1.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
2.
Air Forces of the National People's Army
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The Air Forces of the National Peoples Army was the Air Force of East Germany. As with the Landstreitkräfte, the Volksmarine, and the Border troops, the name Luftstreitkräfte applied originally to the air corps of the German Empire between 1910 and the end of World War I in 1918. However, the West German air force adopted the name Luftwaffe as used by the Third Reich air force from 1935 to the end of World War II. At the end of November 1953, a reorganisation of air units saw air units transferred from the Ministry of the Interior directly to the Deputy Minister, the air regiments were reorganized into the Aero Club 1,2 and 3, which in turn were divided into two sections. Starting in 1954, additional Z-126 and M-1D from Czechoslovakian production were made available, on 1 March 1956 the air force was officially established as part of the National Peoples Army, following the GDRs entry into the Warsaw Pact alliance. Initially the air force, with its headquarters at Cottbus, was separate from the Luftverteidigung (Air Defence and it was intended to establish three fighter divisions, an attack aircraft division and an anti-aircraft division. However, eventually only the 1st and 3rd Aviation Divisions and the 1st Flak-Division were created, on 1 June 1957 there was a merger of the two administrations in Strausberg, and the new headquarters was renamed the Kommando LSK/LV. A decisive number of units and formations have been under direct control of the Kommando LSK/LV, the Air Force Staff. The 1st LVD, with its HQ in Cottbus, was in charge to provide air defence throughout the territory of the GDR. The centre of the diamond portrayed the GDR coat of arms, the symbol differentiated the Luftstreitkräfte from the West German Luftwaffe, which displays a stylised Iron Cross similar to the emblem on German aircraft during World War I. West German uniforms, on the hand, were blue with yellow insignia. Starting in 1953, East Germany received An-2, La-9, Yak-11, and Yak-18 aircraft, the first MiG-21s were delivered in 1962. The 1970s saw the introduction of the MiG-23, while Su-22 fighter-bombers were delivered in the 1980s, the latest addition was the MiG-29 in 1988. The inventory also included Soviet-built helicopters along with trainers and other light aircraft manufactured in Czechoslovakia, the East German Air Force was unique among Warsaw Pact countries in that it was often equipped with the most advanced Soviet fighters, instead of downgraded export models. As an extension of the Soviet 16th Air Army deployed in East Germany, as a result, it was under closer Soviet control than the air forces of other Warsaw Pact states. After German reunification in 1990, the Luftwaffe assumed control over Luftstreitkräfte equipment, many of the GDRs military aircraft were obsolete or incompatible with NATO technical standards, and were sold to other countries. However, the Luftwaffe did retain the MiG-29 in both air defense and aggressor roles because of its excellent capabilities, equipment of the LSK/LV in 1989, Home. snafu. de Transportflieger. eu Luroko. de
3.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
4.
Air force
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An air force, also known in some countries as an air army, is in the broadest sense, the national military organization that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nations armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army, navy, or a marine corps. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters, bombers, helicopters, transport planes and other aircraft. Many air forces are responsible for operations of the military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles. Some air forces may command and control other air defence assets such as artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-ballistic missile warning networks. In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support staff who support the aircrew, however, some supporting personnel such as airfield defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence staff do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations. Balloon or flying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force, however, with the invention of heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies and navies began to take interest in this new form of aviation as a means to wage war. The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, in 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the first time ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing missions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes, during World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters. World War I also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare, the British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world. The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation the British Armys Royal Flying Corps, on establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff who held the rank of major-general and was governed by its own government ministry. Over the following decades most countries with any military capability established their own independent air forces. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I and it became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received the Royal title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head was designated as Chief of the Air Staff. Similarly, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923 as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, other British-influenced countries also established their own independent air forces. For example, the Royal Egyptian Air Force was created in 1937 when Egyptian military aviation was separated from Army command, outside of the British Empire, the Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928 and the Brazilian Air Force was created in 1941. Both the United States Air Force and the Philippine Air Force were formed as a separate branches of their armed forces in 1947. The Israeli Air Force came into being with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, the Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954, in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy
5.
Operation Deliberate Force
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The operation was carried out between 30 August and 20 September 1995, involving 400 aircraft and 5,000 personnel from 15 nations. Commanded by Admiral Leighton W. Smith, the campaign struck 338 Bosnian Serb targets, overall,1,026 bombs were dropped during the operation,708 of which were precision-guided. The Bosnian War was an armed conflict that took place in Bosnia. After popular pressure, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was asked by the United Nations to intervene in the Bosnian War after allegations of war crimes against civilians were made. In response to the refugee and humanitarian crisis in Bosnia, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 743 on 21 February 1992, the UNPROFOR mandate was to keep the population alive and deliver humanitarian aid to refugees in Bosnia until the war ended. On 9 October 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 781 and this resolution led to Operation Sky Monitor, where NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone, but it did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response, on 12 April, NATO initiated Operation Deny Flight which was tasked with enforcing the no-fly zone and allowed to engage the violators of the no-fly zone. However, Serb forces on the continued to attack UN safe areas in Bosnia. On 4 June, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 836 authorizing the use of force by UNPROFOR in the protection of specially designated safe zones. On 15 June, Operation Sharp Guard, a blockade in the Adriatic Sea by NATO and the Western European Union, began after being approved at a joint session of NATO. Only Greece failed to support the use of airstrikes, but it did not veto the proposal, on 12 February 1994, Sarajevo enjoyed its first casualty-free day in 22 months. On 28 February, the scope of NATO involvement in Bosnia increased dramatically, in an incident near Banja Luka, NATO fighters operating under Deny Flight shot down four Bosnian Serb fighters for violating a no-fly zone. This was the first combat operation in the history of NATO and opened the door for a steadily growing NATO role in Bosnia. On 10 and 11 April 1994, UNPROFOR called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area and this was the first time in NATOs history it had ever done so. Subsequently, the Bosnian-Serbs took 150 UN personnel hostage on 14 April, on 16 April, a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Bosnian Serb forces. On 5 August, at the request of UNPROFOR, two U. S. Afterwards, the Serbs agreed to return the remaining heavy weapons, on 22 September 1994, NATO aircraft carried out an air strike against a Bosnian Serb tank at the request of UNPROFOR. On 25–26 May 1995, after violations of the exclusion zones, some 370 UN peacekeepers in Bosnia were taken hostage and subsequently used as human shields at potential targets in a successful bid to prevent further air strikes. On 2 June, two U. S. Air Force F-16 jets were sent on patrol over Bosnia in support of Operation Deny Flight, while on patrol, an F-16 piloted by Captain Scott OGrady was shot down by a Bosnian Serb SA-6 surface-to-air missile
6.
Kosovo War
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The Kosovo War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 5 March 1998 until 11 June 1999. After attempts at a diplomatic solution failed, NATO intervened, justifying the campaign in Kosovo as a humanitarian war and this precipitated a mass expulsion of Kosovar Albanians as the Yugoslav forces continued to fight during the aerial bombardment of Yugoslavia. The war ended with the Kumanovo Treaty, with Yugoslav and Serb forces agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence, Kosovos borders did not precisely match the areas of ethnic Albanian settlement in Yugoslavia. Kosovos formal autonomy, established under the 1945 Yugoslav constitution, initially meant relatively little in practice, the secret police cracked down hard on nationalists. In 1956 a number of Albanians went on trial in Kosovo on charges of espionage, the threat of separatism was in fact minimal, as the few underground groups aiming for union with Albania had little political significance. Demaci himself was imprisoned in 1964 along with many of his followers, Yugoslavia underwent a period of economic and political crisis in 1969, as a massive government program of economic reform widened the gap between the rich north and poor south of the country. Student demonstrations and riots in Belgrade in June 1968 spread to Kosovo in November of the same year, however, Tito conceded some of the students demands—in particular, representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies and better recognition of the Albanian language. The University of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, the lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered the Albanisation of education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks. In 1974 Kosovos political status improved further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted a set of political rights. Along with Vojvodina, Kosovo was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic, power was still exercised by the Communist Party, but it was now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists. Titos death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis. The disturbances were quelled by the Presidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming a state of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, hard-liners instituted a fierce crackdown on nationalism of all kinds, Albanian and Serbian alike. Kosovo endured a heavy secret-police presence throughout most of the 1980s that ruthlessly suppressed any unauthorised nationalist manifestations, according to a report quoted by Mark Thompson, as many as 580,000 inhabitants of Kosovo were arrested, interrogated, interned or reprimanded. Thousands of these lost their jobs or were expelled from their educational establishments, during this time tension between the Albanian and Serbian communities continued to escalate. Such concerns did attract interest in Belgrade, stories appeared from time to time in the Belgrade media claiming that Serbs and Montenegrins were being persecuted. There was a perception among Serbian nationalists that Serbs were being driven out of Kosovo, in addition to all this, the worsening state of Kosovos economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia, the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635. 33 nationalist formations were dismantled by Yugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people and seized arms caches, in Kosovo an increasingly poisonous atmosphere between Serbs and Albanians led to wild rumors being spread and otherwise trivial incidents being blown out of proportion
7.
Military intervention against ISIL
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Later, there were also minor interventions by some states against ISIL-affiliated groups in Nigeria and Libya. In mid-June 2014, Iran, according to American and British information, started flying drones over Iraq, simultaneously, the United States ordered a small number of troops to Iraq and started flying crewed aircraft over Iraq. In August 2014, the US and Iran separately began a campaign of airstrikes on ISIL targets in Iraq, since then, fourteen countries in a US-led coalition have also executed airstrikes on ISIL in Iraq and in Syria. In September 2015, Russian forces, with the permission of the Syrian government, began hundreds of bombing raids against ISIL, al-Nusra Front, since the airstrikes started, ISIL has been losing ground in both Iraq and Syria. There have been accounts of civilian deaths from the airstrikes. In mid-2016, the US and Russia planned to begin to coordinating their airstrikes, however, on the margins of the 4/5 September 2014 NATO summit in Wales, U. S. Those nine countries agreed to do so by supporting anti-ISIL forces in Iraq and Syria with supplies and air support, according to a statement that day from Kerry and U. S. Secretary of Defense Hagel. On 3 December 2014, at the NATO headquarters in Brussels, on 30 September 2015, Russia began its air campaign on the side and in support of the Syrian government. Russia was also reported to have reached agreements on co-ordination of operations in Syria with Jordan, on 14 March 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced a partial withdrawal from Syrian territory, citing the success of the ongoing ceasefire and greater security of the Syrian government. Until July 2015, the Turkish government attacked ISIL only once, in September 2014 Turkey joined a US-led coalition ‘to fight ISIL’. Turkish tanks shelled the village the day of the ground operation. The operation reportedly lasted over an hour and killed over 100 ISIL militants, the Turkish General Staff neither confirmed nor denied the special forces foray but did confirm shelling the village. On 24 July, a report appeared on a Turkish newspaper website stating that the United States had agreed with Turkey on a ‘partial no-fly zone’ in northern Syria. On 24 and 25 July launched an operation entitled ‘Operation Martyr Yalçın’ against both ISIL in Syria and the Kurdistan Workers Party in Iraq, deploying at least 70 F-16 fighter jets. Later that month Iran started flying drones over Iraq, and by August, according to sources like Reuters, One war correspondent suggested that Iran joined the air war against ISIL on 21 June. In July, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Iran sent several Su-25 aircraft to Iraq, in early August, those Su-25s began combat against ISIL, according to Business Insider. By September, according to Business Insider, Iranian Quds Force personnel were deployed to Samarra, Baghdad, Karbala, and the abandoned U. S. military post formerly known as Camp Speicher. At the end of November 2014, an Israeli website claimed to have seen Iranian F-4 Phantom II jet-fighters bombing ISIL in eastern Iraq, in March and May 2015, American commentators indicated Qasem Soleimani was leading Iraqs military strategy against ISIL
8.
Northern Mali conflict
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The Northern Mali Conflict, Mali Civil War, or Mali War refers to armed conflicts that started from January 2012 between the northern and southern parts of Mali in Africa. On 16 January 2012, several insurgent groups began fighting a campaign against the Malian government for independence or greater autonomy for northern Mali, an area known as Azawad. The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad, an organization fighting to make Azawad an independent homeland for the Tuareg people, had control of the region by April 2012. On 22 March 2012, President Amadou Toumani Touré was ousted in a coup détat over his handling of the crisis, mutinous soldiers, calling themselves the National Committee for the Restoration of Democracy and State, took control and suspended the constitution of Mali. As a consequence of the instability following the coup, Malis three largest northern cities—Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu—were overrun by the rebels on three consecutive days. On 5 April 2012, after the capture of Douentza, the MNLA said that it had accomplished its goals, the following day, it proclaimed Azawads independence from Mali. The MNLA were initially backed by the Islamist group Ansar Dine, after the Malian military was driven from Azawad, Ansar Dine and a number of smaller Islamist groups began imposing strict Sharia law. The MNLA and Islamists struggled to reconcile their conflicting visions for a new state. Afterwards, the MNLA began fighting against Ansar Dine and other Islamist groups, including Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, by 17 July 2012, the MNLA had lost control of most of northern Malis cities to the Islamists. The government of Mali asked for military help to re-take the north. On 11 January 2013, the French military began operations against the Islamists, Forces from other African Union states were deployed shortly after. By 8 February, the Islamist-held territory had been re-taken by the Malian military, Tuareg separatists have continued to fight the Islamists as well, although the MNLA has also been accused of carrying out attacks against the Malian military. Fighting is still ongoing even though French forces are scheduled for withdrawal, a ceasefire agreement was signed on February 19,2015 in Algiers, Algeria but sporadic terrorist attacks still occur. In the early 1990s Tuareg and Arab nomads formed the Mouvement Populaire de l’Azaouad/Azawad Peoples Movement, the MNLA was an offshoot of a political movement known as the National Movement for Azawad prior to the insurgency. After the end of the Libyan Civil War, an influx of weaponry led to the arming of the Tuareg in their demand for independence for the Azawad. The strength of this uprising and the use of heavy weapons, though dominated by Tuaregs, the MNLA stated that they represented other ethnic groups as well, and were reportedly joined by some Arab leaders. The MNLAs leader Bilal Ag Acherif said that the onus was on Mali to either give the Saharan peoples their self-determination or they would take it themselves, another Tuareg-dominated group, the Islamist Ansar Dine, initially fought alongside the MNLA against the government. Unlike the MNLA, it did not seek independence but rather the imposition of Islamic law across Mali, thereafter, Mali has been in a constant struggle to maintain its territory
9.
Inspector of the Air Force
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The Inspector of the Air Force is the commander of the Air Force of the modern-day German Armed Forces, the Bundeswehr. The Inspector is responsible for the readiness of personnel and materiel in the German Air Force, the current Inspector is Karl Müllner, appointed in April 2012. The Inspector of the Air Force is the chief of the Air Force Command, based in Gatow and they sit under the General Inspector of the Bundeswehr and are a member of the Defence Council for Bundeswehr-wide matters. Both the Inspector and their deputy hold the rank of lieutenant general while in office, although the first Inspector, Josef Kammhuber, was an exception, back Lieutenant General Klaus Peter Stieglitz Lieutenant General Aarne Kreuzinger-Janik Lieutenant General Karl Müllner Die Inspekteure der Luftwaffe
10.
Generalleutnant
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Generalleutnant, short GenLt, is the second highest general officer rank in the German Army, German Air Force. The rank is rated OF-8 in NATO, and is grade B7 in the pay rules of the Federal Ministry of Defence and it is equivalent to Vizeadmiral in the German Navy, or to Generaloberstabsarzt, and Admiraloberstabsarzt in the Zentraler Sanitätsdienst der Bundeswehr. On the shoulder there are three golden pips in golden oak leaves. Prior to 1945, Generalleutnant was the rank associated with the command of a division. It was thus the equivalent of the rank of general in English-speaking armies. Comparative military ranks of World War I Comparative military ranks of World War II
11.
Generalmajor
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For the use of this Two-star rank in other countries, see Major general. Generalmajor, short GenMaj, is the third highest general officer rank in the German Army and this rank is also used in the Austrian Armed Forces, but is abbreviated as GenMjr. The rank is rated OF-7 in NATO, and is grade B7 in the pay rules of the Federal Ministry of Defence and it is equivalent to Konteradmiral in the German Navy or to Generalstabsarzt, and Admiralstabsarzt in the Zentraler Sanitätsdienst der Bundeswehr. On the shoulder there are two golden pips in golden oak leaves. Comparative military ranks of World War I Comparative military ranks of World War II
12.
Josef Kammhuber
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Josef Kammhuber was a career officer in the Luftwaffe and post-World War II German Air Force. During World War II, he was the first general of night fighters in the Luftwaffe, personal battles between him and Erhard Milch, director of the Reich Air Ministry, led to his dismissal in 1943. After the war, he the joined the Bundeswehr, the forces of West Germany. Kammhuber joined the staff of General Walter Wever, chief of staff of the Luftwaffe prior to World War II, Kammhuber returned to active duty in February 1939 and was assigned as chief-of-staff of Luftflotte 2. On January 11,1940, he was reprimanded by Hitler personally because of the Mechelen Incident and he was then transferred to the Western Front where he became commander of KG51. One 3 June 1940, he flew with the wing on Operation Paula and he was shot down and briefly became a prisoner of war. Kammhuber was released upon the Armistice of 22 June 1940, in July 1940 he was placed in command of coordinating flak, searchlight and radar units at Luftwaffes General Staff. The result was the 12th Air Corps, a new dedicated night-fighting command and he reached the rank of Generalleutnant by October 1941 and General der Flieger on 1 January 1943. RAF bombers flying into Germany or France would have to cross the line at point. Later versions of the Himmelbett added two Würzburg radars, with a range of about 30 km, unlike the early-warning Freya radar, Würzburgs were accurate tracking radars. One would be locked onto the fighter as soon as it entered the cell. To aid in this, a number of the fighters were fitted with a short-range infrared device known as Spanner anlage. Another tactic that proved effective was to send their own planes to England while the raids were taking off or landing. By the beginning of October the night intruder force had claimed a hundred kills but on October 13, Hitler ordered the force sent to the Mediterranean, british intelligence soon discovered the nature of the Kammhuber Line and started studying ways to defeat it. However this also meant that the Himmelbett centers were only dealing with one or two planes at a time, making their job much easier. The Himmelbett centers were now facing hundreds of bombers, countering with only a few aircraft of their own, so successful was this tactic that the success rate of the night fighters dropped almost to zero. Kammhuber started looking for solutions, and the result was the concept of Wilde Sau. The Wilde Sau force scored their most notable success during Operation Hydra, de Havilland Mosquito bombers had dropped target marker flares over Berlin and most of the night fighter force was sent there
13.
Johannes Steinhoff
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Johannes Macky Steinhoff was a German general, NATO official and Luftwaffe fighter ace during World War II. In retirement, Steinhoff became a widely read author of books on German military aviation during the Second World War, Steinhoff was one of very few Luftwaffe pilots who survived to fly operationally through the whole of the war period 1939–45. He played a role in the so-called Fighter Pilots Conspiracy when several senior air force officers confronted Hermann Göring late in the war and he was the father-in-law of the American Republican politician Michael Bird. Johannes Steinhoff was born on 15 September 1913 in Bottendorf, Thuringia and he had two brothers, Bernd and Wolf, and two sisters, Greta and Charlotte. His sister Charlotte was married to Ludwig Hahn, Hahn was the chief of the Sicherheitspolizei and Sicherheitsdienst in occupied Warsaw and participated in the destruction and evacuation of the Warsaw Ghetto. There, after completing his training as a pilot, Steinhoff was posted to Jagdgeschwader 26. Steinhoff married his wife Ursula on 29 April 1939, and they had one daughter, Ursula Steinhoff Bird, who became the wife of Colorado State Senator Michael Bird and a son named Wolf. Steinhoffs first combat experience was in 1939 when he fought RAF Vickers Wellington bombers that were attacking coastal industry in the Wilhelmshaven region, in February 1940, he was transferred to 4. /JG52 where he served during the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain. In June 1941 JG52 were on offensive operations against the Soviet Union, Steinhoff himself claimed 28 Soviet aircraft shot down in the first month. By August 1941 Steinhoff had attained 35 victories and been awarded the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross, in February 1942, as a Hauptmann, he was appointed to command II. /JG52, and claimed his 100th victory on 31 August. He was the 18th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark, Steinhoff remained with JG52 until March 1943, when he took over Jagdgeschwader 77 as Geschwaderkommodore operating over the Mediterranean. On 28 July 1944, Steinhoff received the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. He ended the war as a jet pilot, first being posted to Kommando Nowotny in October 1944, JG7 was equipped with the Me 262 jet fighter, and Steinhoff was allowed to hand-pick several Staffelkapitäne, including Heinz Bär and Gerhard Barkhorn. Along with several others, Steinhoff was relieved of his command for challenging Görings leadership, after a brief period spent in internal exile, Steinhoff transferred to the Jet Experten unit JV44 then being put together by his close friend and confidant Adolf Galland in early 1945. Steinhoff initially acted as a de facto recruiting officer, persuading a number of veteran Luftwaffe aces to join the unit - some coming out of the Fighter Pilots Rest Home at Bad Wiessee to do so, Steinhoff himself scored six confirmed kills with the unit. Steinhoff survived nearly 1000 combat missions, only to see his flying career come to an end on the ground, on 18 April 1945, Steinhoffs Me-262 suffered a tyre blow-out and crashed on take-off from München-Riem airfield. Steinhoff suffered severe burns which left him visibly scarred despite years of reconstructive surgery and his eyelids were rebuilt by a British surgeon after the war. His wartime record was 176 aircraft claimed destroyed, of which 152 were on the Eastern Front,12 on the Western Front and 12 in the Mediterranean and he also flew 993 operational sorties
14.
Erich Hartmann
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He flew 1,404 combat missions and participated in aerial combat on 825 separate occasions. He claimed, and was credited with, shooting down 352 Allied aircraft—345 Soviet and 7 American—while serving with the Luftwaffe. During the course of his career, Hartmann was forced to crash-land his fighter 14 times due to damage received from parts of aircraft he had just shot down or mechanical failure. Hartmann was never shot down or forced to land due to enemy fire, Hartmann, a pre-war glider pilot, joined the Luftwaffe in 1940 and completed his fighter pilot training in 1942. He was posted to Jagdgeschwader 52 on the Eastern Front and was fortunate to be placed under the supervision of some of the Luftwaffes most experienced fighter pilots, at the time of its presentation to Hartmann, this was Germanys highest military decoration. Hartmann scored his 352nd and last aerial victory at midday on 8 May 1945, along with the remainder of JG52, he surrendered to United States Army forces and was turned over to the Red Army. Hartmann was sentenced to 25 years of labour and spent 10 years in various Soviet prison camps. In 1956, Hartmann joined the newly established West German German Air Force in the Bundeswehr, Hartmann resigned early from the Bundeswehr in 1970, largely due to his opposition to the F-104 Starfighter deployment in the Luftwaffe and the resulting clashes with his superiors over this issue. In his later years, after his career had ended. He died on 20 September 1993 aged 71, Erich Hartmann was born on 19 April 1922 in Weissach, Württemberg, to Doctor Alfred Erich Hartmann and his wife, Elisabeth Wilhelmine Machtholf. The economic depression that followed World War I in Germany prompted Doctor Hartmann to find work in Changsha, China, the family was forced to return to Germany in 1928, when the Chinese Civil War broke out. During World War II, Hartmanns younger brother, Alfred, also joined the Luftwaffe and he was captured by the British and spent four years as a prisoner of war. It was at Korntal that he met his wife-to-be, Ursula Usch Paetsch, Hartmanns flying career began when he joined the glider training program of the fledgling Luftwaffe and was taught to fly by his mother, one of the first female glider pilots in Germany. The Hartmanns also owned an aircraft but were forced to sell it in 1932 as the German economy collapsed. The 14-year-old Hartmann became an instructor, in 1939, he gained his pilots license, allowing him to fly powered aircraft. Hartmann began his training on 1 October 1940 at the 10th Flying Regiment in Neukuhren. On 1 March 1941, he progressed to the Luftkriegsschule 2 in Berlin-Gatow, making his first flight with a four days later. He completed his flying training in October 1941 and began advanced flight training at pre-fighter school 2 in Lachen-Speyerdorf on 1 November 1941
15.
Attack aircraft
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This class of aircraft is designed mostly for close air support and naval air-to-surface missions, overlapping the tactical bomber mission. Designs dedicated to non-naval roles are often known as ground-attack aircraft, Strike fighters, which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from the broad concept of an attack aircraft. The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during, the precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the US and UK, attack aircraft were based on light bombers, sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like the B-25G. In Germany and USSR, where they were known as schlachtflugzeug or sturmovik, in the late-war era, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a change that continued in the post-war era. Jet powered examples were relatively rare, but not unknown, like the Blackburn Buccaneer, the US Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A-series, but these were purely light and medium bombers. Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been introduced, the US A-10 Thunderbolt II and Soviet Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. One oddity belonging to class is the AC-130, which features as its primary armament high-caliber artillery guns adapted for aircraft use. A variety of attack aircraft exist, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft. Presently, U. S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in A-6 Intruder, however, until the end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for the Army aircraft. The US Navy used a separate system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers or torpedo bombers. For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the attack designation, as with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U. S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission, Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an attack mission. In United States Navy vocabulary, the designation for the same activity is a strike mission. Attack missions are divided into two categories, air interdiction and close air support. In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U. S. designation system, an aircraft is designed primarily for air-to-surface
16.
Panavia Tornado
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The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin-engine, variable-sweep wing multirole combat aircraft, which was jointly developed and manufactured by Italy, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. There are three primary Tornado variants, the Tornado IDS fighter-bomber, the suppression of air defences Tornado ECR. The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH, a consortium consisting of British Aerospace, MBB of West Germany. It first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979–1980, due to its multirole design, it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces. The Royal Saudi Air Force became the only operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations. A tri-nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore, the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment, the Tornado was used by the Royal Air Force, Italian Air Force and RSAF during the 1991 Gulf War, in which the Tornado conducted many low-altitude penetrating strike missions. Including all variants,992 aircraft were built, during the 1960s, aeronautical designers looked to variable-geometry wing designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept wing designs. The United Kingdom had cancelled the procurement of the TSR-2 and subsequent F-111K aircraft, Britain and France had initiated the AFVG project in 1965, but this had ended with French withdrawal in 1967. Britain continued to develop an aircraft similar to the proposed AFVG. Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968, represented by Air Vice-Marshal Michael Giddings, by the end of 1968, the prospective purchases from the six countries amounted to 1,500 aircraft. France had made an offer to Belgium on the Dassault Mirage 5. On 26 March 1969, four partner nations – United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, various concepts, including alternative fixed-wing and single-engine designs, were studied while defining the aircraft. An additional blow was struck by the German requirement reduced from an initial 600 aircraft to 324 in 1972, the front fuselage and tail assembly was assigned to BAC in the United Kingdom, the centre fuselage to MBB in West Germany, and the wings to Aeritalia in Italy. Similarly, tri-national worksharing was used for engines, general and avionic equipment, a separate multinational company, Turbo-Union, was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft, with ownership similarly split 40% Rolls-Royce, 40% MTU, and 20% FIAT. The aircraft was called the Panavia Panther, and the project soon coalesced towards the two-seat option. It was at point that Britains Chief of the Defence Staff announced two-thirds of the fighting front line will be composed of this single. The first of more than a dozen Tornado prototypes took flight on 14 August 1974 at Manching, Germany, the actual flight went so smoothly that I did begin to wonder whether this was not yet another simulation. Flight testing led to the need for minor modifications, airflow disturbances were responded to by re-profiling the engine intakes and the fuselage to minimise surging and buffeting experienced at supersonic speeds
17.
Electronic warfare
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Electronic warfare is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack of an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum. The purpose of warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment. Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of warfare, more specifically. NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW, a Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME, NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy, ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures has been retained as they contribute to and support EA, ED, besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development, Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet and this includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict. The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum, EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations, all of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW. The principal EW activities have developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions, electronic attack, electronic protection, and electronic warfare support, in the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems or radar systems. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure, the use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing missile to counter an adversary’s use of flares is EP
18.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
19.
Eurofighter Typhoon
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The Eurofighter Typhoon is a twin-engine, canard-delta wing, multirole fighter. NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency manages the project and is the prime customer, the aircrafts development effectively began in 1983 with the Future European Fighter Aircraft programme, a multinational collaboration among the UK, Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. Disagreements over design authority and operational requirements led France to leave the consortium to develop the Dassault Rafale independently. A technology demonstration aircraft, the British Aerospace EAP, first took flight on 6 August 1986, the aircrafts name, Typhoon, was adopted in September 1998, the first production contracts were also signed that year. The Royal Air Force of Oman and the Kuwait Air Force are export customers, the Eurofighter Typhoon is a highly agile aircraft, designed to be a supremely effective dogfighter in combat. The Typhoon had its debut during the 2011 military intervention in Libya with the Royal Air Force. The type has also taken responsibility for air-defence duties for the majority of customer nations. The UK had identified a requirement for a new fighter as early as 1971, the AST403 specification, issued by the Air staff in 1972, led to the P.96 conventional tailed design presented in the late 1970s. The P.96 design had potential for growth. However, the simultaneous West German requirement for a new fighter had led by 1979 to the development of the TKF-90 concept and this was a cranked delta wing design with forward close-coupled-canard controls and artificial stability. In 1979, Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm and British Aerospace presented a proposal to their respective governments for the ECF. In October 1979 Dassault joined the ECF team for a tri-national study and it was at this stage of development the Eurofighter name was first attached to the aircraft. The development of different national prototypes continued, the UK produced two designs, the P.106 was a single-engined lightweight fighter, superficially resembling the JAS39 Gripen, the P.110 was a twin-engined fighter. The RAF rejected the P.106 concept on the grounds it had half the effectiveness of the aircraft at two-thirds of the cost. West Germany continued to refine the TKF-90 concept, consequently, the Panavia partners launched the Agile Combat Aircraft programme in April 1982. The ACA was very similar to the BAe P.110, having a delta wing, canards. One major external difference was the replacement of the engine intakes with a chin intake. The ACA was to be powered by a version of the RB199
20.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
21.
Eurocopter AS532 Cougar
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The Eurocopter AS532 Cougar is a twin-engine, medium-weight, multipurpose helicopter developed by France. The AS532 is a development and upgrade of the Aérospatiale SA330 Puma in its militarized form, the AS532 has been further developed as the Eurocopter EC725. The AS332 Super Puma, designed as a version to replace the SA330 Puma. It was fitted with two 1,330 kW Turbomeca Makila 1A1 turboshaft engines, composite blades, improved landing gear. In 1990 all military Super Puma designations were changed from AS332 to AS532 Cougar to distinguish between the civil and military variants of the helicopter, canada had considered purchasing the Cougar to replace their CH-113 Labrador, but opted in the end to purchase the CH-149 Cormorant. In 2012 France began a €288. 8m project to upgrade 23 Army Cougars and 3 for the Air Force to address obsolescence issues, AS532 UL/AL The AS532 UL/AL is the long version of the Cougar family and is powered by two Turbomeca Makila 1A1 turboshaft engines. It carries a crew of 2 and up to 29 troops or 6 injured passengers on stretchers plus 10 others, as with the other versions of the Cougar, the AS532 UL/AL can lift 4.5 tons by means of a sling. The Horizon battlefield ground surveillance system can be installed on the AS532 UL, the AS532 AL can also be fitted with a variety of weapons, including pod-mounted 20 mm cannons,68 mm rocket-launchers and side-mounted rapid fire machine-guns. AS532 SC The AS 532SC is the version of the Cougar family and is powered by two Turbomeca Makila 1A1 turboshaft engines. For deck landing, securing at high sea states, maneuver, aS535 French Army Combat Search and Rescue version. Six people died, all employees of Eurocopter, witnesses said the helicopter had hit an electricity cable. The helicopter had been destined for the Albanian Air Force,1 Oct 2016- A Swiss Air Force crashed after hitting power lines
22.
Eurocopter EC145
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The Eurocopter EC145, now known as the Airbus Helicopters H145, is a twin-engine light utility helicopter developed and manufactured by Eurocopter, which was rebranded as Airbus Helicopters in 2014. The EC145 is an aircraft and can carry up to nine passengers along with two crew, depending on customer configuration. The helicopter is marketed for passenger transport, corporate transport, emergency services, search and rescue, parapublic. In 2014, the EC145 was rebranded as the H145 by Airbus Helicopters, the EC145 was a joint development between Eurocopter and Kawasaki Heavy Industries on the basis of their successful prior jointly produced BK117 C1. The noise signature of the EC145 is reportedly 60% lower than that of the BK117 C1, Eurocopter and Kawasaki have an agreement under which both firms independently manufacture and market the rotorcraft, while working collaboratively on development and upgrades. Kawasaki uses the designation BK117 C2 for the type and sells/produces the aircraft in the Asian market, in November 2004, with the termination of production of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries MH2000, the BK117 C2 became the only civil helicopter in production in Japan. In August 2010, it was announced that the partnership between Eurocopter and Kawasaki on the development and production of the EC145 had been extended until at least 2025. In 2011, Eurocopter officially launched an upgraded EC145 model, designated EC145 T2, in April 2014, airworthiness certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency for the EC145 T2 was received, FAA certification followed in October 2014. The primary manufacturing facility for the EC145 is located at Donauwörth in Germany, in 2014, Airbus Helicopters announced that 50 EC145 T2s would be manufactured in 2015, the production is expected to eventually rise to 70 helicopters per year. Since 2011, Eurocopter has been developing an optionally piloted vehicle variant of the EC145, test flights of the EC145 OPV, including unmanned flights, began in 2013. The technology, which is reported to be compatible with a number of Eurocopters range of helicopters, is intended for civil and military applications. In an emergency situation, such as failure, the EC145 OPV is programmed to enter into an automated hover-to-land procedure to safely land the aircraft. In July 2014, Airbus Helicopter launched the EC145e, a lightened and lower cost version of the standard EC145, intended as a basic model for tasks such as aerial firefighting and utility work, it has been also viewed as a replacement for aging MBB Bo 105 rotorcraft. In April 2015, the EASA issued its certification for the EC145e, in 2015, Metro Aviation entered into an arrangement with Airbus Helicopters to offer various mission-specific customisations for the EC145e and operate as a reseller for the variant. The EC145 features a cabin space than the older BK117 C1 helicopter with internal space increased by 46 cm in length and 13 cm in width. A number of systems are redundant, including the autopilot system, hydraulic boost, transmission lubrication. The EC145 is also the first civil helicopter to be fitted with night vision-compatible cockpit instrumentation, in an EMS/casualty evacuation arrangement, the EC145 can carry up to two stretchered patients with three accompanying medical staff. The helicopter can be fitted with floats, rescue hoist, search light, load hook
23.
Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion
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The CH-53 Sea Stallion is the most common name for the Sikorsky S-65 family of heavy-lift transport helicopters. Originally developed for use by the United States Marine Corps, it is in service with Germany, Iran, Israel, the United States Air Force operated the HH-53 Super Jolly Green Giant during the late– and post–Vietnam-War era, updating most of them as the MH-53 Pave Low. The dimensionally-similar CH-53E Super Stallion is a heavier-lifting, improved version designated S-80E by Sikorsky and its third engine makes it more powerful than the Sea Stallion, which it has replaced in the heavy-lift mission. In 1960, the United States Marine Corps began to seek a replacement for their HR2S piston-powered helicopters. On 27 January 1961, the Marine Corps began working with the other three U. S. armed services on the Tri-Service VTOL transport, which would emerge as the Vought-Hiller-Ryan XC-142A tiltwing. The design became more elaborate and the stretched out, causing the Marines to drop out when they decided they would not receive a working machine in a satisfactory timeframe. In the end, the XC-142A, although a very innovative and capable machine, in March 1962, the United States Navys Bureau of Naval Weapons, acting on behalf of the Marines, issued a request for a Heavy Helicopter Experimental / HH. The specifications dictated a load capability of 8,000 pounds with a radius of 100 nautical miles at a speed of 150 knots. The HH was to be used in the transport, aircraft recovery, personnel transport. In the assault role, it was to be mostly used to haul heavy equipment instead of troops. Kamans proposal quickly died when the British government dropped its backing of the Rotodyne program, competition between Boeing Vertol and Sikorsky was intense, with the Chinook having an advantage because it was being acquired by the United States Army. Sikorsky threw everything into the contest and was awarded the contract in July 1962, the Marines originally wanted to buy four prototypes but ran into funding problems. Sikorsky, determined to keep the deal, cut their estimate for development costs, there was also the problem that U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. All these obstacles overcome, the first YCH-53A performed its initial flight at the Sikorsky plant in Stratford, Connecticut, on 14 October 1964, the Marines had already placed an initial production contract for 16 helicopters in September. Flight trials went more smoothly than expected, helping make up for the time lost in development and it received the military designation and name CH-53A Sea Stallion. Delivery of production CH-53s began in 1966, the CH-53A arrived in Vietnam in January 1967 and proved useful, eventually recovering even more downed aircraft than the CH-54. A total of 141 CH-53As were built, including the two prototypes, the U. S. Navy acquired 15 CH-53As from the USMC in 1971 for airborne mine countermeasures activities. The helicopters had more powerful T64-GE-413 turboshafts installed and received the designation RH-53A, the United States Air Force ordered the HH-53B in September 1966 and first flew on 15 March 1967
24.
Trainer (aircraft)
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A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews. Civilian pilots are trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to allow for a student and instructor. The aircraft may be modified to withstand the conditions imposed by training flights. The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are, pilot and instructor side by side, or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. It is now the norm for pilots to begin their training in an aircraft with side by side seating. This, however, has not always been the case, given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to eliminate unsuitable candidates. The cost to air forces that do not follow a graduated training regimen is not just monetary. There are two areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills, in operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques. Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in an aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the United States Air Force Academy. The U. S. replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program with the Diamond DA20, at the end of this stage, pilot trainees are assessed as to where their attributes lie, as fast jet, multi-engine or rotary wing pilots. Those who are judged unsuitable for a commission, but show other attributes, may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators. Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders, after the ab-inito phase a candidate may progress to basic, or primary, trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers, like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano, prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions, examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130. Effective combat aircraft are a function now electronics as much as, if not more so than and it is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics
25.
Grob G 120
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The Grob G120 is a two seated training and aerobatic low-wing aircraft with a carbon composite airframe, built by Grob Aircraft. It is based on the Grob G 115TA training aircraft and is designed for military. It has a landing gear and a low tailplane. The airframe is made of fibre reinforced plastic and is stressed to +6/-4g. Its minimum service life is just over 15,000 flight hours, the cockpit provides room for students wearing military equipment and helmets. The plane is equipped with seats and rudder pedals and an air conditioning system. A second thrust lever is available, G 120A Piston powered version with a Lycoming AEIO-540-D4D5 six cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled piston aircraft engine producing 260 hp. G 120TP Turboprop powered version with a Rolls Royce 250-B17F aircraft engine producing 456 shp for take-off, the Indonesian Air Force signed a contract for about 18 G 120TP trainers in the elementary and basic flying training roles in September 2011 at a cost of approx US$4 million each. The Argentine Air Force bought 10 examples, and has received 4 as of July 2014, argentina Argentine air force 4,10 on order Canada KF Defence Programs,13 for training of Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Air Force pilots. Janes All The Worlds Aircraft 2003–2004, coulsdon, UK, Janes Information Group,2003. Grob 120A official website Grob 120TP official website
26.
Beechcraft T-6 Texan II
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The Beechcraft T-6 Texan II is a single-engine turboprop aircraft built by the Raytheon Aircraft Company. A trainer aircraft based on the Pilatus PC-9, the T-6 has replaced the Air Forces Cessna T-37B Tweet, the T-6A is also used as a basic trainer by the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Greek Air Force, the Israeli Air Force, and the Iraqi Air Force. The T-6B is the trainer for U. S. The T-6C is used for training by the Royal Moroccan Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the T-6 is a development of the Pilatus PC-9, modified significantly by Beechcraft to enter the Joint Primary Aircraft Training System competition in the 1990s. A similar arrangement between Pilatus and British Aerospace had also been in place for a Royal Air Force competition in the 1980s, the aircraft was designated under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system and named for the decades-earlier T-6 Texan. The JPATS competition-winning design was based on a commercial off-the-shelf Pilatus PC-9, additional requirements and conflicts between the Air Force and the Navy resulted in delays, cost increases, and a completely new aircraft that is 22% or 1,100 lbs heavier than the Pilatus. On 9 April 2007, the U. S and it is unusual for a program so far into full-rate production to experience significant enough cost overruns to trigger this congressional notification. The T-6A was introduced to Moody Air Force Base and Randolph Air Force Base in 2000–2001, laughlin Air Force Base began flying the T-6 in 2003 where it is now the primary basic trainer, replacing the T-37. Vance Air Force Base completed transitioning from the T-37 to the T-6 in 2006 and that year, Columbus Air Force Base began its transition, and retired its last T-37 in April 2008. The last active USAF T-37Bs were retired at Sheppard Air Force Base in the summer of 2009, in 2013, Beechcraft was once again the loser. The CT-156 Harvard II is a variant used for instruction in the NATO Flying Training in Canada, located at 15 Wing, Moose Jaw. They are leased to the Royal Canadian Air Force by the programs administrator, nFTCs Harvard II aircraft are almost identical in cockpit layout and performance to the American JPATS Texan IIs. NFTC had 25 Harvard II aircraft owned and maintained by Bombardier, CAE took over the program in 2015. The Hellenic Air Force operates 25 T-6A and 20 T-6A NTA aircraft, on 9 June 2008, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency announced a possible FMS sale to Israel of 25 T-6As for the Israeli Air Force. In July 2009, Beechcraft delivered the first four of 20 T-6As under contract to the Israeli Air Force, on 16 December 2009, the first four of 15 T-6A aircraft are delivered to Iraq under a $210 million contract. No AT-6 aircraft were included as was previously reported and this equates to an average of $14 million per aircraft with support and training included. The first eight aircraft, purchased by the Government of Iraq, the last seven, purchased by the United States, are expected by the end of December 2010. On 13 May 2014, the US State Department approved an order for 24 T-6C aircraft for use as trainers by the Iraqi Air Force, the sale was worth US$790 million and was part of a larger one billion dollar deal
27.
Northrop T-38 Talon
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The Northrop T-38 Talon is a two-seat, twin-engined supersonic jet trainer. It was the worlds first supersonic trainer and is also the most produced, the T-38 remains in service as of 2017 in several air forces. The United States Air Force operates the most T-38s, in addition to training USAF pilots, the T-38 is used by NASA. The U. S. Naval Test Pilot School is the principal US Navy operator, pilots of other NATO nations fly the T-38 in joint training programs with USAF pilots. As of 2015, the T-38 has been in service for over 50 years with its original operator, in 1952 Northrop began work on a fighter project, the Fang, with shoulder-mounted delta wing and a single engine. The proposed General Electric J79 engine, weighing two tons, meant the resulting aircraft would be large and expensive. Schmued and chief engineer Welko Gasich decided on a small twin-engine hot-rod fighter, Northrop began its N-156 project in 1954, aiming for a small supersonic fighter jet capable of operating from the US Navys escort carriers. In the mid-1950s the USAF issued a General Operating Requirement for a supersonic trainer, Northrop officials decided to adapt the N-156 to this competition. The only other candidate was the version of the North American F-100 Super Sabre. However, Northrop officials convincingly presented life-cycle cost comparisons which could not be ignored, the first flew on 10 March 1959. The type was adopted and the first production examples were delivered in 1961, officially entering service on 17 March that year. When production ended in 1972,1,187 T-38s had been built, since its introduction, it is estimated that some 50,000 military pilots have trained on this aircraft. The USAF remains one of the few armed flying forces using dedicated supersonic final trainers, as most, such as the US Navy, the T-38 is of conventional configuration, with a small, low, long-chord wing, a single vertical stabilizer, and tricycle undercarriage. The aircraft seats a student pilot and instructor in tandem, and has intakes for its two engines at the wing roots. Its nimble performance has earned it the nickname white rocket, in 1962 the T-38 set absolute time-to-climb records for 3,000,6,000,9,000 and 12,000 meters, beating the records for those altitudes set by the F-104 in December 1958. The wings of both the T-38 and the F-5 family use conventional skin over spar-rib structure, in 2015,504 T-38s were still operational with the USAF, with many more in operation around the world. Most of the USAF variant aircraft have been converted to the T-38C through an upgrade program. Improvements include the addition of a HUD, GPS, INS, most jets have also received PMP
28.
Cargo aircraft
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A cargo aircraft is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of cargo rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities and generally one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries. Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD containers in the holds of normal passenger aircraft. Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of air mail as early as 1911, although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid-1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, in February 1923 this was put to use by the RAFs Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops. The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways Handley Page HP.42 airliners, the World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. This aircraft, like most of its era, used tail-dragger landing gear caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped. Postwar Europe also served to play a role in the development of the modern air cargo. To rapidly supply the numbers of aircraft, many older types. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs, in the years following the war era a number of new custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimental features. For instance, the USs C-82 Packet featured a cargo area. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years and these designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the specification as the C-5
29.
Bombardier Global Express
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The Bombardier Global Express is a large cabin, ultra long range business jet manufactured by Bombardier Aerospace in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There are currently three variants in active service — the original Global Express, Global 5000 & Global 6000 —, the Global Express has been modified for military missions, such as the Raytheon Sentinel and the United States Air Force E-11A. The Global Express can fly intercontinental ranges without refuelling or between most two points in the world only one stop. In this class the Global Express competes with the Airbus Corporate Jet, Boeing Business Jet, Bombardier Aerospace began studies in 1991 and the aircraft was officially launched in 1993. The first flight occurred on October 13,1996, the Global Express features an advanced all new supercritical airfoil with a 35° sweep and winglets, plus a new T-tail. The aircraft is powered by two BMW RollsRoyce BR-710 turbofans with FADEC, the advanced flightdeck features a six screen Honeywell Primus 2000 XP EFIS suite and is offered with optional heads-up displays. The Global Express was announced on 28 October 1991 at the NBAA convention, full-scale cabin mockup was exhibited at the NBAA convention in September 1992. Conceptual design started early 1993 and the programme was launched on 20 December 1993. The aircraft high-speed configuration was frozen in June 1994 and the configuration was established in August 1994. The major external supplier is Japans Mitsubishi Heavy Industries which builds the wing, in 2015, Bombardier announced to reduce production because of lower demand caused by slowing economy and geopolitics in markets such as Latin America, Russia and China. The Global 5000 is a based on Global Express, with 813 mm reduction in forward fuselage length. Seating capacity is up to 19 passengers, the aircraft was announced on 25 October 2001 with the official launch on 5 February 2002, after a positive market assessment with letters of intent for 15 aircraft. The aircraft is manufactured by Bombardier Aerospace in Toronto, Ontario, the Global 5000 is built on the same production line as the Global Express XRS, and the two types serial numbers are intermingled. The first Global 5000 aircraft flew on 7 March 2003, the flight was dedicated to testing basic system functionality and assessing the aircrafts handling and flying qualities. The aircraft completed its testing at Bombardiers Downsview facility, before it moved to Bombardiers Wichita facility to begin the flight test program. The Global 5000 made its first appearance at the Paris Air Show in June 2003. The average trip lengths for most operators is 2.5 hours where the aircraft will cruise between Mach 0.85 and Mach 0.89, making it one of the fastest long range jets available today. Typical configuration features 18 passenger seats including fully berthable seats and an aft lounge/bedroom, the aircraft has a full galley and two lavatories
30.
Airbus A310 MRTT
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The Airbus A310 Multi Role Tanker Transport is an aerial refueling tanker aircraft based on the civilian Airbus A310. Previously, the A310 has been operated as a transport aircraft. The A310 Multi Role Tanker Transport is a derivative of the Airbus A310 airliner. It is designed as an air refueling tanker and cargo transport aircraft. The aircraft are manufactured and modified by EADS/Airbus. military radios, for MRTT, a remote surveillance of approaching/refueling process with a night-vision capable video system had to be developed. This system allows operation both with visible light and also near-infrared radiation, the Refuelling Monitor was integrated in the year 2008. Reinforced wings and aircraft floor Minor cockpit modifications, the design of the pod and wing reinforcements and systems was subcontracted to ITD SA, at that time part of the ITP Group. The Luftwaffe was the first customer for the MRTT, converting four of their seven A310s, the RCAF converted two of their five A310s, which are known as the CC-150 Polaris in Canadian service, to MRTT configuration. While the current MRTTs rely on probe/drogue refueling, EADS has invested $90m in research and they are now able to offer tankers from the A310 with refueling pods to the larger A330 MRTT equipped with refueling booms. An A310 MRTT is somewhat smaller than the A330 MRTT, since the production of A310 airframes was discontinued, the conversion can only be made on refurbished airliners, or as an upgrade to A310s already used by air forces. As a tanker, it has a fuel capacity to the KC-135R. Airbus hopes to sell it to some of the countries that need to replace the Boeing 707s they use as tankers, pakistan has also ordered MRTT capability built on an A310, although the aircraft is no longer in production
31.
Airbus A400M Atlas
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The Airbus A400M Atlas is a multi-national, four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. It was designed by Airbus Military as a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities to replace older aircraft, such as the Transall C-160. The A400M is positioned, in terms of size, between the C-130 and the C-17, it can carry heavier loads than the C-130, while able to use rough landing strips. Along with the role, the A400M can perform aerial refuelling. The A400Ms maiden flight, originally planned for 2008, took place on 11 December 2009 from Seville, Spain. Between 2009 and 2010, the A400M faced cancellation as a result of development programme delays and cost overruns, however, a total of 174 A400M aircraft had been ordered by eight nations by July 2011. In March 2013, the A400M received European Aviation Safety Agency certification, the first aircraft was delivered to the French Air Force in August 2013. Varying requirements and the complications of international politics caused slow progress, in 1989, Lockheed left the grouping and went on to develop an upgraded Hercules, the C-130J Super Hercules. With the addition of Alenia of Italy and CASA of Spain the FIMA group became Euroflag, since no existing turboprop engine in the western world was powerful enough to reach the projected cruise speed of Mach 0.72, a new engine design was required. Originally the SNECMA M138 turboprop was selected, but didnt meet the requirements, Airbus Military issued a new request for proposal in April 2002, after which Pratt & Whitney Canada with the PW180 and Europrop International answered. In May 2003, Airbus Military selected the Europrop TP400-D6, reportedly due to political interference over the PW180 engine, the original partner nations were France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Belgium, and Luxembourg. These nations decided to charge the Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation with the management of the acquisition of the A400M, following the withdrawal of Italy and revision of procurement totals the revised requirement was for 180 aircraft, with first flight in 2008 and first delivery in 2009. On 28 April 2005, South Africa joined the programme with the state-owned Denel Saab Aerostructures receiving a contract for fuselage components. The A400M is positioned as a size and range between the Lockheed C-130 and the Boeing C-17, carrying cargo too heavy for the C-130 while able to use rough landing strips. It has been advertised with the tagline transport what the C130 cannot to places that the C17 can’t, on 9 January 2009, EADS announced that the first delivery was postponed until at least 2012, and indicated that it wanted to renegotiate certain technical characteristics. EADS maintained the first deliveries would begin three years after the A400Ms first flight, in response to the FTD report, the chief of the German Air Force stated, That is a disastrous development, and could delay deliveries to the German Air Force until 2014. On 29 March 2009, Airbus CEO Thomas Enders told Der Spiegel magazine that the programme might need to be abandoned without changes, the OCCAR reminded the participating countries that they can terminate the contract before 31 March 2009. On 3 April 2009 the South African Air Force announced that it would start considering alternatives to the A400M due to postponed production, on 5 November 2009, South Africa announced it was cancelling the order citing increased cost and delivery delays.5 billion a year
32.
Airbus A319
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The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries up to 160 passengers and has a range of 3,700 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin. The A319 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,457 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 21 airliners are on firm order. As of 28 February 2017, EasyJet was the largest operator of the Airbus A319, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, the SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was known as the A320M-7. It would provide competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four frames fore. Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two, the bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics, power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN, with option for 105 kN thrust. With virtually the same capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers. The A319s wingspan is longer than the overall length
33.
Airbus A340
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The Airbus A340 is a long-range, four-engine, wide-body commercial passenger jet airliner developed and produced by the European aerospace company Airbus. The A340 was assembled in Toulouse, France and it seats up to 375 passengers in the standard variants and 440 in the stretched -600 series. Depending on the model, it has a range of 6,700 to 9,000 nautical miles and its distinguishing features are four high-bypass turbofan engines and three-bogie main landing gears. The A340 was manufactured in four fuselage lengths, the initial variant, A340-300, which entered service in 1993, measured 63.69 metres. The shorter -200 was developed next, and the A340-600 was a 15.96 metres stretch of the -200, the -600 was developed alongside the shorter A340-500, which would become the longest-range commercial airliner until the arrival of the Boeing 777-200LR. The -200 and -300 models were powered by the 151 kilonewtons CFM56-5C, the initial A340-200 and -300 variants share the fuselage and wing of the twin-engine Airbus A330 with which it was concurrently designed. The heavier A340-500 and -600 are longer and have larger wings, launch customers Lufthansa and Air France placed the A340 into service in March 1993. In September 2011,379 orders had been placed, of which 375 were delivered, the most common type were the A340-300 model, with 218 aircraft delivered. Lufthansa is the biggest operator of the A340, having acquired 59 aircraft, Airbus announced on 10 November 2011 that A340 production had been concluded. When Airbus designed the Airbus A300 during the 1970s, it envisioned a broad family of airliners to compete against Boeing and Douglas, from the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the introduction of the first Airbus airliners, Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft that would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which resulted in the Airbus A320 family. The decision to work on the A320, instead of an aircraft proposed by the Germans. The A300B11, a derivative of the A310, was designed upon the availability of ten ton engines and it would seat between 180 and 200 passengers, and have a range of 6,000 nautical miles. It was deemed the replacement for the less-efficient Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s still in service, the A300B11 was joined by another design, the A300B9, which was a larger derivative of the A300. The B9 was developed by Airbus from the early 1970s at a pace until the early 1980s. It was essentially a stretched A300 with the wing, coupled with the most powerful turbofan engine at the time
34.
Transall C-160
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The C-160 proved to be a long-lasting design, remaining in service more than 50 years after the types first flight in 1963. The C-160 will be replaced in French and German service by the Airbus A400M Atlas, in the late 1950s, a requirement arose to replace the piston-engined Nord Noratlas transports operated by both the air forces of France and Germany.222. The new aircraft was required to carry a 16,000 kilograms cargo over a range of 1,720 kilometres or a load of 8,000 kg over a range of 4,540 km and be able to operate out of semi-prepared airstrips. One prototype was built by each of the partners, with the first flying on 25 May 1963, with the VFW. These were followed by six pre-production examples, stretched by 51 centimetres compared with the prototypes, Production orders were delayed by attempts by Lockheed to sell its C-130 Hercules transport to Germany, these attempts were rebuffed, and a contract was signed for 160 C-160s on 24 September 1964. The aircrafts tailfin was to be built by Dornier, Three production lines were set up to assemble these components, one run by Nord, and the other two by VFW and HFB. The first production airframes were delivered to France and Germany from 1967, the first batch included 110 C-160Ds for the German Air Force,50 C-160Fs for the French Air Force, and nine C-160Zs for the South African Air Force. Four C-160Fs were converted to C-160P air mail transport aircraft, and were operated by Air France, in July 1977, France placed an order for 25 aircraft to be built to an updated standard. The production workload for the new aircraft was split 50-50 between Aérospatiale and MBB, with an assembly line in Toulouse. The new version lost the cargo loading door on the side of the fuselage. When fitted these tanks increased fuel capacity from 19,000 litres to 28,000 litres, the aircraft were also fitted with updated avionics. The first second generation C-160 took flight in 1981, aircraft produced in this batch included 29 for France, and 6 for Indonesia. The Transall C-160 is a tactical transport, featuring a large-volume cargo hold, a rear-access ramp underneath an upswept tail. As designed, the C-160 can perform cargo and troop transport duties, aerial delivery of supplies and equipment, operate directly from frontline positions, and evacuate casualties. In the airlift role, a later production C-160 could carry up to 8.5 tons across a distance of 5,000 kilometers, dependent upon aircraft configuration, a single aircraft could airdrop as many as 88 paratroopers or transport up to 93 equipped troops. The C-160 is powered by a pair of two Rolls-Royce Tyne turboprop engines, which drives a pair of four-bladed Dowty Rotol propellers, the advantages of the twin-engine configuration include reduced unit and production cost, lower weight and fuel consumption, simplifying aircraft design and reliability. An updated second generation of the C-160 was produced during the 1980s, amongst changes made, the second generation was equipped with additional fuel tankage, aerial refuelling probes, and avionics improvements. The second generation C-160s were also designed for potential adaption to perform other such as maritime patrol
35.
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules
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The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. The C-130J is an update of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, with new engines, flight deck. The Hercules family has the longest continuous run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 60 years of service, the family has participated in military, civilian, the Hercules has outlived several planned successor designs, most notably the Advanced Medium STOL Transport contestants. Fifteen nations have placed orders for a total of 300 C-130Js, the C-130J is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model features considerably updated technology and these differences include new Rolls-Royce AE2100 D3 turboprop engines with Dowty R391 composite scimitar propellers, digital avionics, and reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum speed, the J-model is available in a standard-length or stretched -30 variant. The U. S. Marine Corps KC-130J uses a crew chief for expeditionary operations, the C-130Js cargo compartment is approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high, and 10 feet wide, and loading is from the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft can also be configured with the cargo handling system. Initially developed for the USAF, this system enables rapid role changes to be carried out, Lockheed Martin received the launch order for the J-model from the RAF, which ordered 25 aircraft, with first deliveries beginning in 1999 as Hercules C4 and Hercules C5. The standard C-130J had a flyaway cost of US$62 million in 2008, in mid-June 2008, the United States Air Force awarded a $470 million contract to Lockheed Martin for six modified KC-130J aircraft for use by the Air Force and Special Operations Command. The contract led to C-130J variants that will replace aging HC-130s and MC-130s, the HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft’s refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production and this test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. This capability, designated as Harvest HAWK, can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, the aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed within a day if necessary, the Super Hercules has been used extensively by the USAF and USMC in Iraq and Afghanistan. Canada has also deployed its CC-130J aircraft to Afghanistan, C-130Js from several countries have been deployed in support of the US Operation Odyssey Dawn and NATOs Operation Unified Protector during the 2011 Libyan civil war. From the first flight on 5 April 1996 to 30 April 2013,290 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft operated by 13 nations surpassed 1 million flight hours, in January 2013, it was reported that some of Canadas C-130J transports had counterfeit Chinese microchips in their cockpit displays. These parts are likely to fail and result in failures such as blank instrument screens during flight
36.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
37.
Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure
38.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
39.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
40.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
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German reunification
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The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
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East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
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National People's Army
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The National People’s Army was the name used for the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic. The NVA was first established in 1956 and disbanded in 1990 and its participation with the Soviet Armed Forces against the Czechoslovak interim government during the Prague Spring of 1968 was cancelled at the last minute. However, there were frequent reports of East German advisors working with communist African governments during the Cold War, the German Democratic Republic established the National Peoples Army on March 1,1956 from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei. During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVAs officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht, of the 82 highest command positions, ex-Wehrmacht officers held 61, however, very few of them had served in high ranks. The military knowledge and combat experience of veterans were indispensable in the NVAs early years. In its first six years the NVA operated as an all-volunteer force, the GDR introduced conscription in 1962, and the NVAs strength increased to approximately 170,000 troops. The proportion of SED members in the officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, the NVA saw itself as the instrument of power of the working class. According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a deterrent to imperialist aggression. The NVAs motto, inscribed on its flag, read, For the Protection of the Workers and Farmers Power. The NVA never took part in combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968. Instead, the NVA provided logistical help when Soviet troops advanced into Czechoslovakia, during the 1970s, and increasingly in the 1980s, the NVA achieved new standards of mobilization times and combat readiness. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisations submarine-based missiles were seen as its most potent weapon, ultimately,85 per cent of all NVA units were on constant alert, trained to depart within 25 to 30 minutes from their bases to designated areas about five to seven kilometers apart. Mobilization of reserves would have been completed two days. These unprecedented levels of combat readiness were considered the asset of GDR military deterrence but have never been proven to be accurate. These preparedness levels placed a strain on military professionals and conscripts alike. In the early 1970s the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany high command assigned to the NVA the wartime mission of capturing West Berlin. The NVA plan for the operation, designated Operation Centre, called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFGs Soviet 6th Guards Separate Motor Rifle Brigade. The plan was updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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listen)), the German-language generic term for air force) is the aerial warfare branch of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of Germany. With a strength of 27,704 personnel (30 June 2018),[1] it is the fourth largest air force within the European Union, after the air forces of the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Although its budget has been significantly reduced since the end of the Cold War in 1989–1990, the Luftwaffe is still among the best-equipped air forces in the world.
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Eurofighter Typhoon 
Tornado IDS 
Tornado ECR & IDS
A400M Atlas 
C-160 Transall 
CH-53 Sea Stallion 
VIP Transport 
Air Force Regiment 
Air Defence Missile Wing 1 
Bases without flying units
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