1.
Family name
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A surname or family name is a name added to a given name. In many cases, a surname is a name and many dictionaries define surname as a synonym of family name. In the English-speaking world, it is synonymous with last name because it is usually placed at the end of a persons given name there. In most Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking countries, two or more surnames may be used, in Hungary, Hong Kong, Cambodia, China, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Taiwan, Vietnam, and parts of India, the family name is placed before a persons given name. The concept of a surname is a recent historical development. Based on an occupation or area of residence, a byname would be used in situations where more than one person had the same name. A family name is typically a part of a personal name which. The use of names is common in most cultures around the world. However, the style of having both a name and a given name is far from universal. In many countries, it is common for people to have only one name or mononym. Also, in most Slavic countries and in Greece, for example, Surname laws vary around the world. If a childs paternity was not known, or if the putative father denied paternity and that is still the custom and law in many countries. The surname for children of married parents is usually inherited from the father, in this article, family name and surname both mean the patrilineal surname, handed down from or inherited from the fathers line or patriline, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Thus, the maternal surname means the patrilineal surname which ones mother inherited from either or both of her parents. For a discussion of matrilineal surnames, passing from mothers to daughters, mrs. Ms. Miss, Dr, and so on. Generally the given name, first name, forename, or personal name is the one used by friends, family and it may also be used by someone who is in some way senior to the person being addressed. This practice also differs between cultures, see T–V distinction, the study of proper names in family names is called onomastics. A one-name study is a collection of vital and other data about all persons worldwide sharing a particular surname
2.
Den Helder
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Den Helder is a municipality and a city in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. Den Helder occupies the northernmost point of the North Holland peninsula and it is home to the countrys main naval base. From here the Royal TESO ferryboat service operates the transportation link between Den Helder and the nearby Dutch Wadden island of Texel to the north. The municipality of Den Helder consists of the cities, towns, villages and/or districts, Den Helder, Huisduinen, Julianadorp. The major areas of Den Helder are Old Den Helder, Nieuw-Den Helder, Nieuw-Den Helder was built in the 1950s, following World War II, when there was a great need for additional housing. De Schooten was constructed in the 1960s, Dutch Topographic map of Den Helder, March 2014. Huisduinen was the older part of the city, whereas Helder itself was a nearby smaller hamlet. Due to its location at the tip of the North Holland peninsula. The area likely began being called Helledore because of the water between now Den Helder and Texel called Marsdiep, the current of the water was so strong many ships were lost. The name Helder may also have come from Helle/Helde, which means hill or hilly grounds, or from Helre, Den Helder has played an important part in Dutch shipping. During the Dutch Golden Age, ships would be assembled near Den Helder, on 23 January 1795, the French captured 14 Dutch ships and 850 guns in the deepfrozen towns harbour. In 1799 the city was the target of the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, during the 1820s, the North Holland Canal was dug from Amsterdam to Den Helder. The lighthouse Lange Jaap was built in 1877 and is the tallest cast-iron lighthouse in Europe, Den Helder was the site of a naval base as early as the 18th century. An Anglo-Russian invasion force landed at Den Helder in August 1799, French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, visiting Den Helder in 1811, was impressed with the towns strategic location and ordered the construction of a fort and naval dockyards. The docks were built during the years 1813-1827, in 1947, it officially became the Royal Netherlands Navys main centre of operations. Den Helder continues to be the main base today. The Royal Netherlands Naval College is also located in the city, the old naval dockyards of Willemsoord, located in the north of the city, now house restaurants, a cinema, and other recreational facilities. The naval docks and administration have moved to a new location further east
3.
Utrecht University
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Utrecht University is a university in Utrecht, the Netherlands. It is one of the oldest universities in the Netherlands, established March 26,1636, it had an enrollment of 30,449 students in 2012, and employed 5,295 faculty and staff. In 2011,485 PhD degrees were awarded and 7,773 scientific articles were published, the 2013 budget of the university was €765 million. The universitys motto is Sol Iustitiae Illustra Nos, which means Sun of Justice and this motto was gleaned from a literal Latin Bible translation of Malachi 4,2. Utrecht University is led by the University Board, consisting of prof. dr, bert van der Zwaan and Hans Amman. This section incorporates text translated from the Dutch Wikipedia article Utrecht University was founded on March 26,1636, the influential professor of theology Gisbertus Voetius delivered the inaugural speech, and Bernardus Schotanus became the universitys first rector magnificus. Initially, only a few dozen students attended classes at the university, seven professors worked in four faculties, philosophy, which offered all students an introductory education, and three higher-level faculties. Utrecht University flourished in the century, despite competition with the older universities of Leiden, Franeker and Groningen. Leiden, in particular, proved a strong competitor and made further improvement necessary, a botanical garden was built on the grounds of the present Sonnenborgh Observatory, and three years later the Smeetoren added an astronomical observatory. The university attracted students from abroad. They witnessed the intellectual and theological battle the proponents of the new philosophy fought with the proponents of the strict Reformed theologian Voetius, Leiden, Louvain, Groningen, Utrecht and Ghent were the five universities of the new state, and Leiden received the title of eerste hoge school. Two of the universities became part of the new Belgian state after it separated from the northern Netherlands in 1830 and this left Utrecht one of only three Dutch universities. Utrecht played a prominent role in the age of Dutch science. Around 1850 the Utrechtian School of science formed, with Pieter Harting, Gerardus J. Mulder, buys Ballot and Franciscus Donders among the leading scientists. They introduced the educational laboratory as a learning place for their students. The University is represented in the Stichting Academisch Erfgoed, a foundation with the goal of preserving university collections, the other five faculties and most of the administrative services are located in De Uithof, a campus area on the outskirts of the city. University College Utrecht is situated in the former Kromhout Kazerne, which used to be a Dutch military base, University College Roosevelt is located off-campus in the city of Middelburg in the south-west of the Netherlands. Utrecht University counts a number of distinguished scholars among its alumni and faculty, on the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities list, the University of Utrecht was ranked 56th in the world and the highest in the Netherlands
4.
Quantum field theory
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QFT treats particles as excited states of the underlying physical field, so these are called field quanta. In quantum field theory, quantum mechanical interactions among particles are described by interaction terms among the corresponding underlying quantum fields and these interactions are conveniently visualized by Feynman diagrams, which are a formal tool of relativistically covariant perturbation theory, serving to evaluate particle processes. The first achievement of quantum theory, namely quantum electrodynamics, is still the paradigmatic example of a successful quantum field theory. Ordinarily, quantum mechanics cannot give an account of photons which constitute the prime case of relativistic particles, since photons have rest mass zero, and correspondingly travel in the vacuum at the speed c, a non-relativistic theory such as ordinary QM cannot give even an approximate description. Photons are implicit in the emission and absorption processes which have to be postulated, for instance, the formalism of QFT is needed for an explicit description of photons. In fact most topics in the development of quantum theory were related to the interaction of radiation and matter. However, quantum mechanics as formulated by Dirac, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger in 1926–27 started from atomic spectra, as soon as the conceptual framework of quantum mechanics was developed, a small group of theoreticians tried to extend quantum methods to electromagnetic fields. A good example is the paper by Born, Jordan & Heisenberg. The basic idea was that in QFT the electromagnetic field should be represented by matrices in the way that position. The ideas of QM were thus extended to systems having a number of degrees of freedom. The inception of QFT is usually considered to be Diracs famous 1927 paper on The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation, here Dirac coined the name quantum electrodynamics for the part of QFT that was developed first. Employing the theory of the harmonic oscillator, Dirac gave a theoretical description of how photons appear in the quantization of the electromagnetic radiation field. Later, Diracs procedure became a model for the quantization of fields as well. These first approaches to QFT were further developed during the three years. P. Jordan introduced creation and annihilation operators for fields obeying Fermi–Dirac statistics and these differ from the corresponding operators for Bose–Einstein statistics in that the former satisfy anti-commutation relations while the latter satisfy commutation relations. The methods of QFT could be applied to derive equations resulting from the treatment of particles, e. g. the Dirac equation, the Klein–Gordon equation. Schweber points out that the idea and procedure of second quantization goes back to Jordan, in a number of papers from 1927, some difficult problems concerning commutation relations, statistics, and Lorentz invariance were eventually solved. The first comprehensive account of a theory of quantum fields, in particular
5.
Quantum gravity
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Quantum gravity is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, and where quantum effects cannot be ignored. The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity, the necessity of a quantum mechanical description of gravity is sometimes said to follow from the fact that one cannot consistently couple a classical system to a quantum one. This is false as is shown, for example, by Walds explicit construction of a consistent semiclassical theory, the problem is that the theory one gets in this way is not renormalizable and therefore cannot be used to make meaningful physical predictions. As a result, theorists have taken up more radical approaches to the problem of quantum gravity, a theory of quantum gravity that is also a grand unification of all known interactions is sometimes referred to as The Theory of Everything. As a result, quantum gravity is a mainly theoretical enterprise, much of the difficulty in meshing these theories at all energy scales comes from the different assumptions that these theories make on how the universe works. Quantum field theory, if conceived of as a theory of particles, General relativity models gravity as a curvature within space-time that changes as a gravitational mass moves. Historically, the most obvious way of combining the two ran quickly into what is known as the renormalization problem, another possibility is to focus on fields rather than on particles, which are just one way of characterizing certain fields in very special spacetimes. This solves worries about consistency, but does not appear to lead to a version of full general theory of relativity. Quantum gravity can be treated as a field theory. Effective quantum field theories come with some high-energy cutoff, beyond which we do not expect that the theory provides a description of nature. The infinities then become large but finite quantities depending on this finite cutoff scale and this same logic works just as well for the highly successful theory of low-energy pions as for quantum gravity. Indeed, the first quantum-mechanical corrections to graviton-scattering and Newtons law of gravitation have been explicitly computed. In fact, gravity is in ways a much better quantum field theory than the Standard Model. Specifically, the problem of combining quantum mechanics and gravity becomes an issue only at high energies. This problem must be put in the context, however. While there is no proof of the existence of gravitons. The predicted find would result in the classification of the graviton as a force similar to the photon of the electromagnetic field. Many of the notions of a unified theory of physics since the 1970s assume, and to some degree depend upon
6.
Holographic principle
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First proposed by Gerard t Hooft, it was given a precise string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind who combined his ideas with previous ones of t Hooft and Charles Thorn. As pointed out by Raphael Bousso, Thorn observed in 1978 that string theory admits a lower-dimensional description in which gravity emerges from it in what would now be called a holographic way. Cosmological holography has not been made mathematically precise, partly because the horizon has a non-zero area. The holographic principle was inspired by black hole thermodynamics, which conjectures that the entropy in any region scales with the radius squared. In the case of a hole, the insight was that the informational content of all the objects that have fallen into the hole might be entirely contained in surface fluctuations of the event horizon. The holographic principle resolves the black hole information paradox within the framework of string theory, however, there exist classical solutions to the Einstein equations that allow values of the entropy larger than those allowed by an area law, hence in principle larger than those of a black hole. These are the so-called Wheelers bags of gold, the existence of such solutions conflicts with the holographic interpretation, and their effects in a quantum theory of gravity including the holographic principle are not yet fully understood. An object with relatively high entropy is microscopically random, like a hot gas, a known configuration of classical fields has zero entropy, there is nothing random about electric and magnetic fields, or gravitational waves. Since black holes are exact solutions of Einsteins equations, they were not to have any entropy either. But Jacob Bekenstein noted that this leads to a violation of the law of thermodynamics. If one throws a hot gas with entropy into a hole, once it crosses the event horizon. The random properties of the gas would no longer be seen once the black hole had absorbed the gas and settled down. One way of salvaging the second law is if black holes are in random objects with an entropy that increases by an amount greater than the entropy of the consumed gas. Bekenstein assumed that black holes are maximum entropy objects—that they have more entropy than anything else in the same volume, in a sphere of radius R, the entropy in a relativistic gas increases as the energy increases. The only known limit is gravitational, when there is too much energy the gas collapses into a black hole, Bekenstein used this to put an upper bound on the entropy in a region of space, and the bound was proportional to the area of the region. He concluded that the black hole entropy is proportional to the area of the event horizon. Stephen Hawking had shown earlier that the horizon area of a collection of black holes always increases with time. The horizon is a boundary defined by light-like geodesics, it is those light rays that are just barely unable to escape, if neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole
7.
Renormalization
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For example, a theory of the electron may begin by postulating a mass and charge. However, in field theory this electron is surrounded by a cloud of possibilities of other virtual particles such as photons. Taking these interactions into account shows that the electron-system in fact behaves as if it had a different mass, Renormalization replaces the originally postulated mass and charge with new numbers such that the observed mass and charge matches those originally postulated. Renormalization specifies relationships between parameters in the theory when the parameters describing large distance scales differ from the parameters describing small distances, physically, the pileup of contributions from an infinity of scales involved in a problem may then result in infinities. When describing space and time as a continuum, certain statistical, to define them, this continuum limit—the removal of the construction scaffolding of lattices at various scales—has to be taken carefully. Renormalization procedures are based on the requirement that certain quantities are equal to the observed values. Renormalization was first developed in quantum electrodynamics to make sense of infinite integrals in perturbation theory, all scales are linked in a broadly systematic way, and the actual physics pertinent to each is extracted with the suitable specific computational techniques appropriate for each. Wilson clarified which variables of a system are crucial and which are redundant, Renormalization is distinct from regularization, another technique to control infinities by assuming the existence of new unknown physics at new scales. The problem of infinities first arose in the electrodynamics of point particles in the 19th. The mass of a charged particle should include the mass–energy in its electrostatic field, assume that the particle is a charged spherical shell of radius re. This implies that the point particle would have infinite inertia, making it unable to be accelerated, Renormalization, The total effective mass of a spherical charged particle includes the actual bare mass of the spherical shell. If the shells bare mass is allowed to be negative, it might be possible to take a consistent point limit and this was called renormalization, and Lorentz and Abraham attempted to develop a classical theory of the electron this way. This early work was the inspiration for later attempts at regularization and renormalization in quantum field theory, when calculating the electromagnetic interactions of charged particles, it is tempting to ignore the back-reaction of a particles own field on itself. But this back-reaction is necessary to explain the friction on charged particles when they emit radiation, if the electron is assumed to be a point, the value of the back-reaction diverges, for the same reason that the mass diverges, because the field is inverse-square. The Abraham–Lorentz theory had a noncausal pre-acceleration, sometimes an electron would start moving before the force is applied. This is a sign that the point limit is inconsistent, in quantum electrodynamics at small coupling the electromagnetic mass only diverges as the logarithm of the radius of the particle. When developing quantum electrodynamics in the 1930s, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, Pascual Jordan, the divergences appear in radiative corrections involving Feynman diagrams with closed loops of virtual particles in them. Such a particle is called off-shell, when there is a loop, the momentum of the particles involved in the loop is not uniquely determined by the energies and momenta of incoming and outgoing particles
8.
Spinoza Prize
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The Spinoza Prize is an annual award of 2.5 million Euro, to be spent on new research given by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. The award is the highest scientific award in the Netherlands and it is named after the philosopher Baruch de Spinoza. The prize is awarded to researchers in the Netherlands who belong to the best in their field, academics can nominate each other and an international commission evaluates the submissions. It is sometimes referred to as the Dutch Nobel Prize, the following persons have received this award, Spinoza Prize
9.
Franklin Medal
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The Franklin Medal was a science award presented from 1915 through 1997 by the Franklin Institute located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U. S. It was founded in 1914 by Samuel Insull, the Franklin Medal was the most prestigious of the various awards presented by the Franklin Institute. Together with other awards, it was merged into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. Recipients are listed in a database on The Franklin Institute website
10.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
11.
Lomonosov Gold Medal
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Since 1967, two medals are awarded annually, one to a Russian and one to a foreign scientist. It is the Academys highest accolade, pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, cumulatively, for works in physics of low temperatures. Aleksandr Nikolaevich Nesmeyanov, accumulatively for works in chemistry, sin-Itiro Tomonaga, for substantial scientific contributions to the development of physics. Hideki Yukawa, for outstanding merits in the development of theoretical physics, sir Howard Walter Florey, for an outstanding contribution in the development of medicine. Nikolai Vasilevich Belov, accumulatively for works in crystallography, vladimir Aleksandrovich Engelgardt, for outstanding achievements in biochemistry and molecular biology. István Rusznyák, for outstanding achievements in medicine, nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov, for outstanding achievements in chemical physics. Giulio Natta, for outstanding achievements in the chemistry of polymers Ivan Matveevich Vinogradov, arnaud Denjoy, for outstanding achievements in mathematics. Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian, for outstanding achievements in astronomy and astrophysics, hannes Alfvén, for outstanding achievements in physics of plasma and astrophysics. Nikoloz Muskhelishvili, for outstanding achievements in mathematics and mechanics, max Steenbeck, for outstanding achievements in the physics of plasma and applied physics. Aleksandr Pavlovich Vinogradov, for outstanding achievements in geochemistry, vladimír Zoubek, for outstanding achievements in geology. Aleksandr Ivanovich Tselikov, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology, angel Balevski, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology. Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh, for outstanding achievements in mathematics, mechanics, maurice Roy, for outstanding achievements in mechanics and its applications. Semyon Isaakovich Volfkovich, for outstanding achievements in chemistry and the technology of phosphorus, herman Klare, for outstanding achievements in the chemistry and technology of man-made fibers. Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrentiev, for outstanding achievements in mathematics and mechanics, linus Carl Pauling, for outstanding achievements in chemistry and biochemistry. Anatolii Petrovich Aleksandrov, for outstanding achievements in science and technology. Alexander Robertus Todd, for outstanding achievements in organic chemistry, aleksandr Ivanovich Oparin, for outstanding achievements in biochemistry. Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy, for outstanding achievements in mathematics, boris Yevgenevich Paton, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology. Jaroslav Kožešník, for outstanding achievements in applied mathematics and mechanics, vladimir Aleksandrovich Kotelnikov, for outstanding achievements in radiophysics, radio engineering and electronics
12.
Theoretical physics
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
13.
Martinus J. G. Veltman
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Martinus Justinus Godefriedus Tini Veltman is a Dutch theoretical physicist. He shared the 1999 Nobel Prize in physics with his former student Gerardus t Hooft for their work on particle theory, Martinus Justinus Godefriedus Veltman was born in Waalwijk, Netherlands on 27 June 1931. His father was the head of the primary school. Three of his fathers siblings were primary school teachers and his mothers father was a contractor and also ran a café. He was the child in a family with six children. He started studying mathematics and physics at Utrecht University in 1948, as a youth he had a great interest in radio electronics, which was a difficult hobby to work on because the occupying German army had confiscated most of the available radio equipment. In 1955, he became an assistant to Prof. Michels of the Van Der Waals laboratory in Amsterdam, Michels was an experimental physicist, working in high pressure physics. His primary task was the upkeep of a library collection. His research career advanced when he moved to Utrecht to work under Leon Van Hove in 1955 and he finished his masters degree in 1956, after which he was drafted into military service for two years, returning in February 1959. Van Hove then hired him as a PhD student, even though he was now 27 years old and he obtained his PhD in theoretical physics in 1963 and became professor at Utrecht University in 1966. In 1960, Van Hove became director of the division at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. Veltman followed him there in 1961, meanwhile, in 1960, he married his wife Anneke, who gave birth to their daughter Hélène in the Netherlands, before moving to Geneva to live with Martinus. Hélène followed in her fathers footsteps and in due time completed her particle physics thesis with Mary Gaillard at Berkeley, Veltman was closely involved in the 1963 CERN neutrino experiment, analyzing images as they were generated by the detectors. When no spectacular events came out, enthusiasm waned, and after a while Veltman, as a result, Veltman became the spokesman for the group at the Brookhaven Conference in 1963. In 1971, Gerardus t Hooft, who was completing his PhD under the supervision of Veltman and they showed that if the symmetries of Yang–Mills theory were to be realized in the spontaneously broken mode, referred to as the Higgs mechanism, then Yang–Mills theory can be renormalized. Renormalization of Yang–Mills theory is an achievement of twentieth century physics. In 1980, Veltman became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, in 1981, Veltman left Utrecht University for the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor. Eventually, he shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1999 with t Hooft, Veltman and t Hooft joined in the celebrations at Utrecht University when the prize was awarded
14.
Robbert Dijkgraaf
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Robertus Henricus Robbert Dijkgraaf is a Dutch mathematical physicist and string theorist. He is tenured professor at the University of Amsterdam, and director, robertus Henricus Dijkgraaf was born on 24 January 1960 in Ridderkerk, Netherlands. He lives in Princeton, New Jersey, Dijkgraaf is married to the author Pia de Jong and has three children. Dijkgraaf went to Erasmiaans Gymnasium in Rotterdam, Netherlands and he started his education in physics at Utrecht University in 1978. After completing his Bachelors degree equivalent in 1982 he briefly turned away from physics to pursue painting at the Gerrit Rietveld Academie, in 1984, he returned to Utrecht University, to start on his masters degree in theoretical physics. After obtaining his MSc degree, he continued working towards his PhD under supervision of Nobel laureate Gerard t Hooft and he studied together with the twins Erik and Herman Verlinde. The original arrangement was only one of the trio would work on string theory. Dijkgraaf obtained his doctorate in 1989 cum laude and his thesis was titled A Geometrical Approach to Two Dimensional Conformal Field Theory. Subsequently, Dijkgraaf held positions at Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study, in 1992, he was appointed professor at the University of Amsterdam, where he held the chair of mathematical physics until 2004, when he was appointed distinguished professor at the same university. He regularly appears on Dutch television and has a column in the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, from 2008 to 2012 he was president of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected as one of the two co-chairs of the InterAcademy Council for the period 2009-2013, starting 1 July 2012 Dijkgraaf became the director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. On that date he stepped down from his position as president of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, Robbert Dijkgraaf is a member of the CuriosityStream Advisory Board. In 2003, Dijkgraaf was awarded the Spinoza Prize, in doing so he became the first recipient of the award whose advisor also was a recipient. He used part of his Spinoza Prize grant to set up a website targeted at children and promoting science, Dijkgraaf is a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2003 and the Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Humanities. On 5 June 2012 he was made a Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, in 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. Dijkgraafs research focuses on string theory and the interface of mathematics and physics in general and he is best known for his work on topological string theory and matrix models, and his name has been given to the Dijkgraaf-Witten invariants and the Witten-Dijkgraaf-Verlinde-Verlinde formula. Blikwisselingen Het nut van nutteloos onderzoek Robbert Dijkgraaf, official website Robbert Dijkgraaf, profile at the IAS website Quantum Questions Inspire New Math, Quanta Magazine, March 30,2017
15.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
16.
Electroweak interaction
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In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature, electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 246 GeV, thus, if the universe is hot enough, then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force. During the electroweak epoch, the electroweak force separated from the strong force, during the quark epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force. In 1999, Gerardus t Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the theory is renormalizable. Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU × U gauge group, the corresponding gauge bosons are the three W bosons of weak isospin from SU, and the B boson of weak hypercharge from U, respectively, all of which are massless. In the Standard Model, the W± and Z0 bosons, UY and Uem are different copies of U, the generator of Uem is given by Q = Y/2 + I3, where Y is the generator of UY, and I3 is one of the SU generators. The spontaneous symmetry breaking makes the W3 and B bosons coalesce into two different bosons – the Z0 boson, and the photon, = Where θW is the mixing angle. The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the plane and this also introduces a mismatch between the mass of the Z0 and the mass of the W± particles, M Z = M W cos θ W. The W1 and W2 bosons, in turn, combine to give massive charged bosons W ± =12, the Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking L E W = L g + L f + L h + L y. The L g term describes the interaction between the three W particles and the B particle, L f is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the bosons and the fermions are through the gauge covariant derivative. The h term describes the Higgs field F. L h = | D μ h |2 − λ2 The y term gives the Yukawa interaction that generates the masses after the Higgs acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value. The Lagrangian reorganizes itself after the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value, due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows. The neutral current L N and charged current L C components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons, the charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by L C = − g 2 W μ + + h. c. L H contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms, L H = − g m H24 m W H3 − g 2 m H232 m W2 H4 L H V contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons. L H V = L W W V contains the gauge three-point self interactions. L Y = − ∑ f g m f 2 m W f ¯ f H Note the 1 − γ52 factors in the weak couplings and this is why electroweak theory is commonly said to be a chiral theory
17.
Gauge theory
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In physics, a gauge theory is a type of field theory in which the Lagrangian is invariant under a continuous group of local transformations. An invariant is a model that holds no matter the mathematical procedure applied to it. This is the concept behind gauge invariance, the idea of fields as described by Michael Faraday in his study of electromagnetism led to the postulate that fields could be described mathematically as scalars and vectors. When a field is transformed, but the result is not, applying gauge theory creates a unification which describes mathematical formulas or models that hold good for all fields of the same class. The term gauge refers to any specific mathematical formalism to regulate redundant degrees of freedom in the Lagrangian, the transformations between possible gauges, called gauge transformations, form a Lie group—referred to as the symmetry group or the gauge group of the theory. Associated with any Lie group is the Lie algebra of group generators, for each group generator there necessarily arises a corresponding field called the gauge field. Gauge fields are included in the Lagrangian to ensure its invariance under the local group transformations, when such a theory is quantized, the quanta of the gauge fields are called gauge bosons. If the symmetry group is non-commutative, the theory is referred to as non-abelian. Many powerful theories in physics are described by Lagrangians that are invariant under some symmetry transformation groups, when they are invariant under a transformation identically performed at every point in the spacetime in which the physical processes occur, they are said to have a global symmetry. Local symmetry, the cornerstone of gauge theories, is a stricter constraint, in fact, a global symmetry is just a local symmetry whose groups parameters are fixed in spacetime. Gauge theories are important as the field theories explaining the dynamics of elementary particles. Quantum electrodynamics is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U and has one gauge field. The Standard Model is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U×SU×SU and has a total of twelve gauge bosons. Gauge theories are important in explaining gravitation in the theory of general relativity. Its case is unusual in that the gauge field is a tensor. Theories of quantum gravity, beginning with gauge gravitation theory, also postulate the existence of a gauge boson known as the graviton, both gauge invariance and diffeomorphism invariance reflect a redundancy in the description of the system. An alternative theory of gravitation, gauge theory gravity, replaces the principle of covariance with a true gauge principle with new gauge fields. Historically, these ideas were first stated in the context of classical electromagnetism, however, the modern importance of gauge symmetries appeared first in the relativistic quantum mechanics of electrons – quantum electrodynamics, elaborated on below
18.
Black hole
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A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing—not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from inside it. The theory of relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon, although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, no locally detectable features appear to be observed. In many ways a black hole acts like a black body. Moreover, quantum theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Black holes were considered a mathematical curiosity, it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity. The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality, black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings, by absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies, despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an accretion disk heated by friction. If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black holes mass, such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars.3 million solar masses. On 15 June 2016, a detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced. The idea of a body so massive that light could not escape was briefly proposed by astronomical pioneer John Michell in a letter published in 1783-4. Michell correctly noted that such supermassive but non-radiating bodies might be detectable through their effects on nearby visible bodies. In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity, only a few months later, Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations, which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass. A few months after Schwarzschild, Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the solution for the point mass. This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, the nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time
19.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
20.
Frits Zernike
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Frederik Frits Zernike was a Dutch physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize for physics in 1953 for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope. Frederik Zernike was born on 16 July 1888 in Amsterdam, Netherlands to Carl Frederick August Zernike, both parents were teachers of mathematics, and he especially shared his fathers passion for physics. He studied chemistry, mathematics and physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1912, he was awarded a prize for his work on opalescence in gases. In 1913, he became assistant to Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn at the laboratory of Groningen University. In 1914, he was jointly with Leonard Salomon Ornstein for the derivation of the Ornstein-Zernike equation in critical-point theory. In 1915, he obtained a position in physics at the same university. It was at a Physical and Medical Congress in Wageningen in 1933 that Zernike first described his phase contrast technique in microscopy and he extended his method to test the figure of concave mirrors. His discovery lay at the base of the first phase contrast microscope, another contribution in the field of optics is related to the efficient description of the imaging defects or aberrations of optical imaging systems like microscopes and telescopes. The representation of aberrations was originally based on the theory developed by Ludwig Seidel in the middle of the nineteenth century, seidels representation was based on power series expansions and did not allow a clear separation between various types and orders of aberrations. Zernikes orthogonal circle polynomials provided a solution to the problem of the optimum balancing of the various aberrations of an optical instrument. Since the 1960s, Zernikes circle polynomials are used in optical design, optical metrology. Zernikes work helped awaken interest in theory, the study of partially coherent light sources. In 1938 he published a derivation of Van Citterts 1934 theorem on the coherence of radiation from distant sources. He died in the hospital at Amersfoort, Netherlands in 1966 after suffering illness the last years of his life, in 1946, Zernike became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1954, Zernike became an Honorary Member of The Optical Society, Zernike was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society. The university complex to the north of the city of Groningen is named after him, Zernikes great-nephew Gerardus t Hooft won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1999. The Oz Enterprise, a Linux distribution, was named after Leonard Salomon Ornstein, brinkman, Zernike, Frits, in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland. Prominente Groningse hoogleraren Frits Zernike Frits Zernike biography at the National library of the Netherlands
21.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
22.
Leiden University
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Leiden University, located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, the Dutch Royal Family and Leiden University still have a close relationship, Queens Juliana and Beatrix and King Willem-Alexander are all former students. Leiden University has seven faculties, over 50 departments and enjoys an international reputation. Shanghai Jiao Tong Universitys 2011 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Leiden University as the 29th best university worldwide, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings consistently rank Leiden University as the best university in Continental Europe for Arts and Humanities. During this time Leiden was home to figures as René Descartes, Rembrandt, Christiaan Huygens, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza. The university is a member of the Coimbra Group, the Europaeum, Leiden University houses more than 40 national and international research institutes. In 1575, the emerging Dutch Republic did not have any universities in its northern heartland, the only other university in the Habsburg Netherlands was the University of Leuven in southern Leuven, firmly under Spanish control. It is said the choice fell on Leiden as a reward for the defence of Leiden against Spanish attacks in the previous year. Ironically, the name of Philip II of Spain, Williams adversary, appears on the foundation certificate. Philip II replied by forbidding any subject to study in Leiden, renowned philosopher Baruch Spinoza was based close to Leiden during this period and interacted with numerous scholars at the university. At the end of the century, Leiden University again became one of Europes leading universities. At the world’s first university low-temperature laboratory, professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes achieved temperatures of one degree above absolute zero of −273 degrees Celsius. In 1908 he was also the first to succeed in liquifying helium, Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913. In 2005 the manuscript of Einstein on the theory of the monatomic ideal gas was discovered in one of Leidens libraries. Of the seventy-seven Spinozapremie, nineteen were granted to professors of the Universiteit Leiden, literary historian Frits van Oostrom was the first professor of Leiden to be granted the Spinoza award for his work on developing the NLCM centre into a top research centre. Among other leading professors are Wim Blockmans, professor of Medieval History, the portraits of many famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history of science. The University Library, which has more than 5 and it houses the largest collections worldwide on Indonesia and the Caribbean. Scholars from all over the world visit Leiden University Library, the oldest in the Netherlands, the anatomical and pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored
23.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
24.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
25.
Math Olympiad
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Mathematics competitions or mathematical olympiads are competitive events where participants sit a mathematics test. These tests may require multiple choice or numeric answers, or a detailed written solution or proof, the team will be given 14 days to research on two real world problems and will present its solution in the form of a research paper. Scholarships are awarded to top teams,2016 competition is from October 4 to 18. These contests are suitable for all students, not only those who are strong in mathematics, results are available on the evening of the contest day. Video solutions to selected questions and all previous contests can be tried online for free, <https, //www. cariboutests. com/> Championnat International de Jeux Mathématiques et Logiques — for all ages, mainly for French-speaking countries, but participation is not limited by language. European Mathematical Cup - Europe <http, //emc. mnm. hr/> Grand Sentinel - International Mathematical Tournament with by far the biggest prizes - Winners get $175,000, International Mathematics Competition for University Students — international competition for undergraduate students. <http, //olympiad. sanjesh. org/en/index. asp> International Schools Mathematics Teachers Foundation — annual competition for school students attending an international school. Held every year in a different school, <http, //mopta. ie. lehigh. edu> Online Math Event of the annual technical festival Shaastra, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India. Individual student and team memberships are available, site also offers online Virtual Tournaments for students to attend through webcam, and Onsite Tournaments at Colleges and Schools. <http, //perennialmath. com/tournaments> Primary Mathematics World Contest — worldwide competition, Math Meet — annual on-line team contest for high school & middle school <http, //purplecomet. org/> Rocket City Math League — This is a mathematics competition run by students at Virgil I. Grissom High School with levels ranging from Explorer to Discovery, <http, //www. rocketcitymath. org> Romanian Master of Mathematics and Sciences — This is an olympiad for the selections of the 20 top countries in the last IMO. The level of the competition is IMO-like, singapore and Asian Schools Math Olympiad, http, //mathsolympiads. org/Vietnam 30/4 Olympiad for Mathematics — Regional Olympiad in the Southern Vietnam. Vietnam Mathematics Competition for University Students, american Mathematics Olympiad, http, //amo. sg/#. /about-us/ Soviet Student Olympiads Mathematics scholarship competitions
26.
Coxswain
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The coxswain /ˈkɒksən/ is the person in charge of a boat, particularly its navigation and steering. In rowing, the coxswain sits in either the bow or the stern of the boat while verbally and physically controlling the steering, speed, timing. The primary duty of a coxswain is to ensure the safety of those in the boat, in a race setting, the coxswain is tasked with motivating the crew as well as steering as straight a course as possible to minimize the distance to the finish line. Coxswains are also responsible for knowing proper rowing technique and running drills to improve technique. A coxswain is the coach in the boat, in addition to following the orders of the coach, the coxswain is connected to the way the boat feels, whats working, what needs to be changed. A successful coxswain must keep track of the drill, time, pace, words of the coach, feel of the boat, direction of the boat, and safety. During a race, a coxswain is responsible for steering, calling the moves, in the Royal Navy in the days of sail, the coxswain was a petty officer or chief petty officer who commanded the barge of a captain or admiral. In World War II pilots of landing craft were referred to as coxswains, in the Royal Canadian Navy, the appointment of coxswain is given to the senior non-commissioned officer aboard a ship, the equivalent to a command master chief petty officer in the US Navy. For larger vessels such as a destroyer, frigate or the Harry DeWolf-class ships, for smaller vessels such as a submarine or Kingston-class coastal defence vessel, a coxswain usually holds the rank of petty officer 1st class. The term was sometimes used aboard merchant ships for the senior petty officer in charge of the helm. The fictional Israel Hands, for example, was the coxswain of Hispaniola in Treasure Island, the Rank of Coxswain equates to the rank of Cadet Warrant Officer in the Royal Air Force Sections, and the rank of Cadet Regimental Sergeant Major in the Army Sections. In the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets, the position of Coxswain is often appointed to the cadet with the rank of Cadet Chief Petty Officer First Class. This would be the equivalent of the position of Regimental Sergeant Major in the Royal Canadian Army Cadets held by a Cadet Chief Warrant Officer. Before a person can be assigned to be a coxswain, they have to go through a procedure, be certified. Upon certification, they are awarded the Coxswain Badge and this qualification procedure requires a significant amount of practice in boat handling as well as previous experience as a boat crew member. Any Coast Guardsman may become a coxswain upon proper qualification, an advancement to boatswains mate second class requires that the individual qualify as and maintain certification as a coxswain. A commanding officer or officer in charge of a land based unit with boats has to be certified, a coxswain is assigned to a boat by the command authority and can only be relieved by the commanding officer/Officer in Charge, executive officer/Executive Petty Officer, or senior officer present. The coxswain’s authority is independent of rank and/or seniority in relation to any person on board the boat
27.
Elementary particle
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In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown, thus, it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle, soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. As the 1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been observed, along with the photon, via quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to contain quarks—up quarks and down quarks—now considered elementary particles. And within a molecule, the three degrees of freedom can separate via wavefunction into three quasiparticles. Yet a free electron—which, not orbiting a nucleus, lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable. Meanwhile, an elementary boson mediating gravitation—the graviton—remains hypothetical, all elementary particles are—depending on their spin—either bosons or fermions. These are differentiated via the theorem of quantum statistics. Particles of half-integer spin exhibit Fermi–Dirac statistics and are fermions, Particles of integer spin, in other words full-integer, exhibit Bose–Einstein statistics and are bosons. In the Standard Model, elementary particles are represented for predictive utility as point particles, though extremely successful, the Standard Model is limited to the microcosm by its omission of gravitation and has some parameters arbitrarily added but unexplained. According to the current models of big bang nucleosynthesis, the composition of visible matter of the universe should be about 75% hydrogen. Neutrons are made up of one up and two down quark, while protons are made of two up and one down quark. Since the other elementary particles are so light or so rare when compared to atomic nuclei. Therefore, one can conclude that most of the mass of the universe consists of protons and neutrons. Some estimates imply that there are roughly 1080 baryons in the observable universe, the number of protons in the observable universe is called the Eddington number. Other estimates imply that roughly 1097 elementary particles exist in the universe, mostly photons, gravitons. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a theory rather than a truly fundamental one. The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three generations of four particles each, six of the particles are quarks. The remaining six are leptons, three of which are neutrinos, and the three of which have an electric charge of −1, the electron and its two cousins, the muon and the tau
28.
Pion
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In particle physics, a pion is any of three subatomic particles, π0, π+, and π−. Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a meson, pions are the lightest mesons, because they are composed of the lightest quarks. They are unstable, with the charged pions π+ and π− decaying with a lifetime of 26 nanoseconds. Charged pions most often decay into muons and muon neutrinos, while neutral pions decay into gamma rays. The exchange of virtual pions, along with the vector, rho and omega mesons, pions are not produced in radioactive decay, but are commonly produced in high energy accelerators in collisions between hadrons. All types of pions are produced in natural processes when high energy cosmic ray protons. The concept of mesons as the particles of the nuclear force was first proposed in 1935 by Hideki Yukawa. While the muon was first proposed to be this particle after its discovery in 1936, the pions, which turned out to be examples of Yukawas proposed mesons, were discovered later, the charged pions in 1947, and the neutral pion in 1950. Theoretical work by Hideki Yukawa in 1935 had predicted the existence of mesons as the particles of the strong nuclear force. From the range of the nuclear force, Yukawa predicted the existence of a particle having a mass of about 100 MeV. Initially after its discovery in 1936, the muon was thought to be this particle, however, later experiments showed that the muon did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction. In modern terminology, this makes the muon a lepton, however, some communities of astrophysicists continue to call the muon a mu-meson. In 1947, the first true mesons, the pions, were found by the collaboration of Cecil Powell, César Lattes, Giuseppe Occhialini, et al. at the University of Bristol. Since the advent of particle accelerators had not yet come, high-energy subatomic particles were only obtainable from atmospheric cosmic rays, after the development of the photographic plates, microscopic inspection of the emulsions revealed the tracks of charged subatomic particles. Pions were first identified by their unusual double meson tracks, which were left by their decay into a putative meson, the particle was identified as a muon, which is not typically classified as a meson in modern particle physics. Further advanced theoretical work was carried out by Riazuddin, who in 1959, since the neutral pion is not electrically charged, it is more difficult to detect and observe than the charged pions are. Neutral pions do not leave tracks in photographic emulsions, and neither do they in Wilson cloud chambers, the existence of the neutral pion was inferred from observing its decay products from cosmic rays, a so-called soft component of slow electrons with photons. The π0 was identified definitively at the University of Californias cyclotron in 1950 by observing its decay into two photons, later in the same year, they were also observed in cosmic-ray balloon experiments at Bristol University
29.
Photon
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A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The photon has zero rest mass and is moving at the speed of light. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself. The quanta in a light wave cannot be spatially localized, some defined physical parameters of a photon are listed. The modern concept of the photon was developed gradually by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century to explain experimental observations that did not fit the classical model of light. The benefit of the model was that it accounted for the frequency dependence of lights energy. The photon model accounted for observations, including the properties of black-body radiation. In that model, light was described by Maxwells equations, in 1926 the optical physicist Frithiof Wolfers and the chemist Gilbert N. Lewis coined the name photon for these particles. After Arthur H. Compton won the Nobel Prize in 1927 for his studies, most scientists accepted that light quanta have an independent existence. In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other particles are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles, such as charge, mass and it has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck was studying black-body radiation and suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In his 1901 article in Annalen der Physik he called these packets energy elements, the word quanta was used before 1900 to mean particles or amounts of different quantities, including electricity. In 1905, Albert Einstein suggested that waves could only exist as discrete wave-packets. He called such a wave-packet the light quantum, the name photon derives from the Greek word for light, φῶς. Arthur Compton used photon in 1928, referring to Gilbert N. Lewis, the name was suggested initially as a unit related to the illumination of the eye and the resulting sensation of light and was used later in a physiological context. Although Wolferss and Lewiss theories were contradicted by many experiments and never accepted, in physics, a photon is usually denoted by the symbol γ
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
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Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
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CERN
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
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Strong interaction
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At the range of 10−15 m, the strong force is approximately 137 times as strong as electromagnetism, a million times as strong as the weak interaction and 1038 times as strong as gravitation. The strong nuclear force holds most ordinary matter together because it confines quarks into hadron particles such as proton and neutron, in addition, the strong force binds neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei. Most of the mass of a proton or neutron is the result of the strong force field energy. The strong interaction is observable at two ranges, on a scale, it is the force that binds protons and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom. On the smaller scale, it is the force that holds together to form protons, neutrons. In the latter context, it is known as the color force. The strong force inherently has such a strength that hadrons bound by the strong force can produce new massive particles. Thus, if hadrons are struck by particles, they give rise to new hadrons instead of emitting freely moving radiation. This property of the force is called color confinement, and it prevents the free emission of the strong force, instead, in practice. In the context of binding protons and neutrons together to form atomic nuclei, in this case, it is the residuum of the strong interaction between the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. As such, the strong interaction obeys a quite different distance-dependent behavior between nucleons, from when it is acting to bind quarks within nucleons. The binding energy that is released on the breakup of a nucleus is related to the residual strong force and is harnessed as fission energy in nuclear power. The strong interaction is mediated by the exchange of particles called gluons that act between quarks, antiquarks, and other gluons. Gluons are thought to interact with quarks and other gluons by way of a type of charge called color charge. Color charge is analogous to electromagnetic charge, but it comes in three rather than one, which results in a different type of force, with different rules of behavior. These rules are detailed in the theory of quantum chromodynamics, which is the theory of quark-gluon interactions, after the Big Bang and during the electroweak epoch of the universe, the electroweak force separated from the strong force. A Grand Unified Theory is hypothesized to exist to describe this, but no theory has yet been successfully formulated. Before the 1970s, physicists were uncertain as to how the nucleus was bound together
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