1.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
2.
Weimar Republic
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Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place, the official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich, it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, in its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their leaders for the countrys defeat. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations. Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the borders of the republic. From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, the Great Depression, exacerbated by Brünings policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government, the Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the éminence grise who would keep Hitler under control, within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency, it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitlers seizure of power was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation and these events brought the republic to an end, as democracy collapsed, a single-party state founded the Nazi era. The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model, the Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat while on the moderate left the Chancellors SPD preferred Deutsche Republik. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany, after the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy and this left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. If the Reichs Eagle is shown without a frame, the charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reichs coat of arms are to be used. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design, the artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. The achievements and signs of movement were mostly done away with after its downfall
3.
Dresden Art Academy
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
4.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
5.
Visual arts
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The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages
6.
Saxony
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Its capital is Dresden, and its largest city is Leipzig. Saxony is the tenth largest of Germanys sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres, located in the middle of a large, formerly all German-speaking part of Europe, the history of the state of Saxony spans more than a millennium. It has been a medieval duchy, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, a kingdom, the area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony, the area inhabited by Saxons. Old Saxony corresponds approximately to the modern German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony is divided into 10 districts,1. After a reform in 2008, these regions - with some alterations of their respective areas - were called Direktionsbezirke, in 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, the Landesdirektion Sachsen. The Erzgebirgskreis district includes the Ore Mountains, and the Schweiz-Osterzgebirge district includes Saxon Switzerland, the largest cities in Saxony according to the 31 December 2015 estimate. To this can be added that Leipzig forms a metropolitan region with Halle. The latter city is located just across the border to Saxony-Anhalt, Leipzig shares for instance an S-train system and an airport with Halle. Saxony has, after Saxony Anhalt, the most vibrant economy of the states of the former East Germany and its economy grew by 1. 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average, the eastern part of Germany, excluding Berlin, qualifies as an Objective 1 development-region within the European Union, and is eligible to receive investment subsidies of up to 30% until 2013. FutureSAX, a business competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002. Microchip makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname Silicon Saxony, the publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today the automobile industry, machinery production and services contribute to the development of the region. Saxony is also one of the most renowned tourist destinations in Germany - especially the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, new tourist destinations are developing, notably in the lake district of Lausitz. Saxony reported an unemployment of 8. 8% in 2014. By comparison the average in the former GDR was 9. 8% and 6. 7% for Germany overall, the unemployment rate reached 8. 2% in May 2015. The Leipzig area, which recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments by Porsche. With the VW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many part suppliers, zwickau is another major Volkswagen location
7.
Lower Silesia
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Lower Silesia is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, Upper Silesia is to the southeast. Throughout its history Lower Silesia has been under the control of the medieval Kingdom of Poland, the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1526. After 1945 the main part of the former Prussian Province of Lower Silesia fell to the Republic of Poland, Lower Silesia is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław. To the north, Lower Silesia originally stretched up to Świebodzin and Krosno Odrzańskie, the Barycz river forms the border with historic Greater Poland in the northeast, the Upper Silesian lands lie to the southeast. They are topographically divided into Western, Central and Eastern Sudetes, the adjacent Silesian Lowland includes the Silesian Lowlands and the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands. The southern part of the Lowland includes The Sudeten Foreland, consisting of quite low Wzgórze Strzegomskie,232 m or 761 ft, Grupa Ślęży, Lower hills occur also in areas of Obniżenie Sudeckie, Świdnik, and Kotlina Dzierżoniowska. The eastern part of Silesian Lowland consists of the wide Silesian Lowlands, the eastern part includes also Równina Wrocławska with its surrounding lands, Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km long and over 150 m high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, the range of hills includes, Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka, is located in the northern part, the region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements, slopes of the hills over 180–200 m are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with the Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. Later form of economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes, not only fertile grounds, but also mild climate is conductive to development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5 °C, average temperature of the hottest month is 19 °C, and −0.5 °C of the coldest month. The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres, with its maximum in July, the snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest, Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of the area. There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz, the other guite large rivers—Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse—flow into Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, the characteristic feature of the lowlands landscape is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica is the place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived. The largest one is Jezioro Kunickie, Jezioro Koskowickie, Jezioro Jaśkowickie, in contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages
8.
Bogatynia
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Bogatynia ( is a town in Zgorzelec County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. The municipal area forms a Polish panhandle between the Czech town of Frýdlant in the east and the German town of Zittau in the west, to the southwest, the tripoint of the Czech, German and Polish borders is located on the Neisse River. The town lies approximately 27 kilometres south of Zgorzelec, and 147 kilometres west of the regional capital Wrocław, as of 2006 it had 19,068 inhabitants. The settlement of Richnow in the region of Upper Lusatia was first mentioned in a 1262 deed. It prospered from its location on an important trade route connecting Dresden, residence of the Meissen margraves, initially a possession of the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II granted Lusatia to the Saxon Electorate by the 1635 Peace of Prague. As Saxony had sided with the French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars, after the new border had been drawn, Reichenau was the only possession east of the Neisse River that remained with the newly established Kingdom of Saxony. The town used to be connected via narrow gauge railway opened in 1884 to Zittau and to the Bohemian border. Cross border service discontinued in 1945, the line was finally closed down in 1961. On August 8,2010, the Miedzianka stream flooded the central part of the town, causing heavy damage. The cause of the flooding was extremely heavy rain and the swelling of the river Miedzianka. The word bogaty in Polish describes a rich or wealthy person - a calque from the towns original German name, Reichenau. werkowski. eu Companies in Bogatynia/Bogatynia at www. firmy. bogatynia. net. pl
9.
Upper Lusatia
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Upper Lusatia is a historical region in Germany and Poland. Along with Lower Lusatia to the north, it makes up the region of Lusatia, both Lusatias are home to the West Slavic minority group of the Sorbs. The major part of Upper Lusatia belongs to the German state of Saxony, roughly comprising the Bautzen, the northwestern extremity around Ruhland and Tettau is incorporated into the Oberspreewald-Lausitz district of Brandenburg. The Polish part, east of the Neisse River, belongs to Lower Silesian Voivodeship, a small strip of land in the north around Łęknica, together with the Polish part of Lower Lusatia, is incorporated into Lubusz Voivodeship. The historic capital of Upper Lusatia is Bautzen, while the largest city in the region is Görlitz/Zgorzelec, the name Lusatia superior was first recorded in a 1474 deed, derived from the adjacent Lower Lusatian lands in the north, which originally were just called the March of Lusatia. The Upper Lusatian territory was referred to as Milsko in contemporary chronicles, named after the local West Slavic Milceni tribe. Geomorphological Upper Lusatia is shaped by the uniform Lusatian granite massif, only the north and northeast, the UNESCO has declared this area a Biosphere Reserve in 1996, in particular for the protection of otters. The middle part is hilly, while the south of the is characterized by the Lusatian Mountains, the highest peaks of the Zittau Mountains are the Lausche at 792.6 m and Hochwald at 749 m. The adjacent Lusatian Highlands comprise the Landeskrone, Löbauer Berg, Kottmar, Czorneboh, Bieleboh, all major rivers in the Upper Lusatia flow from south to north. In the west, the Pulsnitz at Königsbrück formerly marked the border with the Meissen lands of the Saxon Electorate, the Spree river has its source in the Lusatian Highlands in the far south of the country and flows through Bautzen. The Lusatian Neisse has formed the German-Polish border since 1945, the river rises in the Czech Jizera Mountains, enters Upper Lusatia near Zittau, flows through Görlitz/Zgorzelec and leaves the country at Bad Muskau for Lower Lusatia. Most of the rivers are called -wasser, often in combination with the name of a village which the stream flows through. The eastern border of Upper Lusatia with Lower Silesia is marked by the River Kwisa, the central hilly Gefilde landscape between Kamenz and Löbau was especially well suited for agriculture and is still very profitable. In the 19th century, in the part of Upper Lusatia. Especially the digging in open pits has destroyed large parts of the old cultural landscape, currently the Nochten pit south of Weißwasser and Turów near Bogatynia in the Polish part are still active. Many of the old mines have been restored since the 1970s, especially after 1990. The newly formed lakes are named and advertised as the Lusatian Lake District. Even the oldest agricultural cultures left behind only little evidence of settlement, in the early Bronze Age people of the Lusatian culture entered the previously uninhabited region from Bohemia and the Lusatian Neisse
10.
Deutsches Jungvolk
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The Deutsches Jungvolk in der Hitler Jugend, German Youngsters in the Hitler Youth, was in Nazi Germany the separate section for boys aged 10 to 14 of the Hitler Youth organisation. Through a program of activities, parades and sports, it aimed to indoctrinate its young members in the tenets of Nazi ideology. Membership became fully compulsory for boys in 1939. By the end of World War II, some had become child soldiers, in 1945 after the end of the war the Deutsches Jungvolk, and its parent organisation the Hitler Youth, ceased to exist. The Deutsches Jungvolk was founded in 1928 by Kurt Gruber under the title Jungmannschaften but was renamed Knabenschaft, although not compulsory, the failure of eligible boys to join the DJ was seen as a failure of civic responsibility on the part of their parents. Parents could be fined or imprisoned for failing to register their children, boys were excluded if they had previously been found guilty of dishonourable acts, if they were found to be unfit for service for medical reasons, or if they were Jewish. Ethnic Poles or Danes living in the Reich could apply for exemption, the DJ and HJ copied many of the activities of the various German youth organizations that it replaced. For many boys, the DJ was the way to participate in sports, camping. However the main purpose of the DJ was the inculcation of boys in the principles of National Socialism. Members were obliged to attend Nazi party rallies and parades, on a weekly basis, there was the Heimabende, a Wednesday evening meeting for political, racial, and ideological indoctrination. Boys were encouraged to inform the authorities if their parents beliefs were contrary to Nazi dogma, recruits were called Pimpfen, a colloquial word from Upper German for boy, little rascal, scamp, or rapscallion, originally little fart. Groups of 10 boys were called a Jungenschaft with leaders chosen from the older boys and these units were further grouped into companies and battalions, each with their own leaders, who were usually young adults. Der Pimpf, the Nazi magazine for boys, was aimed at those in the Deutsches Jungvolk, with adventure. I am willing and ready to give up my life for him, the DJ uniform was very similar to the Hitler Youth equivalent. The summer uniform consisted of a black shorts and tan shirt with pockets, worn with a black neckerchief secured with a woggle. Headgear originally consisted of a beret, but when this was discarded by the HJ in 1934, the emblem of the DJ was a white Sieg rune on a black background, which symbolised victory. This was worn on the uniform in the form of a cloth badge, by 1944, the Hitler Youth formed part of the Volkssturm, an unpaid, part-time militia, and often formed special HJ companies within Volkssturm battalions. Eye witness reports of the Battle of Berlin in April 1945 record instances of young boys fighting in their DJ uniforms, complete with short trousers
11.
Hitler Youth
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The Hitler Youth was the youth organisation of the Nazi Party in Germany. Its origins dated back to 1922, with the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, the organisation de facto ceased to exist. On 10 October 1945, it was outlawed by the Allied Control Council along with other Nazi Party organisations, in 1922 the Munich-based Nazi Party established its official youth organisation called Jugendbund der NSDAP. It was announced on 8 March 1922 in the Völkischer Beobachter, another youth group was established in 1922 as the Jungsturm Adolf Hitler. Based in Munich, Bavaria, it served to train and recruit members of the Sturmabteilung. Following the abortive Beer Hall Putsch the Nazi youth groups ostensibly disbanded, in April 1924 the Jugendbund der NSDAP was renamed Grossdeutsche Jugendbewegung. On 4 July 1926 the Grossdeutsche Jugendbewegung was officially renamed Hitler Jugend Bund der deutschen Arbeiterjugend and this event took place a year after the Nazi Party itself had been reorganised. The architect of the re-organisation was Kurt Gruber, a law student from Plauen in Saxony, after a short power-struggle with a rival organisation—Gerhard Roßbachs Schilljugend—Gruber prevailed and his Greater German Youth Movement became the Nazi Partys official youth organisation. In July 1926 it was renamed Hitler-Jugend, Bund deutscher Arbeiterjugend and, for the first time, the name Hitler-Jugend was taken up on the suggestion of Hans Severus Ziegler. By 1930 the Hitlerjugend had enlisted over 25,000 boys aged 14 and it also set up a junior branch, the Deutsches Jungvolk, for boys aged 10 to 14. Girls from 10 to 18 were given their own parallel organisation, in April 1932 Chancellor Heinrich Brüning banned the Hitler Youth movement in an attempt to stop widespread political violence. But in June Brünings successor as Chancellor, Franz von Papen, lifted the ban as a way of appeasing Hitler, a further significant expansion drive started in 1933, after Baldur von Schirach was appointed by Hitler as the first Reichsjugendführer. All youth organizations were brought under Schirachs control, the members of the Hitler Youth were viewed as insuring the future of Nazi Germany and were indoctrinated in Nazi ideology, including racism. The Hitler Youth appropriated many of its activities of the Boy Scout movement, although over time it changed in content and intention. For example, many activities closely resembled military training, with training, assault course circuits. The aim was to instill the motivation that would enable its members as soldiers, there was great emphasis on physical fitness and hardness and military training than on academic study. The Hitler Youth were used to break up Church youth groups, and in anti-Church indoctrination, used to spy on religious classes and Bible studies, and interfere with church attendance. Members summer uniform consisted of a black shorts and tan shirt with pockets, worn with a black neckerchief secured with a woggle
12.
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
13.
Zittau
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Zittau is a city in the south east of the Free State of Saxony, Germany, very close to the border tri-point of Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic. It is part of the District of Görlitz, as of 31 July 2012, the city had a population of 27,506. The inner city of Zittau still shows its original beauty with many houses from several periods of German architecture, there is the famous town hall built in an Italian style, the church of St John and the stables with its medieval heritage. This multi-storied building is one of the oldest of its kind in Germany, Zittau was one of the six members of the Six-City League of Upper Lusatia. At that time the city was granted a special title—it was called Die Reiche because of its proportion of well-to-do citizens. Many of them went on to find refuge in surrounding villages, in Dresden, one of the most important trading goods of this early age in the 16th century was beer. Later in the 18th and 19th century textiles became important too, during World War II, a labour camp was located in the city. It provided forced labour for Phänomen Werke Gustav Hiller, a truck-manufacturing company, the city is also disadvantaged by the lower cost of labour in its closely neighbouring countries. In addition, lignite surface mining was discontinued in the foothills of the Zittau Mountains on the outskirts of the city, although it is still carried on across the border in Poland. This development has, however, saved parts of the city, primarily consisting today of mothballed military garrisons and schools, from what would otherwise have been certain destruction. Zittau is now a place for students and yields a lot of income from overseas investors. 2001-2015, Arnd Voigt since August 2015, Thomas Zenker, the local council has 26 members, the results of the elections in August 2014 are, Church of our Lady, A semi-gothic church that is first mentioned in 1355. City Hall, Designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel and built in Italian palazzo style between 1840 and 1845, flower Clock, A notable Zittau attraction, the flower clock was built in 1907 from a clockwork of an old Tower clock and contains approximately 4800 plants planted three times annually. Friary Church, It was the church of the Franciscan Monastery and their high altar was sacred to the apostles Peter and Paulus in 1293. The main aisle dates from 1480 and was built in the style of late gothic, in the years 1696,1731 and 1748 prayer rooms were built on the south side of the church. These were special seating areas for wealthy citizens, markt, The main central square St Johns Church, Originally built in 1230 in the Romanesque style of the Order of Saint John, whose patron saint was John the Baptist. It was later dedicated also to John the Evangelist, the building was destroyed in 1757 by Austrian soldiers during the Seven Years War. The current building was built between 1766 and 1837, Zittau Lenten Altar Cloths, two large decorated cloths which were used to hide the altar during Lent
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Karl von Appen
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Karl von Appen was a German stage designer and member of the Association of Revolutionary Visual Artists. 1954, The Caucasian Chalk Circle by Bertolt Brecht, directed by Brecht at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm in Berlin,1958, The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui by Bertolt Brecht, directed by Peter Palitzsch in Stuttgart. The Theatre of Bertolt Brecht, A Study from Eight Aspects, third rev. ed. London, Methuen,1977
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Isa Genzken
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Isa Genzken is a German contemporary artist who lives and works in Berlin. Her primary media are sculpture and installation, using a variety of materials, including concrete, plaster, wood. She also works with photography, video, film and collage, hanne-Rose Isa Genzken was raised mostly in the small northern German city of Bad Oldesloe and in Hamburg. She studied fine arts and art history with Almir Mavignier and Kai Sudeck at the Hamburg University of Fine Arts, to pay her tuition, Genzken worked part-time as a model. Randy Kennedy, In 1973 she transferred to Arts Academy Düsseldorf while also studying art history, at the academy, fellow students included artists Katharina Fritsch and Thomas Struth. Upon graduating in 1977, Genzken taught sculpture at the academy and she married German visual artist Gerhard Richter in 1982 and moved to Cologne in 1983. Genzken has worked in studios in Düsseldorf, Cologne, for short stretches in the United States, in Lower Manhattan and Hoboken, New Jersey, after her divorce from Richter, she moved from the Rhineland region back to Berlin. Genzken has bipolar disorder and goes through manic and depressive phases and she has frequently undergone treatment for substance abuse. Her diverse practice draws on the legacies of Constructivism and Minimalism and often involves a critical, open dialogue with Modernist architecture, Genzkens diverse work also keeps her from being predictable in her work. Despite Genzkens diverse work, she is a sculptor at heart. Using plaster, cement, building samples, photographs, and bric-a-brac and she further incorporates mirrors and other reflective surfaces to literally draw the viewer into her work. Genzken’s first solo exhibition was held in 1976 at the Konrad Fischer Gallery in Düsseldorf and her first solo show in the U. S. was mounted by Jack Shainman Gallery, New York, in 1989. Genzken represented Germany at the Venice Biennale in 2007 and she participated in the 2003 Venice Biennale and, in 2002, Documenta 11 in Kassel, Germany. She was the subject of a retrospective in 2009, jointly organized by the Museum Ludwig, Cologne. Other solo exhibitions in the past decade include Malmö Konsthall, Sweden, the Camden Arts Centre, London, the Photographers Gallery, London, the Kunsthalle Zürich, and the Lenbachhaus, Munich. Artist Dan Graham included Genzkens work in his Deep Comedy show at Marian Goodman Gallery, New York and her recent shows included collaborative work with Kai Althoff and Wolfgang Tillmans, in whose exhibition space Between Bridges she exhibited in 2008. She is the subject of Elizabeth Peytons painting Isa, in 2015/16 she organised the exhibition Mach dich hübsch in the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam. Genzken is represented by Galerie Buchholz, Cologne, as her primary gallery, as well as David Zwirner, New York, and Hauser & Wirth, London. C
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Refectory
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A refectory is a dining room, especially in monasteries, boarding schools, and academic institutions. One of the places the term is most often used today is in graduate seminaries and it derives from the Latin reficere to remake or restore, via Late Latin refectorium, which means a place one goes to be restored. Communal meals are the times when all monks of an institution are together, diet and eating habits differ somewhat by monastic order, and more widely by schedule. The Rule of St Benedict orders two meals, dinner is provided for year-round, supper is also served from late spring to early fall, except for Wednesdays and Fridays. The diet originally consisted of simple fare, two dishes, with fruit as a course if available. The food was simple, with the meat of mammals forbidden to all, moderation in all aspects of diet is the spirit of Benedicts law. Meals are eaten in silence, facilitated sometimes by hand signals, a single monk might read from the Scriptures or writings of the saints aloud during the meals. Refectories vary in size and dimension, based primarily on wealth and size of the monastery, monks eat at long benches, important officials sit at raised benches at one end of the hall. A lavabo, or large basin for hand-washing usually stands outside the refectory, in England, the refectory is generally built on an undercroft on the side of the cloister opposite the church. Benedictine models are generally laid out on an east–west axis. Norman refectories could be as large as 160 feet long by 35 feet wide, even relatively early refectories might have windows, but these became larger and more elaborate in the high medieval period. The refectory at Cluny Abbey was lit through thirty-six large glazed windows, the twelfth-century abbey at Mont Saint-Michel had six windows, five feet wide by twenty feet high. In Eastern Orthodox monasteries, the Trapeza is considered a sacred place, some services are intended to be performed specifically in the Trapeza. There is always at least one Icon with a lampada kept burning in front of it, the service of the Lifting of the Panagia is performed at the end of meals. During Bright Week, this service is replaced with the Lifting of the Artos, in some monasteries, the Ceremony of Forgiveness at the beginning of Great Lent is performed in the Trapeza. All food served in the Trapeza should be blessed, and for that purpose and this usage is particularly prevalent in Church of England buildings, which use the takings to supplement their income. Many universities in the UK also call their student cafeteria or dining facilities the refectory, the term is rare at American colleges, although Brown University calls its main dining hall the Sharpe Refectory. Refectory table Adams, Henry, Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres, living and Dying in England, 1100-1450
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B.A.
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
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German Hygiene Museum
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The German Hygiene Museum is a medical museum in Dresden, Germany. It conceives itself today as a forum for science, culture and it is a popular venue for events and exhibitions, and is among the most visited museums in Dresden, with around 280,000 visitors per year. One of the biggest attractions was, and remains, a transparent model of a human being, during the Third Reich the museum came under the influence of the Nazis, who used it to produce material propagandising their racial ideology and promoting eugenics. Various Nazi government offices relocated to the museum between 1933 and 1941, and the German Labour Fronts Reichsberufswettkampf was held there in 1944, large parts of the building and collection were destroyed by the bombing of Dresden in 1945. In the GDR-era the museum resumed its role as a communicator of public health information, following reunification the museum was reconceived and modernised, starting in 1991. Between 2001 and 2005 the museum was renovated and partly rebuilt under the architect Peter Kulka, the museums permanent features are the exhibition Human Adventure, covering the human race, the body, and health in its cultural and social contexts, and a childrens museum of the senses. The museum owns a collection of around 45,000 items documenting the public promotion of bodily awareness and healthy day-to-day behaviour. There is a program of temporary exhibitions on social or scientific issues. Recent examples have included Religious Energy, What Is Beautiful. and War, the museum also organises scientific and cultural events, including talks, meetings, debates, readings, and concerts. - Thomas Steller, „Kein Museum alten Stiles“, - Thomas Steller, Volksbildungsinstitut und Museumskonzern. Das Deutsche Hygiene-Museum 1912-1930, Bielefeld 2014, online, http, - Sybilla Nikolow und Thomas Steller, Das lange Echo der Internationalen Hygiene-Ausstellung in, Dresdener Hefte 12. - Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945, cambridge Monographs in the History of Medicine, Home page in English Time magazine report on the 2nd hygiene exhibition Time,2 June 1930
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Lothar Wolleh
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Lothar Wolleh was a well-known German photographer. Until the end of the sixties, Lothar Wolleh worked as a commercial photographer and he took portraits of international contemporary painters, sculptors and performance artists. Lothar Wolleh spent his youth in a Germany stamped by war, in the years from 1946 to 1948 he studied concrete painting in the elementary school class at the Hochschule für angewandte Kunst in Berlin-Weißensee. As a young man, he was arrested by the Russian occupying forces on suspicion of spying, after serving 6 years at the Russian punishment camp Vorkuta, he was able to return to Berlin due to successful negotiations concerning German prisoners of war. After his return from prison, from 1956 to 1957 Wolleh obtained an education in the Lette-Verein and he took part in a regular monthly recovery program of the World Council of Churches for war-disabled youth. This program made it possible for him to visit the Swedish island of Gotland in 1958, from 1959 to 1961, Wolleh studied at the Folkwangschule für Gestaltung in Essen. One of his teachers was the German photographer Otto Steinert, in his first years as a freelance photographer, he was most successful in advertising, recruiting customers such as Deutsche Bundesbahn or Volkswagen. In 1965, he photographed the Second Vatican Council in Rome, after that, he collaborated with Emil Schmitz to make the documentary Das Konzil, II Vatikanisches Konzil. In 1975 he photographed the Jubilee celebration, and published the photographic folios Das Konzil, among those photographed were Gerhard Richter, Niki de Saint Phalle and Jean Tinguely. He used a square format for his images, with mostly symmetrical compositions. Throughout his career, Wolleh made portrait photos of at least 109 artists, wollehs photograph of René Magritte and his wife is said to have inspired Paul Simon to compose the ballad Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War. Fotografische Ausstellung, Gruppenausstellung in der Göppinger Galerie, Frankfurt/Main 1964, bilder aus dem Vatikan, Einzelausstellung, Schatzkammer des Essener Münsters. V. Im Detmolder Schloß1995, Lothar Wolleh 1930-1979, Künstlerbildnisse - Kunstobjekte, Photographien“ Kunstmuseum Ahlen 2005–2007, Eine Wiederentdeckung, Fotografien 1959 bis 1979, Einzelausstellung, Kunsthalle Bremen, Ludwig Museum Koblenz, Kunst-Museum Ahlen, Stadtmuseum Hofheim am Taunus 2006, Joseph Beuys in Aktion. Belser Verlag 1971, Günther Uecker / Lothar Wolleh, Nagelbuch, Verlag Galerie Der Spiegel, Köln 1972, Lothar Wolleh, Art Scene Düsseldorf 1, Chr. Belser Verlag 1973, Das Unterwasserbuch 1975, Lothar Wolleh, Apostolorum Limina, Arcade Verlag, Arcade Verlag 1978, Günther Uecker, Germany, Kunstverein für die Rheinlande und Westfalen Düsseldorf. Hamburg, in, Art - Das Kunstmagazin, no.8 Gruner & Jahr. pp. 38–45, Lothar Wolleh – Eine Wiederentdeckung, Fotografien 1959 bis 1979. Media related to Lothar Wolleh at Wikimedia Commons Website of Lothar Wolleh Lothar Wolleh - Galerie f 5,6
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East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
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West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
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Berlin Wall
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The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and was completed in 1992, the barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area that contained anti-vehicle trenches, fakir beds and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the Wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the will of the people in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany, the West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the Wall of Shame—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Walls restriction on freedom of movement. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration, during this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the Wall, with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany, crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall, contrary to popular belief the Walls actual demolition did not begin until the summer of 1990 and was not completed until 1992. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, the capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the citys location, which was fully within the Soviet zone. Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the occupying powers. Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone, if statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death. Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a part of school curricula, sending professors. The East Germans created a political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance. In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several countries began a massive airlift, supplying West Berlin with food. The Soviets mounted a public campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein, in May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin. The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, by a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets permeated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control, East Germany differed from West Germany, which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy and a democratic parliamentary government
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German reunification
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The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
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Sigmar Polke
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Sigmar Polke was a German painter and photographer. Polke experimented with a range of styles, subject matters. In the 1970s, he concentrated on photography, returning to paint in the 1980s, in the last 20 years of his life, he produced paintings focused on historical events and perceptions of them. Polke, the seventh in a family of eight children, was born in Oels in Lower Silesia and he fled with his family to Thuringia in 1945, during the expulsion of Germans after World War II. His family escaped from the Communist regime in East Germany in 1953, traveling first to West Berlin, from 1961 to 1967 he studied at the Düsseldorf Arts Academy under Karl Otto Götz, Gerhard Hoehme and deeply influenced by his teacher Joseph Beuys. He began his creative output during a time of social, cultural. During the 1960s, Düsseldorf, in particular, was a prosperous, commercial city, in the early 1970s Polke lived at the Gaspelhof, an artists commune. From 1977–1991, he was a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts and his students included, among others, Georg Herold. He settled in Cologne 1978, where he continued to live, in 1963, Polke founded the painting movement Kapitalistischer Realismus with Gerhard Richter and Konrad Fischer. It is an anti-style of art, appropriating the pictorial shorthand of advertising and he also participated in Demonstrative Ausstellung, a store-front exhibition in Düsseldorf with Manfred Kuttner, Lueg, and Richter. Essentially a self-taught photographer, Polke spent the three years painting, experimenting with filmmaking and performance art. In 1966-68, during his most conceptual period, Polke used a Rollei camera to capture ephemeral arrangements of objects in his home and studio. In 1968, the year after he left the art academy, Polke published these images as a portfolio of 14 photographs of sculptures he had made from odds and ends—buttons, balloons. From 1968 to 1971, he completed several films and took thousands of photographs, most of which he could not afford to print. In 1973 he visited the U. S. with artist James Lee Byars in search of the other America and he combined both negatives and positives with images that had both vertical and horizontal orientations. The resulting collage-like compositions take advantage of under- and overexposure and negative and positive printing to create enigmatic narratives, with the negative in his enlarger, the artist developed large sheets selectively, pouring on photographic solutions and repeatedly creasing and folding the wet paper. Polke’s early work has often been characterised as European Pop art for its depiction of everyday subject matter—sausages, bread and he imitated the dotted effect of commercial newsprint by painstakingly painting each dot with the rubber at the end of a pencil. In works such as Carl Andre in Delft or, later, Protective Custody Polke used a canvas made of furnishing fabric, embedded in these images are incisive and parodic commentaries on consumer society, the postwar political scene in Germany, and classic artistic conventions
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HA Schult
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His best known works include the touring work, Trash People, which exhibited on all continents, and the Save The Beach hotel, a building made of garbage. HA Schult studied art at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf from 1958 to 1961, other students of the academy at the time included Gotthard Graubner, Sigmar Polke and Gerhard Richter. At that time, he was inspired by three artists, Yves Klein, Georges Mathieu and Jackson Pollock. From 1962 to 1967 he worked as an art director for a German bank, from 1967 to 1978 he lived as an artist in Munich and has also performed a range of diversified jobs over time, including a spell as a taxi driver. During the late 1970s Schult lived in Cologne and from 1980 to 1986 chiefly in New York City, however, Schult had problems establishing a reputation as an artist in the USA, which he attributed to his criticism of Americas consumption-driven mentality. He moved back to Germany in 1986, Schult has been situated in Cologne since 1990. His son is the German film director, Kolin Schult, Schult works in the tradition of Pop Art, being influenced by commercial advertising and a critical view of consumerism, but also creates happenings. For instance, in Cologne, a happening staged by Schult involving 19 luxury cars worth a total of over 4 million marks caused what was described by one source as the worlds most expensive traffic jam. However, Schult primarily uses trash as an artistic material both for his art and happenings. The artist calls himself a Macher, a German word that can mean a maker or worker, Schult describes himself as an ardent proponent of the new ecological consciousness and was referred to as an eco-art pioneer by Washington Post writer Rachel Beckman. In HA Schult the gap has been closed that has been for 200 years between art and the public, according to Peter Weibel, For decades HA Schult has managed to stimulate public awareness using images he has experienced. He stages topics in places, which are normally edged away from the public. His art work is directly related to the location where it is shown. He confronts the feudalism, which is manifested in gigantic triumphant buildings with the pauperism of the workers who built them. He pays tribute to the soldiers and slaves and not to the heroes. According to art historian Gail Levin, Schult has made a commentary on the indulgent aspects of western society. He calls our attention to our own conspicuous consumption, obsessively returning to the metaphor of garbage, refuse dumps and he describes his picture boxes as expressing the archeology of everyday life. Indeed, his concerns are with the excesses of western culture, for instance, in an obvious allusion to Neuschwanstein Castle, Schult created Schloss Neu-Wahnstein, built on traditional assembly techniques of Dadaism
26.
Gotthard Graubner
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Gotthard Graubner was a German painter, born in Erlbach, in Saxony, Germany. His work Black Skin, was selected to be featured in one of the 100 Great Paintings programmes by the BBC in 1980. For the last decades of his life, he lived and worked in Düsseldorf and on the Museum Insel Hombroich, Neuss, Graubner was born in 1930 in Erlbach. From 1947 to 1948 he studied at the Academy of Arts, Berlin, and from 1948 to 1949 at the Academy of Arts, Dresden, when his professor had to leave the Dresden academy for ideological reasons, Graubner was on his side and therefore exmatriculated. In 1954 he left East Germany, from 1954 to 1959, Graubner studied painting at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, where he was first a student of Otto Pankok with Günther Uecker and Bert Gerresheim becoming his classmates. Later he became a pupil of Georg Meistermann. In 1959, when Meistermann left the Academy, Graubner became one of Karl Otto Götzs first students, his classmates being HA Schult, who studied under Meistermann. In 1959, Graubner left the academy, in 1965 he was appointed at the Academy of Fine Arts, Hamburg, where he became Professor of Painting in 1969. From 1976 to 1992 he hold a professorship at the Academy of Fine Arts, the artist was also commissioned to create a cushion picture for the German Bundestag. In 1996 he became a member of the Saxon Academy of Arts, after his retirement, Graubner lived and worked in Düsseldorf-Oberkassel, where he had his studio. His last years he spent on the island of the Museum Insel Hombroich, Neuss, Graubners art is characterised by his unique philosophy and the use of color in his work. He began developing his own style in 1959, while he studied under K. O, instead of focusing on shapes, he began to use color lavishly. In the 1960s, Graubner mounted picture-size colored cushions onto his paintings and these works were displayed in Alfred Schmelas gallery in Düsseldorf. Between 1968 and 1972 he did what he called Nebelräume, Graubner never allowed his style to be dictated by the current fashions or trends. He developed his own style of using color as the medium through which his work announced itself, according to Helga Meister, his works have sensibility, feeling and meditative force. However, his paintings are only at first glance monochrome, as a closer look reveals, Graubner explains the genesis of his painting as an intermediate between Caspar David Friedrich and J. M. W. Graubner also saw his own work in the tradition of old masters such as Matthias Grünewald, Titian, El Greco, while he does not use specific shapes, he uses color shades and the warm-cold balances and contrasts very well. His artworks have no specific topic and theory and represent a research into color, in 1975, there was a major Graubner exhibition at the Kunsthalle Hamburg
27.
Socialist realism
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Socialist realism is a style of realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in that country as well as in other socialist countries. Socialist realism is characterized by the depiction of communist values, such as the emancipation of the proletariat. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, Socialist realism was the predominant form of approved art in the Soviet Union from its development in the early 1920s to its eventual fall from popularity in the late 1960s. While other countries have employed a prescribed canon of art, socialist realism in Soviet Union persisted longer and was more restricted than elsewhere in Europe, Socialist realism was developed by many thousands of artists, across a diverse society, over several decades. Early examples of realism in Russian art include the work of the Peredvizhnikis, while these works do not have the same political connotation, they exhibit the techniques exercised by their successors. After the Bolsheviks took control of Russia on October 25,1917, there had been a short period of artistic exploration in the time between the fall of the Tsar and the rise of the Bolsheviks. In 1917, Russian artists began to return to traditional forms of art. Shortly after the Bolsheviks took control, Anatoly Lunacharsky was appointed as head of Narkompros and this put Lunacharsky in the position of deciding the direction of art in the newly created Soviet state. Lunacharsky created a system of aesthetics based on the body that would become the main component of socialist realism for decades to come. He believed that the sight of a body, intelligent face or friendly smile was essentially life-enhancing. He concluded that art had an effect on the human organism. By depicting the perfect person, Lunacharsky believed art could educate citizens on how to be the perfect Soviets, there were two main groups debating the fate of Soviet art, futurists and traditionalists. Russian Futurists, many of whom had been creating abstract or leftist art before the Bolsheviks, believed communism required a complete rupture from the past and, therefore, traditionalists believed in the importance of realistic representations of everyday life. By 1928, the Soviet government had enough strength and authority to end private enterprises, at this point, although the term socialist realism was not being used, its defining characteristics became the norm. The first time the term socialist realism was officially used was in 1932, the term was settled upon in meetings that included politicians of the highest level, including Stalin himself. Maxim Gorky, a proponent of literary socialist realism, published an article titled Socialist Realism in 1933. During the Congress of 1934 four guidelines were laid out for socialist realism, the work must be, Proletarian, art relevant to the workers and understandable to them. Typical, scenes of life of the people
28.
University of Fine Arts of Hamburg
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The Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg is the University of Fine Arts in Hamburg. It dates to 1767, when it was called the Hamburger Gewerbeschule, the main building, located in the Uhlenhorst quarter of Hamburg-Nord borough, was designed by architect Fritz Schumacher, and built between 1911 and 1913. In 1970, it was accredited as an artistic-scientific university, the Hamburger Gewerbeschule was founded in 1767 by the Patriotische Gesellschaft. It was named the Staatliche Kunstgewerbeschule in 1896, later the Landeskunstschule, Fritz Schumacher designed the main building especially for the art school. Located at Am Lerchenfeld 2 in Uhlenhorst, a quarter of Hamburg-Nord, after World War II, it re-opened as the Landeskunstschule by Friedrich Ahlers-Hestermann, who had previously been a professor at the Kölner Werkschulen. He was succeeded by architect Gustav Hassenpflug, who changed the institution to the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg, the school was accredited as a university in 1970. In July 2007, a scandal erupted when the university administration under Martin Köttering came under pressure to expel students for having protested newly introduced tuition fees. Joerg Draeger and the Hamburg Senate, dominated by the Christian Democratic Union demanded expulsion of more than half of the art students for having taken part in a tuition boycott, the scandal gained nationwide press coverage. In June 2008, about 680 students were enrolled at HFBK Hamburg, two stolpersteine – memorials to victims of Nazism – have been laid for two faculty members. Friedrich Adler, who taught at the Kunstgewerbeschule from 1907 until his retirement in 1933, was killed in Auschwitz in 1942. Hugo Meier-Thur, who taught from 1910 to 1943, was killed at Fuhlsbüttel concentration camp in 1943
29.
NSCAD University
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NSCAD University, also known as the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, is a post-secondary art school in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It was founded in 1887 by Anna Leonowens and later became the first degree-granting art school in Canada, under the presidency of Garry Kennedy, who led the school for 23 years from 1967, NSCAD rose to international prominence as a cutting-edge centre for artistic innovation and political art. Currently the university is forging relationships with galleries, museums and other institutions in Canada. The university opened in the Union Building in 1887 and it was founded by Anna Leonowens. It was originally called the Victoria School of Art and Design to commemorate Queen Victorias Golden Jubilee and it moved to the Halifax Academy in 1890. In 1903 the school moved to the old National School and it was renamed to the Nova Scotia College of Art in 1925 under the leadership of its president Dr. Frederick Sexton. One of the artists to be associated with the school in its early years was Arthur Lismer. In 1957 the school moved into the former St. Andrews United Church on Coburg Road, a modern 5-storey addition was constructed in 1968. The artist Garry Kennedy was appointed president in 1967 at the age of 31 and he immediately moved to remake the college from a provincial art school into an international centre for artistic activity. He invited notable artists to come to NSCAD as visiting artists, artists who made significant contributions during this period include Vito Acconci, Sol LeWitt, Dan Graham, Eric Fischl, Lawrence Weiner, Joseph Beuys and Claes Oldenburg. The school was renamed the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design in 1969, the school began to offer graduate programs in 1973. It moved to its current location on Granville Mall in 1978, Garry Kennedy retired from the schools presidency in 1990 to focus on teaching and making art. In 2002 the school purchased the Granville Street block of buildings it had leased since 1978. The institution was renamed NSCAD University in 2003 and it opened a second campus, the Academy Building, in 2004. This campus houses the film studies faculty, in 2007 the third campus, the Port Campus, opened at the Halifax Seaport. All three campuses are located in downtown Halifax, the construction of the Port Campus brought the schools debt to a high of $19 million in 2011 after funding from the federal government fell through. The province asked the school to draw up a plan to reduce the debt, NSCAD students mounted a Save NSCAD campaign in opposition to a merger with a larger institution. The school commissioned a report to study the idea, but the consultant found that a merger would not result in cost savings, the NSCAD board of governors therefore voted on 15 July 2014 to continue as an independent university
30.
Manager Magazin
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Manager Magazin is a German monthly business magazine focusing on business, finance and management based in Hamburg, Germany. Manager Magazin was first published on 1 November 1971, the magazine is part of the Spiegel Group which also owns Der Spiegel among the others. The magazine is based in Hamburg and is published monthly by the Manager Magazin Verlagsgesellschaft, since 1986 Gruner+Jahr AG has a 24.9 percent share in the publisher of the magazine. The other owner of its publishing house is the Spiegel Group, arno Balzer is the editor-in-chief of the monthly. Manager Magazin has a liberal stance, the magazine targets professional decision makers and managers in Germany. It covers business news, related data and background information concerning all economic areas, the online edition of the monthly was launched in 1998. The magazine has a supplement, Splendid, which covers articles on fashion, beauty. Splendid, a 52-page lifestyle supplement, was started in 2014, the magazine publishes several ranking lists, including good companies and the richest Germans. From 2004 to 2008 the Polish edition of the magazine, Manager Magazin - Edycja Polska, was published in Poland, in 1999 the circulation of Manager Magazin was 125,200 copies. It rose to 129,888 copies in 2009, the monthly had a circulation of 113,774 copies in 2010. Its total circulation was 109,222 copies in 2011, list of magazines in Germany Official website
31.
Illusionism (art)
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Sculptural illusionism includes works, often painted, that appear real from a distance. Other forms, such as the tradition in the theatre. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and beasts, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. In his writings and art criticisms during the mid-1960s art critic/artist Donald Judd claimed that illusionism in painting undermined the artform itself, Judd implied that painting was dead, claiming painting was a lie and because it depicted the illusion of 3-dimensions on a flat surface. Judd claimed that painting needed to recognize its objecthood in real space, Donald Judd wrote in “Specific Objects” in 1965, Three dimensions are real space. That gets rid of the problem of illusionism and of space, space in and around marks of color… Actual space is intrinsically more powerful. In the Webster Texas Holiday Inn, there is a double illusion ceiling by muralist Frank Wilson, the hotel is close to the Houston Space Center, and double illusion murals exist in rooms for officials as well as the dining room. They show the illusion of a night sky under darkness, illuminated by glowing minerals, under normal light we see clouds and birds of peace
32.
Venice Biennale
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The Venice Biennale is an arts organization based in Venice, and also the original and principal exhibition it organizes. The organization changed its name to the Biennale Foundation in 2009, while the exhibition is called the Art Biennale to distinguish it from the organisation. The Art Biennale, a visual art exhibition, is so called as it is held biennially. A year later, the council decreed to adopt a by invitation system, to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too, to works by uninvited Italian artists. The first Biennale, I Esposizione Internazionale dArte della Città di Venezia was opened on April 30,1895 by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I, the first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed- a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a show for Renoir. A work by Picasso was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public, by 1914 seven pavilions had been established, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled, in 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art,1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there, in 1928 the Istituto Storico dArte Contemporanea opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art, in 1933 the Biennale organised an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section, during World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted,1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, the Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her famous New York collection,1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964. From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of interventions in the Biennales exhibition spaces. In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe,1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Rays Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West,1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra
33.
Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism to secure the regular opposition. Late in his life he was director of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Mahlers œuvre is relatively limited, for much of his composing was necessarily a part-time activity while he earned his living as a conductor. Some of Mahlers immediate musical successors included the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten are among later 20th-century composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler. The International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955 to honour the composers life, the Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances, the composers grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire, the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, from this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, always an intruder, never welcomed. Bernhard Mahler, the son and the composers father, elevated himself to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie by becoming a coachman. He bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt, halfway between Prague in Bohemia and Brno in Moravia, in the center of todays Czech Republic. Bernhards wife, Marie, gave birth to the first of the couples 14 children, a son Isidor, two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born. In December 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau,25 km to the south-east, the family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. All of these elements would later contribute to his musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents piano and he developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind and gave his first public performance at the town theatre when he was ten years old. Although Gustav loved making music, his reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portrayed him as absent-minded. In 1871, in the hope of improving the results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague. In 1874 he suffered a personal loss when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music, with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he work on an opera
34.
Jean Sibelius
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Jean Sibelius, born Johan Julius Christian Sibelius, was a Finnish composer and violinist of the late Romantic and early-modern periods. The core of his oeuvre is his set of seven symphonies which, like his major works, continue to be performed and recorded in his home country. His other best-known compositions are Finlandia, the Karelia Suite, Valse triste, the Violin Concerto, the choral symphony Kullervo, throughout his career, the composer found inspiration in nature and Nordic mythology, especially the heroic legends of the national epic, the Kalevala. Although he is reputed to have stopped composing, he attempted to continue writing, including abortive efforts on an eighth symphony, in later life, he wrote Masonic music and re-edited some earlier works while retaining an active but not always favourable interest in new developments in music. The Finnish 100 mark note featured his image until 2002, when the euro was adopted, since 2011, Finland has celebrated a Flag Day on 8 December, the composers birthday, also known as the Day of Finnish Music. In 2015, the 150th anniversary of the birth, a number of special concerts and events were held. Sibelius was born on 8 December 1865 in Hämeenlinna in the Grand Duchy of Finland and he was the son of the Swedish-speaking medical doctor Christian Gustaf Sibelius and Maria Charlotta Sibelius née Borg. The family name stems from the Sibbe estate in Eastern Uusimaa which was owned by his paternal great-grandfather, Sibeliuss father died of typhoid in July 1868, leaving substantial debts. As a result, his mother—who was again pregnant—had to sell their property and move the family into the home of Katarina Borg, her widowed mother, who also lived in Hämeenlinna. Sibelius was therefore brought up in a decidedly female environment, the only male influence coming from his uncle, Pehr Ferdinand Sibelius and it was he who gave the boy a violin when he was ten years old and later encouraged him to maintain his interest in composition. For Sibelius, Uncle Pehr not only took the place of a father, from an early age, Sibelius showed a strong interest in nature, frequently walking around the countryside when the family moved to Loviisa on the coast for the summer months. In his own words, For me, Loviisa represented sun, Hämeenlinna was where I went to school, Loviisa was freedom. It was in Hämeenlinna, when he was seven, that his aunt Julia was brought in to give him piano lessons on the familys upright instrument and he progressed by improvising on his own, but still learned to read music. He later turned to the violin, which he preferred and he participated in trios with his elder sister Linda on piano, and his younger brother Christian on the cello. Furthermore, Sibelius often played in quartets with neighboring families, adding to his experience in chamber music, fragments survive of his early compositions of the period, a trio, a piano quartet and a Suite in D Minor for violin and piano. Around 1881, he recorded on paper his short pizzicato piece Vattendroppar for violin, in 1881, he started to take violin lessons from the local bandmaster, Gustaf Levander, immediately developing a particularly strong interest in the instrument. Despite such success as an instrumentalist, he chose to become a composer. Although his mother tongue was Swedish, in 1874 Sibelius attended Lucina Hagmans Finnish-speaking preparatory school, despite having to repeat a year, he succeeded in passing the schools final examination in 1885 which allowed him to enter a university
35.
H. G. Wells
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Herbert George H. G. Wells was an English writer. He was prolific in many genres, including the novel, history, politics, social commentary, Wells is now best remembered for his science fiction novels and is called a father of science fiction, along with Jules Verne and Hugo Gernsback. His most notable science fiction works include The Time Machine, The Island of Doctor Moreau, The Invisible Man and he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature four times. Wellss earliest specialised training was in biology, and his thinking on ethical matters took place in a specifically and fundamentally Darwinian context and he was also from an early date an outspoken socialist, often sympathising with pacifist views. His later works became increasingly political and didactic, and he wrote science fiction. A diabetic, in 1934, Wells co-founded the charity The Diabetic Association, Herbert George Wells was born at Atlas House,46 High Street in Bromley, Kent, on 21 September 1866. Called Bertie in the family, he was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells and his wife, Sarah Neal. An inheritance had allowed the family to acquire a shop in which they sold china and sporting goods, although it failed to prosper, the stock was old and worn out, and the location was poor. Joseph Wells managed to earn an income, but little of it came from the shop. Payment for skilled bowlers and batsmen came from voluntary donations afterwards, a defining incident of young Wellss life was an accident in 1874 that left him bedridden with a broken leg. To pass the time he started reading books from the local library and he soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access, they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morleys Commercial Academy, a school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morleys earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells later said, Wells continued at Morleys Academy until 1880. In 1877, his father, Joseph Wells, fractured his thigh, the accident effectively put an end to Josephs career as a cricketer, and his subsequent earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss of the primary source of family income. No longer able to support financially, the family instead sought to place their sons as apprentices in various occupations. From 1880 to 1883, Wells had an apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium. Wellss parents had a turbulent marriage, owing primarily to his mother being a Protestant, when his mother returned to work as a ladys maid, one of the conditions of work was that she would not be permitted to have living space for her husband and children. Thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and remained faithful to each other, as a consequence, Herberts personal troubles increased as he subsequently failed as a draper and also, later, as a chemists assistant
36.
Franz Kafka
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Franz Kafka was a Prague German-language novelist and short story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His best known works include Die Verwandlung, Der Process, the term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those in his writing. Kafka was born into a middle-class, German-speaking Jewish family in Prague and he trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education he was employed with an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and he became engaged to several women but never married. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis and his work went on to influence a vast range of writers, critics, artists, and philosophers during the 20th century. Kafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his family were middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka, was the child of Jakob Kafka, a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek. Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague, after working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fancy goods and clothing retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw as his business logo. Kafkas mother, Julie, was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a retail merchant in Poděbrady. Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest, franzs two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven, his three sisters were Gabriele, Valerie and Ottilie. They all died during the Holocaust of World War II, Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her. On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business, consequently, Kafkas childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. The dominating figure of Kafkas father had a significant influence on Kafkas writing, the Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. In November 1913 the family moved into an apartment, although Ellie. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Vallis former apartment, quiet by contrast, from 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the Deutsche Knabenschule German boys elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt, now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his Bar Mitzvah celebration at the age of 13, Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and he studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades
37.
Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
38.
Canvas
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Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
39.
Gilbert & George
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Gilbert Prousch, sometimes referred to as Gilbert Proesch and George Passmore are two artists who work together as a collaborative duo called Gilbert & George. They are known for their distinctive and highly formal appearance and manner, Prousch was born in San Martin de Tor in South Tyrol, northern Italy, his mother tongue being Ladin. He studied art at the Sëlva School of Art in Val Gardena and Hallein School of Art in Austria, Passmore was born in Plymouth in the United Kingdom, to a single mother in a poor household. He studied art at the Dartington College of Arts and the Oxford School of Art, the two first met on 25 September 1967 while studying sculpture at Saint Martins School of Art. The two claim they came together because George was the person who could understand Gilberts rather poor English. In a 2002 interview with the Daily Telegraph, they said of their meeting and they have claimed that they married in 2008. They are often together on walks through East London. Since 1968, Gilbert & George have been residents of Fournier Street, Spitalfields and they live in an 18th-century house that has been restored to its original decor. Their entire body of work has created in, and focused on, Londons East End. According to George, Nothing happens in the world that doesnt happen in the East End, Gilbert and Georges approach to art has always been anti-elitist. Adopting the slogan ‘Art for All’, they aimed to be relevant beyond the confines of the art world. Although they work in a variety of media, but have always referred to all works as sculpture, between 1970 and 1974 they made drawings and paintings to give a more tangible form to their identity as ‘living sculptures. Whilst still students, Gilbert & George made The Singing Sculpture, the suits they wore for this became a sort of uniform for them. They rarely appear in public without wearing them and it is also unusual for one of the pair to be seen without the other. The pair regard themselves as living sculptures and they refuse to disassociate their art from their everyday lives, insisting that everything they do is art. They were listed as among the fifty best-dressed over 50s by the Guardian in March 2013, the pair are perhaps best known for their large scale photo works, known as The Pictures. The early work in style is in black and white, later with hand-painted red. They proceeded to use a range of colours, sometimes backlit
40.
Screen printing
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Screen printing is a printing technique whereby a mesh is used to transfer ink onto a substrate, except in areas made impermeable to the ink by a blocking stencil. A blade or squeegee is moved across the screen to fill the open mesh apertures with ink, and this causes the ink to wet the substrate and be pulled out of the mesh apertures as the screen springs back after the blade has passed. Screen printing is also a method of print making in which a design is imposed on a screen of polyester or other fine mesh. Ink is forced into the mesh openings by the blade or squeegee and by wetting the substrate. As the screen away from the substrate the ink remains on the substrate. It is also known as silk-screen, screen, serigraphy, one color is printed at a time, so several screens can be used to produce a multicoloured image or design. There are various terms used for what is essentially the same technique, traditionally the process was called screen printing or silkscreen printing because silk was used in the process prior to the invention of polyester mesh. Currently, synthetic threads are used in the screen printing process. The most popular mesh in general use is made of polyester, there are special-use mesh materials of nylon and stainless steel available to the screen printer. There are also different types of mesh size which will determine the outcome, Screen printing first appeared in a recognizable form in China during the Song Dynasty. It was then adapted by other Asian countries like Japan, and was furthered by creating newer methods, Roy Beck, Charles Peter and Edward Owens studied and experimented with chromic acid salt sensitized emulsions for photo-reactive stencils. Commercial screen printing now uses sensitizers far safer and less toxic than bichromates, currently there are large selections of pre-sensitized and user mixed sensitized emulsion chemicals for creating photo-reactive stencils. Serigraphy is a word formed from Latin sēricum and Greek graphein. The Printers National Environmental Assistance Center says Screenprinting is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes, credit is generally given to the artist Andy Warhol for popularising screen printing as an artistic technique, identified as serigraphy, in the United States. Sister Mary Corita Kent, gained fame for her vibrant serigraphs during the 1960s and 1970s. Her works were rainbow colored, contained words that were political and fostered peace and love and caring. American entrepreneur, artist and inventor Michael Vasilantone started to use, develop, Vasilantone later filed for patent on his invention in 1967 granted number 3,427,964 on February 18,1969. The original machine was manufactured to print logos and team information on bowling garments, the Vasilantone patent was licensed by multiple manufacturers, the resulting production and boom in printed T-shirts made this garment screen printing machine popular
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Photolithography
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Photolithography, also termed optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply resist, on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the exposure pattern into, or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon. For example, in integrated circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times. This procedure is comparable to a high precision version of the used to make printed circuit boards. Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with lithographic printing and its main disadvantages are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require extremely clean operating conditions. The root words photo, litho, and graphy all have Greek origins, with the light, stone. As suggested by the name compounded from them, photolithography is a method in which light plays an essential role. In the 1820s, Nicephore Niepce invented a process that used Bitumen of Judea. In 1954, Louis Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate, a single iteration of photolithography combines several steps in sequence. Modern cleanrooms use automated, robotic wafer track systems to coordinate the process, the procedure described here omits some advanced treatments, such as thinning agents or edge-bead removal. Other solutions made with trichloroethylene, acetone or methanol can also be used to clean, the wafer is initially heated to a temperature sufficient to drive off any moisture that may be present on the wafer surface,150 °C for ten minutes is sufficient. Wafers that have been in storage must be cleaned to remove contamination. A liquid or gaseous adhesion promoter, such as Bisamine, is applied to promote adhesion of the photoresist to the wafer. The surface layer of silicon dioxide on the wafer reacts with HMDS to form tri-methylated silicon-dioxide, in order to ensure the development of the image, it is best covered and placed over a hot plate and let it dry while stabilizing the temperature at 120 °C. The wafer is covered with photoresist by spin coating, a viscous, liquid solution of photoresist is dispensed onto the wafer, and the wafer is spun rapidly to produce a uniformly thick layer. The spin coating typically runs at 1200 to 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 seconds, the spin coating process results in a uniform thin layer, usually with uniformity of within 5 to 10 nanometres. Thus, the top layer of resist is quickly ejected from the edge while the bottom layer still creeps slowly radially along the wafer
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Collotype
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Collotype is a dichromate-based photographic process invented by Alphonse Poitevin in 1856 and used for large volume mechanical printing before the existence of cheaper offset lithography. It can produce results difficult to distinguish from metal-based photographic prints because of its microscopically fine reticulations which comprise the image and its possibilities for fine art photography were first employed in the United States by Alfred Stieglitz. The collotype plate is made by coating a plate of glass or metal with a composed of gelatin or other colloid. The plate is exposed in contact with the negative using an ultraviolet source which changes the ability of the exposed gelatin to absorb water later. The plate is developed by washing out the dichromate salt. The plate is left in a dry place to cure for 24 hours before using it to print. To produce prints, the plate is dampened with a mixture which is slightly acidic. A hard finished paper such as Bristol is then put on top of the plate, collotypes are printed using less pressure than is used in printing intaglio or stone lithography. While it is possible to print by hand using a roller or brayer, because of its ability to print fine detail, it was also used for business cards and invitations with fine script lettering