the FitzGeralds by marriage, formed the Geraldine League. When that federation was defeated in Monaghan, he sought refuge on the Continent and he returned to England in the reign of Edward VI, where he was welcomed at Court and his confiscated lands returned to him. In 1543, at the age of sixteen, Lady Elizabeth married Sir Anthony Browne KG, the Brownes were staunchly Roman Catholic. On 6 May 1548, Sir Anthony died, leaving Lady Elizabeth a widow at the age of twenty-one and she had two children by Sir Anthony, but they both died young. On 1 October 1552 she married her husband, Lord High Admiral Edward Clinton at Sempringham, Kesteven. Clinton was Lord-Lieutenant of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire and he was also a Privy Counsellor. He was created 1st Earl of Lincoln in 1572 and served as Ambassador to France, Lady Elizabeth was a close intimate of Queen Elizabeth I of England. They reportedly got on together in the brief period they both resided at Chelsea Manor. When the plot failed, Lady Elizabeth and her husband managed to regain the trust of Princess Mary, shortly after the ascension of Marys half-sister Elizabeth Tudor to the throne following Marys death in 1558, Lady Elizabeth was at court as one of the Queens ladies-in-waiting
41.
Chapel Royal
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A Chapel Royal is, in both Canada and the United Kingdom, an eccesiastical body of clergy, singers and vestry officers appointed to serve the spiritual needs of the countrys reigning sovereign. In the UK, it is a department of the Ecclesiastical Household, the household is further divided into two parts, an ecclesiastical household each for Scotland and England, belonging to the Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively. The latter was designated as a Chapel Royal in 2004 by Queen Elizabeth II and is under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ontario, in April 2016 the Queen approved in principle that St. Catherines Chapel, Massey College, Toronto be designated a Chapel Royal. In their early history, the English and Scottish Chapels Royal travelled, like the rest of the court, with the monarch, the first records of the Scottish Chapel Royal date from the eleventh century. James IV of Scotland established a building for the Chapel Royal in Stirling Castle in 1501, the Italianate building was used for the christening of Jamess son, Prince Henry. The English Chapel Royal had emerged as a body by the eleventh century. The chapel achieved its greatest eminence during the reign of Elizabeth I, the Master of the Children had, until at least 1684, the power to impress promising boy trebles from provincial choirs for service in the chapel. In the 17th century the Chapel Royal had its own building in Whitehall, in the 18th century the choristers sang the soprano parts in performances of Handels oratorios and other works. Under Charles II, the choir was augmented by violinists from the royal consort, at various times the chapel has also employed composers, lutenists. The Chapel Royal refers not to a building but to an establishment in the Royal Household, the term is also, however, applied to those buildings used as chapels by the priests and singers of the Chapel Royal for the performance of their duties. The two currently regularly used British Chapels Royal are located in St. Jamess Palace in London, the Chapel Royal, since such establishments are outside the usual diocesan structure, they are classified as royal peculiars. He is assisted by the Revd William Whitcombe and the Revd Richard Bolton, the Chapels Royal are served by a choir, six Gentlemen-in-Ordinary and ten Children of the Chapel— all boys. The current Director of Music of the English Chapel Royal is Huw Williams who is assisted by a sub organist, the Chapel Royal occupies a number of buildings. The Chapel Royal conducts the Service of Remembrance at the Cenotaph in Whitehall and this building has been used regularly since 1702 and is the most commonly used facility today. Located in the block of St Jamess Palace, it was built circa 1540 and altered since. The large window to the right of the gatehouse is in the north wall of this chapel which is laid out on a north-south rather than the usual east-west axis. Its ceiling richly decorated with initials and coats of arms is said to have been painted by Holbein. From the 1690s it was used by Continental Protestant courtiers and became known as the German chapel, after the adjacent apartments burnt down in 1809 they were not replaced, and in 1856-57 Marlborough Road was built between the palace and the chapel
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Bishop of Kildare
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The Bishop of Kildare was an episcopal title which took its name after the town of Kildare in County Kildare, Ireland. The title is no longer in use by any of the main Christian churches having been united with other bishoprics, in the Roman Catholic Church, the title has been merged with that of the bishopric of Leighlin and is currently held by the Bishop of Kildare and Leighlin. In the Church of Ireland, the title has merged with that of the bishopric of Meath and is currently held by the Bishop of Meath. In the 5th century, the Abbey of Kildare was founded by Saint Brigid, the abbey was governed by an abbess, who was the heir of Brigit, and by abbots, bishops and abbot-bishops, who were subordinate to the abbess. Although the bishopric was founded with the abbey in the fifth-century, the diocese covered roughly the northern part of County Kildare and the eastern part of County Offaly. After the episcopate of Walter Wellesley, there were parallel apostolic successions, in the Church of Ireland, Kildare continued as an independent diocese until 1846 when it amalgamated with Dublin and Glendalough to form the united Diocese of Dublin, Kildare and Glendalough. In 1976, Kildare broke away from Dublin and Glendalough and combined with Meath to form the current united Diocese of Meath, the Roman Catholic bishopric of Kildare too remained separate until it linked with the bishopric of Leighlin. The bishops of Kildare had been apostolic administrators of Leighlin since 1683, Church of Ireland Diocese of Meath and Kildare Roman Catholic Diocese of Kildare and Leighlin Kildare Cathedral Diocese of Kildare at kildare. ie
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Earl of Thomond
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Earl of Thomond was an hereditary title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created twice for the OBrien dynasty which was an ancient Irish sept native to north Munster, under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, King Henry VIII of England was created King of Ireland by the Parliament of Ireland. In consequence, all reigning monarchs and clan chiefs in Ireland were ordered to surrender their native titles in return for peerages, the earldom was first created in 1543 for Murrough OBrien. He had previously been styled King of Thomond and was descended from the Ard Ri or High King of Ireland, OBrien was also created Baron Inchiquin, on 1 July 1543. On the same day his nephew and heir, Donough OBrien, was created Baron Ibrickane, the titles of Ibrickane and Thomond merged on the first Earls death in 1551, and the barony of Inchiquin went to his eldest son. The 8th Earl was created Viscount Tadcaster, in the Peerage of Great Britain, however, when he died in 1741, the next heir would have been a descendant of Daniel OBrien, 3rd Viscount Clare who was attainded in 1691, so the three titles became forfeit. However, Charles OBrien, 6th Viscount Clare, a Jacobite exile used the title Earl of Thomond, as did his son, the second creation was on 11 December 1756 when Percy Wyndham-OBrien was created Earl of Thomond and Baron Ibracken. On his death in 1774, both became extinct. Murrough OBrien, 1st Earl of Thomond Donough OBrien, 2nd Earl of Thomond – created Baron Ibrickane in 1543, all titles forfeit on his death
44.
Mary Boleyn
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Mary Boleyn, also known as Lady Mary, was the sister of English queen Anne Boleyn, whose family enjoyed considerable influence during the reign of King Henry VIII. Mary was one of the mistresses of Henry VIII for a period of time. It has been rumoured that she bore two of the children, though Henry did not acknowledge either of them as he had acknowledged Henry FitzRoy, his son by another mistress. Mary was also rumoured to have been a mistress of Henry VIIIs rival, King Francis I of France, for some period between 1515 and 1519. Mary Boleyn was married twice, in 1520 to William Carey, and again, secretly, in 1534, to William Stafford, a soldier from a good family but with few prospects. This secret marriage to a man considered beneath her station angered both Henry VIII and her sister, Queen Anne, and resulted in Marys banishment from the royal court and she spent the remainder of her life in obscurity. She then died seven years later, Mary was probably born at Blickling Hall, the family seat in Norfolk, and grew up at Hever Castle, Kent. She was the daughter of a diplomat and courtier, Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, by his marriage to Lady Elizabeth Howard. There is no evidence of Marys exact date of birth, most historians suggest that she was the eldest of the three surviving Boleyn children. Evidence suggests that the Boleyn family treated Mary as the eldest child, in 1597, many ancient peerages can descend through female heirs, in the absence of an immediate male heir. If Anne had been the sister, the better claim to the title would have belonged to her daughter. However, it appears that Queen Elizabeth offered Marys son, Henry, if Mary had been the eldest Boleyn sister, Henry would have inherited the title upon his grandfathers death without a new grant from the queen. There is more evidence to suggest that Mary was older than Anne and she was married first, on 4 February 1520, an elder daughter was traditionally married before her younger sister. In 1532, when Anne was created Marchioness of Pembroke, she was referred to as one of the daughters of Thomas Boleyn, were she the eldest, that status would probably have been mentioned. Most historians now accept Mary as the eldest child, placing her birth some time in 1499, Mary was brought up with her brother George and her sister Anne by a French governess at Hever Castle in Kent. She was given a conventional education deemed essential for young ladies of her rank and status, which included the principles of arithmetic, grammar, history, reading, spelling. She was also taught archery, falconry, riding, and hunting, after a few weeks, many of the Queens English maids were sent away, but Mary was allowed to stay, probably due to the fact that her father was the new English ambassador to France. Even when Queen Mary left France after she was widowed on 1 January 1515, Mary remained behind at the court of Louis son-in-law and daughter, Francis I and Claude
