1.
Landwehr Canal
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The Landwehr Canal, or Landwehrkanal in German, is a 10. 7-kilometre long canal parallel to the Spree river in Berlin, Germany, built between 1845 and 1850 according to plans by Peter Joseph Lenné. It connects the upper part of the Spree at the Osthafen in Friedrichshain with its part in Charlottenburg, flowing through Kreuzberg. Lenné designed a canal with sloped walls, a width of 20 m at the surface. In the course of two enlargements, it reached a breadth of 22 m and a depth of 2 m, today the waterway is mainly used by tourist boats and pleasure craft. The Landwehr Canal leaves the Spree River in the Osthafen in Friedrichshain and it immediately descends through the Schleusenufer and heads in a straight line south west to its junction with the Neukölln Ship Canal, which provides a connection to the Teltow Canal. Although this has since been filled and partially converted to a public garden, further west in Kreuzberg, the canal is paralleled for about 1 kilometre by the U1 line of the Berlin U-Bahn, which runs here as an elevated railway. Shortly after that, the elevated U2 line crosses the canal, after entering Tiergarten, the canal flows between the Großer Tiergarten Park and the Berlin Zoological Garden. Here the canal passes through the Unterschleuse and is bridged by the Berlin Stadtbahn and this historic elevated railway carries S-Bahn, Regional-Express and InterCity trains. The Landwehr Canal rejoins the Spree River in Charlottenburg, immediately opposite the entrance to the Charlottenburg Canal at a waterways crossroad known as Spreekreuz. After Rosa Luxemburg was murdered on January 15,1919, her body was dumped into the Landwehr Canal, in 1920 Anna Anastasia Anderson attempted suicide by jumping into the water. In 1932 initial construction of the Shell-Haus overlooking the canal was completed, on 27 April 1945 the Russian Army was closing in on the German Armys final defensive stronghold in the Tiergarten district of Berlin. On 8 June 1962 a party of fourteen East German refugees commandeered the river steamer Friedrich Wolff, erected steel plates around the wheelhouse and sailed from the Spree into the Landwehr Canal. An East German patrol boat intercepted them and opened fire, but West German police returned fire and all landed safely on the canal bank, in the West
2.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
3.
Kreuzberg
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Kreuzberg, a part of the combined Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg borough located south of Mitte since 2001, is one of the best-known areas of Berlin. The borough is known for its large percentage of immigrants and descendants of immigrants. As of 2006,31. 6% of Kreuzbergs inhabitants did not have German citizenship, the counterculture tradition of Kreuzberg led to a plurality of votes for the Green Party, which is unique among all Berlin boroughs. The local MP Hans-Christian Ströbele is the only Green politician directly elected to the federal Bundestag parliament, Kreuzberg is bounded by the river Spree in the east. The Landwehrkanal flows through Kreuzberg from east to west, with the Paul-Lincke-Ufer running alongside it, other characteristics are the old U-Bahn line of the present-day U1, the Görlitzer Park in SO36 and the Viktoriapark on the slope of the Kreuzberg hill in SW61. Kreuzberg is divided into 2 zones, Östliches Kreuzberg, Westliches Kreuzberg, in contrast to many other areas of Berlin, which were villages before their integration into Berlin, Kreuzberg has a rather short history. It was formed on 1 October 1920 by the Greater Berlin Act providing for the incorporation of suburbs, on 27 September 1921 the borough assembly of Hallesches Tor decided to rename the borough after the homonymous hill. Kreuzberg, literally meaning cross hill, is the point of highest elevation in the Kreuzberg locality, the hill is traditionally a place for weekend trips. It received its name from the 1821 Prussian National Monument for the Liberation Wars by Karl Friedrich Schinkel within the Viktoriapark, except for its northernmost part, the quarter Friedrichstadt, todays Kreuzberg was a very rural place until well into the 19th century. This changed when, in the 1860s, industrialization caused Berlin to grow rapidly and this called for extensive housing – much of which was built exploiting the dire needs of the poor, with widespread land speculation. Many of Kreuzbergs buildings originate from that time and they were built on the streets laid out in the Hobrecht-Plan in an area that came to be known architecturally as the Wilhelmine Ring. Far into the 20th century, Kreuzberg was the most populous of Berlins boroughs even in numbers, with more than 400,000 people, although it was. As a result, with more than 60,000 people per square kilometer, in addition to housing, Kreuzberg was also one center of Berlins industry. Both of these quarters were almost entirely destroyed by air raids during World War II. In remembrance of the old tradition, the Axel Springer press company erected its German headquarters at Kochstraße again, after World War II, Kreuzbergs housing rents were regulated by law which made investments unattractive. As a result, housing was of low quality, but cheap, starting in the late 1960s, increasing numbers of students, artists, and immigrants began moving to Kreuzberg. Enclosed by the Berlin Wall on three sides, the area famous for its alternative lifestyle and its squatters, especially the SO36 part of Kreuzberg. Starting in 1987, there have been violent riots in SO36 on Labour day, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Kreuzberg suddenly found itself in the middle of the city again
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Science museum
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A science museum is a museum devoted primarily to science. Older science museums tended to concentrate on static displays of objects related to history, paleontology, geology, industry and industrial machinery. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter, many if not most modern science museums — which increasingly refer to themselves as science centers or discovery centers — also emphasize technology, and are therefore also technology museums. The mission statements of science centers and modern museums vary, but they are united in being places that make science accessible and they are an integral and dynamic part of the learning environment, promoting exploration from the first Eureka. As early as the Renaissance, many aristocrats collected curiosities for display to their family, universities and particularly medical schools also maintained study collections of specimens for their students. Scientists and collectors displayed their finds in private cabinets of curiosities, such collections were the predecessors of modern natural history museums. The first purpose-built museum covering natural philosophy and open to the public from 1683 was the original Ashmolean museum in Oxford, the first dedicated science museum was the Museo de Ciencias Naturales, in Madrid, Spain. Opened in 1752, it almost disappeared during the Franco regime, the Utrecht University Museum, among others, still displays an extensive collection of 18th-century animal and human rarities in its original setting. Another line in the genealogy of science museums came during the Industrial Revolution, for example, the Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace eventually gave rise to Londons Science Museum. In America, various Natural History Societies established collections in the early 19th century, notable was the early New England Museum of Natural History, which opened in Boston in 1864. The Academy of Science of Saint Louis was founded in 1856 as the first scientific organization west of the Mississippi, the modern interactive science museum appears to have been pioneered by Munich’s Deutsches Museum in the early 20th century. This museum had moving exhibits where visitors were encouraged to push buttons, the concept was taken to the US by Julius Rosenwald, chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Company, who visited the Deutsches Museum with his young son in 1911. He was so-captivated by the experience that he decided to build a museum in his home town. Chicagos Museum of Science and Industry opened in phases between 1933 and 1940, in 1959 the Museum of Science and Natural History was formally created by the Academy of Science of Saint Louis, featuring many interactive science and history exhibits. In August 1969, Frank Oppenheimer dedicated his new Exploratorium in San Francisco almost completely to interactive science exhibits, the Exploratorium published the details of their own exhibits in Cookbooks that served as an inspiration to many other museums around the world. Opened in September 1969, the Ontario Science Centre continued the trend of featuring interactive exhibits rather than static displays, in 1973, the first Omnimax theater opened as the Reuben H. Fleet Space Theater and Science Center in San Diegos Balboa Park, the tilted-dome Space Theater doubled as a planetarium. The Science Center was an Exploratorium-style museum included as a part of the complex
6.
Technology museum
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A technology museum is a museum devoted to applied science and technological developments. Many museums are both a museum and a technology museum. Further technology museums in Germany include the Deutsche Technikmuseum in Berlin-Kreuzberg, the Technoseum in Mannheim, the Technik Museum Speyer, the most prestigious of its kind in Austria is the Technische Museum in Vienna. Many other independent museums, such as museums, cover certain technical genres, processes or industries, for example mining, chemistry, metrology, musical instruments. This article is based upon a translation of the German language version as at November 2013
7.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
8.
Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
9.
Hamburger Bahnhof
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Hamburger Bahnhof is the former terminus of the Berlin–Hamburg Railway in Berlin, Germany, on Invalidenstrasse in the Moabit district opposite the Charité hospital. Today it serves as an art museum, the Museum für Gegenwart, part of the Berlin National Gallery. The station was built to Friedrich Neuhauss plans in 1846/47 as the point of the Berlin–Hamburg Railway. It is the only surviving building in Berlin from the late neoclassical period. The building has not been used as a station since 1884, the term royal was dropped with the end of the Prussian monarchy in 1918. The museum attracted crowds and was extended with additional wings to the left and right of the main building in 1909–11. Hit by Allied bombing in 1944, the museum was closed, however, the Reichsbahns East German management had no interest in reopening a museum now located in West Berlin, but only in the exhibits, which the Western Allies did not allow to be brought to the East. In 1984 the Reichsbahn transferred both the building and the collection into Western hands, in 1987, the empty halls were used for temporary exhibitions. In the mid-1980s the Berlin entrepreneur Erich Marx offered his collection of contemporary art to the city. The Berlin Senate decided in 1987 to establish a museum of art in the former railway station. The Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation agreed to operate the museum as part of the National Gallery, a competition for the renovation of the station was announced by the Senate in 1989, and was won by the architect Josef Paul Kleihues. Between 1990 and 1996, Kleihues refurbished the building, and in November 1996 the museum was opened with an exhibition of works by Sigmar Polke, the Museum für Gegenwart exhibits modern and contemporary art. Permanent loans from the Marx collection, including works by such as Joseph Beuys, Anselm Kiefer, Robert Rauschenberg. An emphasis of the Nationalgalerie collection is art on video and film, between 2004 and 2010, the Museum für Gegenwart exhibited parts of the Friedrich Christian Flick Collection, whose main focus is on the late 20th century. Due to its connection with the Flick family, the display gave rise to protests in 2004, Berlin State Museums Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation List of museums in Berlin Official website
10.
Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof
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The Anhalter Bahnhof is a former railway terminus in Berlin, Germany, approximately 600 metres southeast of Potsdamer Platz. The stations name lives on in the Berlin S-Bahn station of the same name, opened in October 1939 as part of the North-South S-Bahn link. The Anhalter Bahnhof was the Berlin terminus of a line begun on 15 April 1839, opened on 1 July 1841 as far as Jüterbog, passing through the historical state of Anhalt, it became known as the Anhalt line and this in turn gave the Berlin terminus its name. It quickly developed into a network that carried train services to and from Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main, and so the Anhalter Gate was created in 1839-40, and bore a strong resemblance to architect Karl Friedrich Schinkels Potsdam Gate up the road. A new thoroughfare, Anhalter Straße, led from the gate into the city, the Anhalter Gate was one of four extra ones provided in the years after the customs walls original erection, increasing the total number of gates around the city from 14 to 18. The customs wall eventually became redundant and was demolished in 1866-67, in 1872, architect Franz Heinrich Schwechten designed the vast new station that would also be the biggest in Germany and at the time the biggest in Continental Europe, though it was later surpassed. A temporary station was opened in 1874, the old one was demolished in 1875, on 15 June 1880, the new terminus was opened by Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The new façade was 101 m across and embellished with zinc sculptures titled Day and Night by Ludwig Brunow, emil Hundrieser was responsible for a sculpture on the very top of the façade called The International Traffic. Inside the building was a lavish and spacious booking hall with waiting rooms. A separate entrance and reception area were provided for visiting royalty, behind all this, the huge iron and glass train-shed roof by writer and engineer Heinrich Seidel measured 171 m long by 62 m wide, and rose to 34 m in height along its centre line. The Anhalter Güterbahnhof, also opened, south of the Landwehr Canal on the date as the passenger station. Initially the rebuilt terminus was still handling train services mainly to and from Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main and Munich, however, two years later it inherited a whole new range of services with the closure of the Dresdner Bahnhof. This terminus had opened on 17 June 1875, with trains to Dresden, Prague and Vienna, the Anhalter Bahnhof was more than capable of handling these services as well, and so on 15 October 1882 they were switched, and the Dresdner Bahnhof closed. By 1930, trains left its six platforms every three to five minutes, carrying an average of 44,000 people daily. Though still less busy than the Potsdamer Bahnhof up the road, the Anhalter Bahnhof was superior in its sheer scale, there were even five underground shops down there. Begun in 1934, it was opened in two phases, the suburban lines to Zossen and Licherfelde-Ost via Papestraße and Priesterweg were connected to the tunnel on November 6,1939, making the new North-South transversal line complete. This underground station was placed at the west side of the overground station. At Anhalter Bahnhof S-Bahn station a direct route to the mainline terminus above was provided from 19 December 1940
11.
Douglas C-47 Skytrain
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The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II, the specialized C-53 Skytrooper troop transport started production in October 1941 at Douglas Aircrafts Santa Monica, California plant. It lacked the cargo door, hoist attachment and reinforced floor of the C-47, only a total of 380 aircraft were produced in all because the C-47 was found to be more versatile. During World War II, the forces of many countries used the C-47 and modified DC-3s for the transport of troops, cargo. The U. S. Naval designation was R4D, more than 10,000 aircraft were produced in Long Beach and Santa Monica, California and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Between March 1943 and August 1945 the Oklahoma City plant produced 5,354 C-47s, additionally, C-47s were used to airlift supplies to the embattled American forces during the Battle of Bastogne. Possibly its most influential role in aviation, however, was flying The Hump from India into China. The expertise gained flying The Hump was later be used in the Berlin Airlift, in which the C-47 played a major role, until the aircraft were replaced by Douglas C-54 Skymasters. A C-47 flown by the China National Airways Corporation pilot Moon Chin, Moon Chin was tasked with flying from Chungking to Myitkyina, a military base in Burma. His aircraft was jumped by Japanese fighters and, after landing at a small airstrip to wait for his pursuers to give up the game. When Chins DC-3 arrived at Myitkyina, he found that the base had, indeed, been severely bombed by the Japanese, eventually, Chin would carry sixty-eight passengers and a crew of four on the final leg to India. After arriving in India, the tattered American approached Captain Chin, believe me, Chin, he began, if I had had any idea that you were going to jam that many people into this old crate I would have gone home the way I came. Chin inquired as to how that might have been and the American replied I flew in, the short, balding, bedraggled American was none other than Lt Col Jimmy Doolittle returning from the historic raid on Tokyo. In Europe, the C-47 and a specialised paratroop variant, the C-53 Skytrooper, were used in vast numbers in the stages of the war, particularly to tow gliders. During the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, C-47s dropped 4,381 Allied paratroops, more than 50,000 paratroops were dropped by C-47s during the first few days of the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944. In the Pacific War, with use of the island landing strips of the Pacific Ocean. About 2,000 C-47s in British and Commonwealth service took the name Dakota, the C-47 also earned the informal nickname gooney bird in the European theatre of operations. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had Skytrains in service from 1946 through 1967, the US Air Forces 6th Special Operations Squadron was flying the C-47 until 2008
12.
Raisin Bombers
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Upon comprehensive coverage in the media, drops were ordered expanded by Lt. General William H. Tunner as Operation Little Vittles. As this gesture became known, it enjoyed considerable support with the US public. Halvorsen and his comrades received large support in form of more and more donations of candy from the industry while civilian volunteers made the parachutes for the delivery. These actions contributed to the development of post war German-American relations, a sightseeing C-47 was badly damaged in a crash landing on Schönefeld Airport in 2010 and is currently being restored. Another C-47 is on display at the German Museum of Technology, a British Handley Page Hastings aircraft is on exhibition at the Berlin Allied Museum. Marshall Plan History of Berlin Cherny, Andrei, candy Bombers, The Untold Story of the Berlin Airlift and Americas Finest Hour Huschke, Wolfgang J
13.
Fernsehturm Berlin
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The Fernsehturm is a television tower in central Berlin, Germany. Close to Alexanderplatz in Berlin-Mitte, the tower was constructed between 1965 and 1969 by the government of the German Democratic Republic and it was intended as both a symbol of communist power and of Berlin. It remains the latter today, as it is visible throughout the central. With its height of 368 metres it is the tallest structure in Germany, of three tallest structures in Europe, it is 0. 5m shorter than the Riga Radio and TV Tower, and 8m taller than the Trbovlje Power Station in 2017. The tower has one of the most prominent symbols of the country and is often in the establishing shot of films set in Berlin. Due to its location near Alexanderplatz, it is occasionally called Alex Tower, the original total height of the tower was 365 metres, but it rose to 368 metres after the installation of a new antenna in 1997. The Fernsehturm is the fourth tallest freestanding structure in Europe, after Moscows Ostankino Tower, the Kiev TV Tower, the sphere is a visitor platform and a revolving restaurant in the middle of the sphere. The visitor platform, also called panoramic floor, is at a height of about 203 metres above the ground, the restaurant Telecafé, which rotates once every 30 minutes, is a few metres above the visitors platform at 207 metres. When first constructed, it turned once per hour, the speed was doubled following the towers 1997 renovation. Inside the shaft, two lifts shuttle visitors to the sphere of the tower within 40 seconds, a Stairway with 986 steps also provides access, however it is not accessible by wheelchair. The TV tower had several architects and its former design was done by Hermann Henselmann, and Jörg Streitparth. It was built by the East German architects Fritz Dieter, Günter Franke, Walter Herzog, Gerhard Kosel and Herbert Aust later also took part in the planning. The Tower was deliberately constructed in the center of the medieval center of Berlin. A medieval church stands next to the tower as a testament to the destruction of the old city, construction began on 4 August 1965. After four years of construction, the Fernsehturm began test broadcasts on 3 October 1969, regardless of its dark origins, it is among the best known sights in Berlin, and hosts around a million visitors a year. When the sun shines on the Fernsehturms tiled stainless steel dome, berliners nicknamed the luminous cross Rache des Papstes, or the Popes Revenge. For the same reasons, the structure was also called St. Walter, U. S. President Ronald Reagan mentioned this in his Tear down this wall speech on 12 June 1987. It is also known as the Toothpick and Telespargel due to its shape
14.
Berlin Tempelhof Airport
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Berlin Tempelhof Airport was one of the airports in Berlin, Germany. Tempelhof was designated as an airport by the Ministry of Transport on 8 October 1923, the old terminal was originally constructed in 1927. In anticipation of increasing air traffic, the Nazi government began a reconstruction in the mid-1930s. While it was cited as the worlds oldest operating commercial airport, the title was disputed by several other airports. Tempelhof was one of Europes three iconic pre-World War II airports, the others being Londons now defunct Croydon Airport and the old Paris – Le Bourget Airport and it acquired a further iconic status as the centre of the Berlin Airlift of 1948-49. Tempelhof Airports main building was once among the top 20 largest buildings on earth, in contrast, Tempelhof Airport closed all operations on 30 October 2008, despite the efforts of some protesters to prevent the closure. A non-binding referendum was held on 27 April 2008 against the impending closure, the former airfield has subsequently been used as a recreational space known as Tempelhofer Feld. In September 2015 it was announced that Tempelhof would also become a refugee camp. Tempelhof was often called the City Airport and these events respectively marked the debut at Tempelhof of the largest aircraft in commercial airline service at the time and the then-largest aircraft overall. Runway 09L/27R was 2,094 metres long and runway 09R/27L was 1,840 m, the taxiway was in the shape of an oval around these two runways, with a single terminal on the northwest side of the airport. Other possible uses for Tempelhof have been discussed, and many people are trying to keep the buildings preserved. The site of the airport was originally Knights Templar land in medieval Berlin, later, the site was used as a parade field by Prussian forces, and by unified German forces from 1720 to the start of World War I. In 1909, Frenchman Armand Zipfel made the first flight demonstration in Tempelhof, Tempelhof was first officially designated as an airport on 8 October 1923. Deutsche Luft Hansa was founded in Tempelhof on 6 January 1926, the old terminal, originally constructed in 1927, became the worlds first with an underground railway. As part of Albert Speers plan for the reconstruction of Berlin during the Nazi era, ernst Sagebiel was ordered to replace the old terminal with a new terminal building in 1934. With its façades of shell limestone, the building, built between 1936 and 1941, forms a 1.2 kilometre long quadrant. Arriving passengers walked through customs controls to the reception hall, Tempelhof was served by the U6 U-Bahn line along Mehringdamm and up Friedrichstraße. Zentralflughafen Tempelhof-Berlin had the advantage of a location just minutes from the Berlin city centre
15.
Bahnbetriebswerk
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A Bahnbetriebswerk is the equivalent of a locomotive depot on the German and Austrian railways. It is an installation that carries out the maintenance, minor repairs, refuelling and cleaning of locomotives, in addition it organises the deployment of locomotives and crews. In the Deutsche Bahn, a Bahnbetriebswerk is known today as a Betriebshof, many other countries simply use the term depot. The smaller facility, the Lokomotivstation akin to the British sub-depot or stabling point, is affiliated to a Bahnbetriebswerk, the shortened form Betriebswerk is also used and both are commonly abbreviated to Bw or BW. On 7 January 1835 the first Bahnbetriebswerk in Germany was opened and it looked after locomotives on the first railway line in Germany, the Bavarian Ludwigsbahn from Nuremberg to Fürth. It was here that the first locomotive in Germany, the Adler, was assembled and maintained, the inventor or father of the Bahnbetriebswerk was John Blenkinsop. Soon afterwards the first Bahnbetriebswerk was built, not only did it carry out the usual functions of such a depot, but also others such as the construction of locomotives. In 1845, John Blenkinsop was clear that it was cheaper to service locomotives at regular intervals than not to repair them until they broke down. Gradually all the other German railway companies organised their technical support based on the example of the Ludwigsbahn, such facilities also appeared at junctions, which explains why there were so many locomotive sheds of that type. From the 1860s, all railway companies separated the functions of traffic operating, over time, the first repair shops also appeared, known at that time as Hauptwerkstätten. With the takeover of the German state railways following the treaty of 30 April 1920 the organisation of engineering services was standardised across the whole of Germany. The Deutsche Reichsbahn set up various Reichsbahn divisions and engineering offices, on 1 August 1935 there were 7 Reichsbahn divisions and 132 engineering offices. The new organisational regulations introduced in the 1920s proved their worth, nevertheless the number of Bahnbetriebswerke rose, initially the DR turned large Lokbahnhöfe into Bahnbetriebswerke, but on the foundation of the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft things changed suddenly. A fifth of the reparations that had to be handed to the victorious powers after World War I had to be absorbed by the DRG, in order to be able to manage that, rationalisation measures had to be taken, above all almost all areas had to make savings. In addition the management was streamlined which led to the closure of all smaller Bahnbetriebswerke, at the same time so-called Großbahnbetriebswerke were created. Medium and small facilities were integrated into these Betriebswerke. As a result, giant depots emerged that had a multitude of maintenance facilities, examples include, Dresden-Friedrichstadt, Hamburg-Altona, Hamm and Osnabrück. They were often responsible for the maintenance of over 150 locomotives, the Deutsche Bundesbahn began from 1950 to turn smaller Bahnbetriebswerke into outstations
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History of rail transport
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Including systems with man or horse power, and tracks or guides made of stone or wood, the history of rail transport dates back as far as the ancient Greeks. Wagonways were relatively common in Europe from about 1500 through 1800, mechanised rail transport systems first appeared in England in the 1820s. These systems, which use of the steam locomotive, were critical to the Industrial Revolution. They have remained the form of long distance land transportation for many bulk materials such as coal, ore, grains, stone and sand. Reduction in friction was one of the reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate-covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon in England, “A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to look upon the experiment, twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load. ”Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended route. The Diolkos was in use for over 650 years, until at least the 1st century AD, the first horse-drawn wagonways also appeared in ancient Greece, with others to be found on Malta and various parts of the Roman Empire, using cut-stone tracks. They fell into disuse as the Roman Empire collapsed, in 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Castle in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope, the line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is possibly the oldest wagonway still to operate. Wagonways are thought to have developed in Germany in the 1550s to facilitate the transport of ore tubs to and from mines, such an operation was illustrated in 1556 by Georgius Agricola. This used Hund carts with unflanged wheels running on wooden planks, such a transport system was used by German miners at Caldbeck, Cumbria, England, perhaps from the 1560s. An alternative explanation derives it from the Magyar hintó - a carriage, there are possible references to their use in central Europe in the 15th century. The first true railway is now suggested to have been a railway made at Broseley in Shropshire. This carried coal for James Clifford from his mines down to the river Severn to be loaded onto barges, though the first documentary record of this is later, its construction probably preceded the Wollaton Wagonway, completed in 1604, hitherto regarded as the earliest British installation. This ran from Strelley to Wollaton near Nottingham, another early wagonway is noted onwards. Huntingdon Beaumont, who was concerned with mining at Strelley, also laid down broad wooden rails near Newcastle upon Tyne, by the 18th century, such wagonways and tramways existed in a number of areas
17.
Deportation
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Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. The term expulsion is often used as a synonym for deportation, through expulsion is often used in the context of international law. Definitions of deportation apply equally to nationals and foreigners, transportation is by way of punishment of one convicted of an offense against the laws of the country. Extradition is the surrender to another country of one accused of an offense against its laws, there to be tried, deportations widely occurred in ancient history. Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire, one notable example was the deportaion of the Mards in Charax, near Rhages by Phraates I. The 10,000 Roman prisonors of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana near the border in 53 BC. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Li-Jien after becoming soldiers for the Hsiung-nu, Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans and the Byzantines. During Shapur Is reign, the Romans who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis, other destinations were Parthia, Khuzestan, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur, agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the sread Christianity in the Sassanian empire, in Rēw-Ardashīr, Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for Carmanians. After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur IIs reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions, some where deported to Bahrain and Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions and bringing the tribes under control. The author of the text Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I for his treatment of the deportees, major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War. Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of Sura, Beroea, Antioch, Apamea, Callinicum, the city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay. The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source, in 1954, the executive branch of the U. S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico. Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States, already in natural law of the 18th century, philosophers agreed that expulsion of a nation from the territory that it historically inhabits is not allowable. Deportation often requires a process that must be validated by a court or senior government official. It should not be confused with administrative removal, which is the process of a country denying entry to an individual at a port of entry and expelling them. Deportation can also happen within a state, when an individual or a group of people is forcibly resettled to a different part of the country, if ethnic groups are affected by this, it may also be referred to as population transfer
18.
Deutsche Reichsbahn
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The company was founded in 1920 as the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen, and changed its name to German National Railway on 27 June 1921. DR was founded when the Weimar Republic, formally known as Deutsches Reich, took control of the German railways. In 1924 it was reorganised under the aegis of the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft, a private railway company. In 1937 the railway was reorganised again as a state authority, after the Anschluss in 1938 the DR also took over the Bundesbahn Österreich. The East and West German states were founded in 1949, East Germany took over the control of the DR on its territory and continued to use the traditional name Deutsche Reichsbahn, while the railway in West Germany became the Deutsche Bundesbahn. The Austrian Österreichische Bundesbahnen was founded in 1945, and was given its present name in 1947, after the end of the First World War this national imperial railway was taken back by France. A similar attempt failed in 1875 as a result of opposition from the middle powers when Albert von Maybach presented a draft Reich Railway Act to the Bundesrat. In the wake of the stipulations of the Weimar Constitution of 11 August 1919 the state treaty on the foundation of the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen came into force on 1 April 1920. This resulted in the merger of the state railways of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Baden. Following the plans publication, on 12 February 1924 the Reich government announced the creation of the Deutsche Reichsbahn as an enterprise under the Reich Ministry of Transport. The aim was to earn profits which, in accordance with the Dawes Plan, were to be used to contribute to Germanys war reparations and these terms were later amended in the Young Plan. Nevertheless, the Great Depression and the payment of war reparations put a considerable strain on the Reichsbahn. Not until the Lausanne Conference of 1932 was the Reichsbahn released from its financial obligations, in total, about 3.87 billion Goldmarks was paid in reparations to the Allied powers. The stock already in use had been inherited from the state railways and comprised a great number of designs. In fact, the DRG was unable to procure new stock in the numbers it wanted to both for reasons and due to delays in upgrading the lines to carry higher axle loads. The locomotive classes taken over from the old railways, especially those from the Prussia. They included, for example, the Prussian P8, Prussian P10, Prussian G12, the Bavarian S 3/6 express locomotive even continued in production until 1930. Not until the procurement programme for the wartime Kriegslokomotiven were new locomotives built in large numbers
19.
The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims
20.
HO scale
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HO or H0 is a scale used in model railroading. It is the most popular scale of model railway in the world, the precise definition of HO or H0 scale varies slightly by country. According to the National Model Railroad Association standard S-1.2, predominantly used in North America and this is a ratio of 1,87.0857142, which is usually rounded to 1,87.1. According to the MOROP standard NEM010, which is used in Europe. In HO and H0, rails are spaced 16.5 mm apart, in most English-speaking markets it is pronounced aitch-oh and written with the letters HO today, but in German it is pronounced hah-null, and still written with the letter H and number 0. After the First World War there were attempts to introduce a model railway about half the size of 0 scale that would be more suitable for smaller home layouts. H0 was created to meet these aims, for this new scale, a track width of 16.5 mm was designed to represent prototypical standard gauge track, and a model scale of 1,87 was chosen. By as early as 1922 the firm Bing in Nuremberg, Germany, had been marketing a tabletop railway for several years and this came on a raised, quasi-ballasted track with a gauge of 16.5 mm, which was described at that time either as 00 or H0. The trains initially had a drive, but from 1924 were driven electrically. Accessory manufacturers, such as Kibri, marketed buildings in the corresponding scale, at the 1935 Leipzig Spring Fair, an electric tabletop railway, Trix Express, was displayed to a gauge described as half nought gauge, which was then abbreviated as gauge 00. Märklin, another German firm, followed suit with its 00 gauge railway for the 1935 Leipzig Autumn Fair, the Märklin 00 gauge track that appeared more than ten years after Bings tabletop railway had a very similar appearance to the previous Bing track. HO scale trains elsewhere were developed in response to the pressures of the Great Depression. The trains first appeared in the United Kingdom, originally as an alternative to 00 gauge, while HO scale is by nature more delicate than 0 scale, its smaller size allows modelers to fit more details and more scale miles into a comparable area. Currently, HO is the most popular model railroad scale in both continental Europe and North America, whereas OO scale is still dominant in Britain, there are some modellers in Great Britain who use HO scale. For them, the British 1,87 Scale Society was formed in 1994, it publishes a journal with news, views. A magazine, Continental Modeller, focuses on the railways of other countries, including America and Europe, today, HO locomotives, rolling stock, buildings, and scenery are available from a large number of manufacturers in a variety of price brackets. Most modern HO trains run on two-rail track powered by direct current, some trains, most notably by Märklin of Germany, run on alternating current, supplied by a third rail consisting of small studs on each tie down the centre of the track. With the advent of digital control, block divisions are largely eliminated
21.
Prussian S 10
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The Prussian Class S10 included all express train locomotives in the Prussian state railways that had a 4-6-0 wheel arrangement. There were four sub-classes, the S10, S10.1 and S10.2, as a result of the lack of powerful express locomotives in the first decade of the 20th century, the Prussian state railways ordered the Class S10 locomotives from Schwartzkopff. This engine was a development of the passenger train locomotive, the Prussian P8. Unlike the P8, however, the S 10—inspired by the Saxon XII H—had a four-cylinder engine with simple expansion, between 1910 and 1914 a total of 202 locomotives were built. The two prototypes were designated as S8 class and only reclassified in 1912 to S10. The Lübeck-Büchen Railway took delivery of five similar, albeit less powerful. Over the course of several modifications were made. In the end the S10 proved to be worse than the S101, the Deutsche Reichsbahn took over 135 locomotives into its Class 17. 0-1 and gave them the running numbers 17 001–135. They were retired by 1935, however, due to their fuel consumption. Only three examples survived the Second World War, as braking locomotives, the last S10 was retired in 1954. Number 17008 has been sectioned and is on display in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin, the S 10s were coupled with tenders of classes pr 22 T21.5 and pr 22 T31.5. Even as production started on the S10, Henschel were given an order for the manufacture of a compound locomotive and this locomotive, classified as the S10.1, was not based on the S10, but was a new design. The four-cylinder compound engine was of the de Glehn type, which meant that the cylinders, set well to the rear, drove the second coupled axle. The engines were larger and more powerful than the S10 and, thanks to their compound engines, between 1911 and 1914, no less than 135 examples were built for Prussia and 17 for Alsace-Lorraine. Following initial dissatisfaction with the vehicles, several modifications to the locomotives finally led to the desired success, for example, no feedwater preheater was fitted to start with for weight-saving reasons, but one was later installed. The remaining disadvantages, such as the accessibility of the inside drive. After three locomotives were sent abroad as reparations, the Deutsche Reichsbahn took over the remaining 132 vehicles as Class 17. 10–11 with numbers 17 1001–1123 and 17 1145–1153. The three locomotives left in 1945 with the Austrian Federal Railway were renumbered to 617.1004,617.1089 and 617.1099, the Deutsche Bundesbahn withdrew their last S10.1 engines in 1952
22.
DRB Class 50
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The DRB Class 50 is a German class of 2-10-0 locomotive, built from 1939 as a standard locomotive for hauling goods trains. It had one leading axle and five coupled axles and was one of the most successful designs produced for the Deutsche Reichsbahn and this class was procured as part of the German Nazi partys preparations for war that led into the Second World War. Up to 1948,3,164 Class 50 engines were built by almost all the European locomotive factories – towards the end as so-called provisional war locomotives and classified as 50 ÜK. The Deutsche Bundesbahn grouped the locomotives into Classes 050,051,052 and 053 from 1968 so that the numbers were computer-compatible, some of the class were used by the Polish State Railways as type Ty5. In spite of losses, a large number of engines still remained in 1945. No fewer than 2,159 working locomotives were taken over by the Deutsche Bundesbahn alone and, for a long time and they were also used for passenger services. To protect the crew when running in reverse, the front of the tender was furnished with a protective shield. On many locomotives the Wagner smoke deflectors were replaced by the Witte model after the war, on 735 of the DB machines the tender was fitted with a drivers cab, which meant that the volume of the coal bunker had to be reduced. 1452 locomotives were included in the new DB classification scheme and that said,88 of them were already earmarked for withdrawal. Because the class now had to consist of 3 figures. As a result, the old Class 50 was divided as shown in the table, only 350 examples of Class 50 engines remained in with the DR in East Germany after the war. Because only a number of the numerous Class 44 fleet went to East Germany. Of the Class 50s,208 units were rebuilt into Class 50. 35-37 engines, the original locomotives ran mainly in the south. From the middle of the 1970s they were retired in large numbers, nevertheless, the last ones ended their active duties in 1987 together with the rebuilds. Some of the locomotives are preserved, including 50622 and 50849. No.50622 is stabled in the Nuremberg Transport Museum, the engine should however be able to be repaired with the aid of donations. No.50849 belongs to the Glauchau Railway Society and has a Wagner smoke deflector, after the Second World War many examples of Class 50 engines were left in the other European states and some were used until the end of the steam traction era. For example, they were in service with the PKP, the ČSD, the ÖBB, even the bathtub tender of the Kriegslokomotiven was used by the 50s amongst others
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DRG Class E 19
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The electric locomotives of the class E19 were the fastest electric locomotives of the Deutsche Reichsbahn. In regular service, they were restricted to a speed of 180 km/h. At the time of their presentation, they were the most powerful single frame locomotives ever built, orders were placed with AEG and Siemens/Henschel for two locomotives each. AEG built locomotives with serial numbers E1901 and E1902, both types were developed from the successful class E18. The helical spring gear and rigid 1′Do1′ frame were taken largely unchanged from the E18, however, in anticipation of the higher loads, the suspension was strengthened and power output increased by 500 kW. Length over buffers is the same as E18, and external differences are mainly in the arrangement of fans, the two built by AEG were a modernized version of the E18. The enclosure panels were welded instead of riveted and the engines were fitted with a modified precision regulator, the other two by Siemens/Henschel were of a more conventional riveted construction, but had a modern dynamic brake to keep braking distances as short as possible. This resulted in a distinctive roof structure compared to the E19.0. The E1901 entered service in 1938 with a black frame, extensive testing was conducted on all four locomotives in 1939-1940. Because of World War II no more were built, high-speed tests at up to 225 km/h were planned, but never took place. The E1901 and 02 could not adhere to the braking distance of 1000 meters because of insufficient braking power. It was hoped that the new electric brakes of the E1911 and 12 would solve this problem, as such, there was no conclusion to whether the E19 could have reached the planned top speed in normal service. All four locomotives were transferred to the Deutsche Bundesbahn, the top speed had already been reduced to 140 km/h in the 1950s by a gearbox and motor conversion, to make them more suitable for their new main application on the Franconian Forest Railway. The two surviving museum locomotives still have this configuration and have not been restored to their original state, the livery was later changed to blue/black. The locomotives were stationed at the Nuremberg depot and mainly used between Nuremberg on the Franconian Forest and Probstzella in the DDR, as well as between Nuremberg and Regensburg, at times they were stationed at Hagen. The last E19 was retired in 1978, the others having been out of service in 1975 and 1977. E1901 and 12 have been preserved, E1901 is stationed at the German Museum of Technology in Berlin, with red livery. The E1912, stationed at the Nuremberg Transport Museum, was restored to the original red livery after the 150 years of rail transport in Germany anniversary
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DB Class V 200
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DB Class V200.0 was the first series production diesel-hydraulic express locomotive of the German Deutsche Bundesbahn and - as Am 4/4 - of the SBB-CFF-FFS in Switzerland. Five prototypes of the V200 were built by Krauss-Maffei in 1953/1954, full production began in 1956, with 61 engines being built by Krauss-Maffei and 20 by MaK. Initially the V200 hauled express trains on all lines, replacing the DRG Class 05, DRG Class 03. From 1962, the V200.0 was followed by the more powerful DB Class V200.1, from 1977, the V200. 0s were concentrated in northern German engine sheds. These two-engine locomotives were more expensive to operate than single-engine locomotives like DB Class V160, a further disadvantage was its steam heating system for carriages, since replaced by electric train heating. The last V200 went out of service with the DB in 1984, in 1978 a further three V 200s were sold to Heitkamp and shipped to Saudi Arabia. In 1979 the repair and maintenance project, including the locomotives, was taken over by the Greek construction company Archirodon. In 1982 Archirodon bought two further V 200s to break up in order to spare parts - particularly engines. These locomotives never went to Saudi Arabia, in Archirodon service most of V 200s were withdrawn due to accidents, the locomotives involved being stripped of parts to keep the remaining locomotives operational. In 1999 at least one damaged locomotive was still extant at Al Hufuf, between 1982 and 1990, thirteen V200. 0s were sold to various private railway operators in Italy. In 2000 FSF and FP were merged into a larger company, in 2003 FER acquired three more V200. 0s from the various track maintenance contractors based in Italy. Between 2002 and 2005, all of the FER V200, all the FER locomotives are fitted with the Voith L306r transmission. The locomotives were painted in a rather garish Italian tri-colour livery, in 1988 one of the Cosfer locomotives was transported to Spain to work on the construction of the RENFE AVE lines. This locomotive was operational in Spain during 2007. In 1985 and 1986 the French infrastructure maintenance company DEHE-Montcocol purchased four V200.0 for use on construction and maintenance works in France and these locomotives were overhauled at the DB works in Nuremberg. In 1987 they were shipped to Algeria to work on a new standard gauge railway construction project, in 1991 the locomotives returned to France to work on new TGV lines. All were scrapped in France between 1997 and 1999, in October 1986 Seven V200.0 were sold to the Swiss SBB-CFF-FFS, numbered. They remained in service until 1997 and the six survivors were sold into private ownership in Germany and these locomotives were refurbished to the standard dictated by SBB-CFF-FFS by Regentalbahn AG of Viechtach, Germany
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Henschel-BBC DE2500
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One unit was converted to 1.5 kV DC operation under electric catenary, and used by the Nederlandse Spoorwegen, as NS Class 1600P. It was both capable of driving on CC bogies as well as BB bogies, the locomotives were extensively tested by the Deutsche Bundesbahn on its lines throughout Western Germany, starting in 1971 through the mid-1980s.5 kV DC-overhead wire. It was painted in the Dutch yellow scheme, assigned the number 1600P, a pantograph for the collection of the current from the overhead wire was installed, the diesel prime mover and the generator section were removed and replaced with ballast weight. The Danish State Railways, DSB, tested the locomotive 202004, the later acquired DSB Class ME, though heavier and stronger, were based on these prototypes. 37 of the class were built, an H0 scale model engine has been made of the BR202 by the German company Heris. ISBN 3-88255-146-1 BBC Asynchronous motor drive for Diesel locomotives Order No, D VK40810 E Horst J. Obermayer, Diesellokomotiven - Mit Kleinlokomotiven, Stuttgart 1972
26.
Etrich Taube
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The Etrich Taube, also known by the names of the various later manufacturers who build versions of the type, such as the Rumpler Taube, was a pre-World War I monoplane aircraft. It was the first military aeroplane to be mass-produced in Germany, the Taube was very popular prior to the First World War, and it was also used by the air forces of Italy and Austria-Hungary. Even the Royal Flying Corps operated at least one Taube in 1912, on November 1,1911, Giulio Gavotti, an Italian aviator, dropped the worlds first aerial bomb from his Taube monoplane over the Ain Zara oasis in Libya. Once the war began, it proved inferior as a serious warplane and as a result was soon replaced by newer. The Taube was designed in 1909 by Igo Etrich of Austria-Hungary and it was licensed for serial production by Lohner-Werke in Austria and by Edmund Rumpler in Germany, now called the Etrich-Rumpler-Taube. Rumpler soon changed the name to Rumpler-Taube, and stopped paying royalties to Etrich, despite its name, the Taubes unique wing form was not modeled after a dove, but was copied from the seeds of Zanonia macrocarpa, which can fly long distances from their parent tree. Similar wing shapes were used by Karl Jatho and Frederick Handley Page. Etrich had tried to build a wing aircraft based on the Zanonia wing shape. Etrich adopted the format of crosswind-capable main landing gear that Louis Blériot had used on his Blériot XI cross-channel monoplane for better ground handling. A small landing wheel was mounted on the lower end of this kingpost, to protect it for landings. Only the vertical, twinned triangular rudder surfaces were usually hinged, the design provided for very stable flight, which made it extremely suitable for observation. In addition, the translucent wings made it difficult for observers to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 meters. The first hostile engagement was by an Italian Taube in 1911 in Libya, its pilot using pistols, the Taube was also used for bombing in the Balkans in 1912–13, and in late 1914 when German 3 kg bomblets and propaganda leaflets were dropped over Paris. Taube spotter planes detected the advancing Imperial Russian Army in East Prussia during the World War I Battle of Tannenberg, in civilian use, the Taube was used by pilots to win the Munich-Berlin Kathreiner prize. On 8 December 1911, Gino Linnekogel and Suvelick Johannisthal achieved a two-man endurance record for flying a Taube 4 hours and 35 minutes over Germany. While initially there were two Taube aircraft assigned to Imperial German units stationed at Qingdao, China only one was available at the start of the war due to an accident. The Rumpler Taube piloted by Lieutenant Gunther Plüschow had to face the attacking Japanese, on October 2,1914, Plüschows Taube attacked the Japanese warships with two small bombs, but failed to score any hits. Poor rudder and lateral control made the Taube difficult and slow to turn, many future German aces would learn to fly in a Rumpler Taube
27.
Junkers Ju 52
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The Junkers Ju 52/3m is a German trimotor transport aircraft manufactured from 1931 to 1952. Initially designed with an engine but subsequently produced as a trimotor it saw both civilian and military service during the 1930s and 1940s. In a civilian role, it flew with over twelve air carriers including Swissair and Deutsche Luft Hansa as an airliner, in a military role, it flew with the Luftwaffe as a troop and cargo transport and briefly as a medium bomber. The Ju 52 continued in service with military and civilian air fleets well into the 1980s. The Ju 52 was similar to the companys previous Junkers W33, in 1930, Ernst Zindel and his team designed the Ju 52 at the Junkers works at Dessau. The aircrafts unusual corrugated duralumin metal skin, pioneered by Junkers during World War I, the Ju 52 had a low cantilever wing, the midsection of which was built into the fuselage, forming its underside. It was formed around four pairs of circular cross-section duralumin spars with a surface that provided torsional stiffening. A narrow control surface, with its outer section functioning as the aileron, the inner flap section lowered the stalling speed and the arrangement became known as the Doppelflügel, or double wing. The outer sections of this operated differentially as ailerons, projecting slightly beyond the wingtips with control horns, the strutted horizontal stabilizer carried horn-balanced elevators which again projected and showed a significant gap between them and the stabilizer, which was adjustable in-flight. The fuselage was of rectangular section with a domed decking, all covered with corrugated light alloy, there was a port side passenger door just aft of the wings, with windows stretching forward to the pilots cockpit. The main undercarriage was fixed and divided, some aircraft had wheel fairings, there was a fixed tailskid, or a later tailwheel. Some aircraft were fitted with floats or skis instead of the main wheels, in its original configuration, designated the Ju 52/1m, the Ju 52 was a single-engined aircraft, powered by either a BMW IV or Junkers liquid-cooled V-12 engine. However, the model was underpowered, and after seven prototypes had been completed. Originally powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, later models mainly received 574 kW BMW132 engines. Export models were built with 447 kW Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp and 578 kW Bristol Pegasus VI engines. In 1932, James A. Richardsons Canadian Airways received CF-ARM and it was used to supply mining and other operations in remote areas with equipment too big and heavy for other aircraft then in use. The Ju 52/1m was able to land on wheels, skis or floats, before the nationalisation of the German aircraft industry in 1935, the Ju 52/3m was produced principally as a 17-seat airliner. It was used mainly by Luft Hansa and could fly from Berlin to Rome in eight hours, the Luft Hansa fleet eventually numbered 80 and flew from Germany on routes in Europe, Asia and South America
28.
Arado Ar 79
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The Arado Ar 79 was a German aircraft of the 1930s, designed as an aerobatic two-seat trainer and touring aircraft. The Ar 79 was a monoplane with retractable, tailwheel undercarriage, the wings were fabric over plywood, the forward fuselage was fabric over steel tube, and the rear fuselage was monocoque structure. The Ar 79 set a number of speed records in 1938, On 15 July the solo 1,000 km at 229.04 km/h, clipwings. com video of restored Arado Ar 79B
29.
German re-armament
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The German rearmament was an era of rearmament in Germany during the interwar period, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. It began as soon as the treaty was signed, on a small, secret, and informal basis, but it was massively expanded after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933. The re-armament program quickly increased the size of the German officer corps, count Johann von Kielmansegg later said that the very involved process of outfitting 36 divisions kept him and his colleagues from reflecting on larger issues. The World War I reparations would be difficult or impossible to pay without viable export markets for Germanys industrial sector, another example was that the government tolerated that various Weimar paramilitary groups armed themselves to a dangerous degree. Thus various Freikorps, the Stahlhelm, the Reichsbanner, the Nazi SA, the Nazi SS, one of the reasons why this militarization of society was difficult to prevent relates to the distinction between the government and the state. The democratically elected government, being composed of groups of people, inevitably reflected the factional strife, some of the antidemocratic ideas aimed for zero democracy via totalitarianism. Others aimed for diminished democracy subordinated in power to other forces, after the Nazi takeover of power in January 1933, the Nazis pursued a greatly enlarged and more aggressive version of rearmament. During its struggle for power, the National Socialist party promised to recover Germanys lost national pride and it proposed military rearmament claiming that the Treaty of Versailles and the acquiescence of the Weimar Republic were an embarrassment for all Germans. The rearmament became the topmost priority of the German government, Hitler would then spearhead one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement Germany had ever seen. Covert organizations like the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule were established under a civilian guise in order to train pilots for the future Luftwaffe, although available statistics dont include non-citizens or women, the massive Nazi re-armament policy almost led to full employment during the 1930s. The re-armament began a change in fortune for many factories in Germany. Many industries were taken out of a crisis that had been induced by the Great Depression. By 1935, Hitler was open about rejecting the military restrictions set forth by the Treaty of Versailles, Rearmament was announced on 16 March as was the reintroduction of conscription. Some large industrial companies, which had until then specialized in traditional products began to diversify. Shipyards, for example, created branches that began to design, thus the German re-armament provided an opportunity for advanced, and sometimes revolutionary, technological improvements, especially in the field of aeronautics. The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 would provide an ideal testing ground for the proficiency of the new weapons produced by the German factories during the re-armament years, Hitler insisted, however, that his long-term designs were peaceful, a strategy labelled as Blumenkrieg. Re-armament in the 1930s saw the development of different theories of how to prepare the German economy for total war, the first amongst these was defence in depth which was put forward by Georg Thomas. He suggested that the German economy needed to achieve Autarky and one of the main proponents behind this was I. G, since World War II, both academics and laypeople have discussed the extent to which German re-armament was an open secret among national governments
30.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
31.
Arado Ar 96
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The Arado Ar 96 was a German single-engine, low-wing monoplane of all-metal construction produced by Arado Flugzeugwerke. It was the Luftwaffes standard advanced trainer during World War II, designed by Walter Blume as the result of a 1936 Reich Air Ministry tender, the prototype, powered by a 179 kW Argus As 10c engine, first flew in 1938. In 1939, a batch of Ar 96A aircraft was produced. This was followed by the production series, the more powerful Ar 96B. The Ar 96 was used for advanced, night and instrument flying training, shadow production was undertaken by Letov and the Avia factory in occupied Czechoslovakia, where manufacturing continued for some years after the war, being designated the Avia C-2B. A wooden version known as the Ar 396 was built in France and was designated the SIPA S.10, further developments were the SIPA S.11, and the SIPA S.12, a metal version,188 of all versions were produced until 1958. The S.11 was operated with success in Algeria carrying machine guns, rockets. Ar 96A Two-seat advanced trainer aircraft, Ar 96B-1 Unarmed pilot trainer version. Ar 96B-2 Ar 96C Ar 296 A proposed development of the Ar 96 with an Argus As 411 engine, Ar 396A-1 Single-seat gunnery trainer powered by an Argus As 411 engine, built largely from wood. Ar 396A-2 Unarmed instrument trainer version, SIPA S.10 French production version of Ar 396,28 produced. SIPA S.11 Modified version of S.10, powered by Renault 12S,50 built for the French Air Force, SIPA S.12 All-metal version of S.11,52 built for the French Air Force. SIPA S.121 Modified version of S.12,58 built for the French Air Force, Avia C. 2B Czechoslovak production version of the Ar 96B. 228 built by Avia and 182 by Letov between 1945 and 1950, Bulgaria Bulgarian Air Force - Bulgaria received two Avia C. 2s in 1948. Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakian Air Force operated Avia C-2 variant postwar, Arado Ar 96 B-1 - Flyhistorisk Museum
32.
Junkers Ju 87
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The Junkers Ju 87 or Stuka was a German dive bomber and ground-attack aircraft. Designed by Hermann Pohlmann, it first flew in 1935, the Ju 87 made its combat debut in 1937 with the Luftwaffes Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War. It served the Axis forces in World War II, the aircraft was easily recognisable by its inverted gull wings and fixed spatted undercarriage. Upon the leading edges of its main gear legs were mounted the Jericho-Trompete wailing sirens, becoming the propaganda symbol of German air power. The Ju 87 operated with success in the close air support. It spearheaded the air assaults in the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, in May 1940, the Ju 87s were crucial in the rapid conquest of the Netherlands, Belgium and France against all targets. Although sturdy, accurate, and very effective against ground targets, during the Battle of Britain a lack of manoeuvrability, speed and defensive armament meant that the Stuka required a heavy fighter escort to operate effectively. Once the Luftwaffe lost air superiority, on all fronts, the Ju 87 again became a target for enemy fighter aircraft. Despite these developments, because there was no replacement, the type continued to be produced until 1944. By the end of the conflict, the Stuka had been replaced by ground-attack versions of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. An estimated 6,500 Ju 87s of all versions were built between 1936 and August 1944, some notable airmen flew the Ju 87. Oberst Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the most successful Stuka ace and the most highly decorated German serviceman of the Second World War, the vast majority of German ground attack aces flew this aircraft at some point in their careers. The Ju 87s principal designer, Hermann Pohlmann, held the opinion that any dive-bomber design needed to be simple and this led to many technical innovations, such as the retractable undercarriage being discarded in favour of one of the Stukas distinctive features, its fixed and spatted undercarriage. Pohlmann continued to carry on developing and adding to his ideas and those of Dipl Ing Karl Plauth, the military version of the Ju A48 was designated the Ju K47. After the Nazis came to power, the design was given priority, despite initial competition from the Henschel Hs 123, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium turned to the designs of Herman Pohlmann of Junkers and co-designer of the K47, Karl Plauth. During the trials with the K47 in 1932, the vertical stabilizers were introduced to give the rear gunner a better field of fire. The main, and what was to be the most distinctive, after Plauths death, Pohlmann continued the development of the Junkers dive bomber. The Ju A48 registration D-ITOR, was fitted with a BMW132 engine
33.
Dive bomber
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A dive bomber is a bomber aircraft that dives directly at its targets in order to provide greater accuracy for the bomb it drops. Diving towards the target simplifies the bombs trajectory and allows the pilot to keep visual contact throughout the bomb run and this allows attacks on point targets and ships, which were difficult to attack with conventional level bombers, even en-masse. A dive bomber dives at an angle, normally between 45 and 90 degrees, and thus requires an abrupt pull-up after dropping its bombs. This puts great strains on both pilot and aircraft and it demands an aircraft of strong construction, with some means to slow its dive. This limited the class to light bomber designs with ordnance loads in the range of 1,000 lb although there were larger examples. The SBD Dauntless helped win the Battle of Midway, was instrumental in the victory at the Battle of the Coral Sea, a second and simpler technique is to bomb from a shallow dive angle, sometimes referred to as glide bombing. This reduces the accuracy, but still allows line of sight to the target during the bomb run, the Junkers Ju 88 and Petlyakov Pe-2 were widely used in this role. The Heinkel He 177 is often mentioned as having its development upset by the demand that it be able to dive bomb, the phrase glide bombing should not be confused with the term glide bomb, where the bomb glides towards its target while the aircraft remains in level flight. Attachments for this type of bombing were fitted to the Norden bombsight, Dive bombing was most widely used before and during World War II, its use declined during the war, when its vulnerability to enemy fighters became apparent. Most tactical aircraft today allow bombing in shallow dives to keep the target visible, when released from an aircraft, a bomb carries with it the aircrafts velocity. In the case of a bomber flying horizontally, the bomb will only be travelling forward. This forward motion is opposed by the drag of the air, additionally, gravity accelerates the bomb downward. The combination of two forces, drag and gravity, results in a complex pseudo-parabolic trajectory. The distance that the bomb moves forward while it falls is known as its range, if the range for a given set of conditions is calculated, simple trigonometry can be used to find the angle between the aircraft and the target. By setting the bombsight to this angle, the aircraft can time the drop of its bombs at the instant when the target is lined up in the sight. This was only effective for area bombing, however, since the path of the bomb is only roughly estimated. Large formations could drop bombs on an area hoping to hit a target, but there was no guarantee of success. The advantage to this approach, however, was that it is easy to build such an aircraft and fly it at high altitude, the horizontal bomber was thus ill-suited for tactical bombing, particularly in close support
34.
Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor
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The Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, also known as Kurier to the Allies was a German all-metal four-engined monoplane originally developed by Focke-Wulf as a long-range airliner. The Luftwaffe also made use of the Fw 200 as a transport. It achieved success as a commerce raider before the advent of long-range RAF Coastal Command aircraft, the Fw 200 resulted from a proposal by Kurt Tank of Focke-Wulf to Dr. Rudolf Stuessel of Deutsche Lufthansa to develop a landplane to carry passengers across the Atlantic Ocean to the USA. At that time this was unusual, as airlines used seaplanes on long over-water routes, to fly long distances economically, the Fw 200 was designed to cruise at an altitude of over 3,000 m - as high as possible without a pressure cabin. Existing airliners were designed to cruise at altitudes below 5,000 feet, the Fw 200 was briefly the worlds most modern airliner, until other high-altitude airliners started operating, the Boeing 307 in 1940 and the Douglas DC-4 in 1942. The designation Condor was chosen because, like the condor bird, Deutsche Lufthansa issued a specification in June 1936 after discussions between Tank, Dr. Stüssel and Carl August von Gablenz. The plane was designed by Ludwig Mittelhuber with Wilhelm Bansemir as project director, the first prototype, the Fw 200 V1, made its first flight after just over one year of development on 27 July 1937 with Kurt Tank at the controls. It was an all-metal, four-engined monoplane powered by four American 875 hp Pratt & Whitney Hornet radial engines, two further prototypes were powered by German 720 hp BMW 132G-1 radials. The Japanese Navy requested a version of the Fw 200 for search and patrol duties. This Fw 200 was held in Germany because war had broken out in Europe by that time and this aircraft became the basis for all later military models used by the Luftwaffe. The extra weight introduced by its military fitments meant that a number of early Fw 200 aircraft broke up on landing, later models were equipped with Lorenz FuG200 Hohentwiel low UHF-band ASV radar in the nose. In 1943 a version entered service that could carry the Henschel Hs 293 guided missile, the Fw 200 was operated by Deutsche Lufthansa, DDL Danish Airlines and Lufthansas Brazilian subsidiary Syndicato Condor. Dai Nippon KK of Japan also ordered Fw 200 airliners and these could not be delivered to Japan once the war began, so they were delivered to Deutsche Lufthansa instead. On 14 April 1945 an Fw 200 flew Lufthansas last scheduled service before the end of World War II, other airlines continued to operate the Fw 200 after the end of World War II. The first prototype, the Fw 200 V1, upgraded with extra tanks and redesignated Fw 200 S-1. It was the first heavier-than-air craft to fly nonstop between Berlin and New York City, making the flight from Berlin-Staaken to Floyd Bennett Field on 10/11 August 1938 in 24 hours and 56 minutes, the return trip on 13 August 1938 took 19 hours and 47 minutes. These flights are commemorated with a plaque in Böttcherstraße, a street in Bremen, beginning on 28 November 1938 it flew from Berlin to Tokyo via Basra, Karachi and Hanoi. Original film footage of his arrival shows his aircraft bearing the German civil registration of D-ACVH, a Danish-owned Fw 200 aircraft named Dania was seized by the British on English soil after Denmark was invaded by German forces in 1940
35.
Messerschmitt Bf 110
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The Messerschmitt Bf 110, often called Me 110, was a twin-engine heavy fighter and fighter-bomber developed in Nazi Germany in the 1930s and used by the Luftwaffe and others during World War II. Hermann Göring was a proponent of the Bf 110 and it was armed with two MG FF20 mm cannons, four 7.92 mm MG17 machine guns, and one 7.92 mm MG15 machine gun or twin-barrel MG 81Z for defence. The Bf 110 served with considerable success in the early campaigns. The primary weakness of the Bf 110 was its lack of agility in the air and this weakness was exploited when flying as close escort to German bombers during the Battle of Britain. When British bombers began targeting German territory with nightly raids, some Bf 110-equipped units were withdrawn and redeployed as night fighters, during the Balkans Campaign, North African Campaign and on the Eastern Front, it rendered valuable ground support to the German Army as a potent fighter-bomber. Later in the war, it was developed into a formidable radar-equipped night fighter, throughout the 1930s, the air forces of the major military powers were engaged in a transition from biplane to monoplane designs. Most concentrated on the fighter aircraft, but the problem of range arose. The Reichsluftfahrtministerium, pushed by Hermann Göring, issued a request for a new multipurpose fighter called the Kampfzerstörer with long range, the request called for a twin-engine, three-seat, all-metal monoplane that was armed with cannon as well as a bomb bay. Of the original seven companies, only Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, Focke-Wulf, Messerschmitt defeated Focke-Wulf, Henschel and Arado, and was given the funds to build several prototype aircraft. The Focke-Wulf design, the Focke-Wulf Fw 57, had a span of 25.6 m and was powered by two DB600 engines. It was armed with two 20 mm MG FF cannons in the nose and a third was positioned in a dorsal turret, the Fw 57 V1 flew in 1936 but its performance was poor and the machine crashed. The Henschel Hs 124 was similar in layout to the Fw 57. The V2 used the BMW 132Dc radial engines generating 870 PS compared with the 640 PS Jumo, the armament consisted of a single rearward-firing 7.92 mm MG15 machine gun and a single forward-firing 20 mm MG FF cannon. Messerschmitt omitted the internal bomb load requirement from the RLM directive to increase the armament element of the RLM specification, the Bf 110 was far superior to its rivals in providing the speed, range and firepower to meet its role requirements. By the end of 1935, the Bf 110 had evolved into an all-metal, low-wing cantilever monoplane of semi-monocoque design featuring twin vertical stabilizers, the design was also fitted with Handley-Page wing slots. By luck, RLM reconsidered the ideas of the Kampfzerstörer and began focusing on the Zerstörer, due to these changes, the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke design better fitted RLMs requests. On 12 May 1936, Rudolf Opitz flew the first Bf 110 out of Augsburg, but, as many pre-war designs found, the engine technologies promised were not up to acceptable reliability standards. Thus the order for four pre-production A-0 units was placed, the first of these were delivered on January 1937
36.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
37.
V-1 flying bomb
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The V-1 was developed at Peenemünde Army Research Center by the Nazi German Luftwaffe during the Second World War. During initial development it was known by the codename Cherry Stone, the first V-1 was launched at London on 13 June 1944), one week after the successful Allied landings in Europe. After this, the V-1s were directed at the port of Antwerp and other targets in Belgium, the attacks stopped only a month before the war in Europe ended, when the last launch site in the Low Countries was overrun on 29 March 1945. On 9 November 1939, a proposal for an aircraft carrying a payload of 1,000 kg over a distance of 500 km was forwarded to the RLM. On 31 May, Rudolf Bree of the RLM commented that he saw no chance that the projectile could be deployed in combat conditions, as the proposed remote-control system was seen as a design weakness. Heinrich Koppenberg, the director of Argus, met with Ernst Udet on 6 January 1941 to try to convince him that the development should be continued, despite this, Gosslau was convinced that the basic idea was sound and proceeded to simplify the design. On 22 January 1942, Lusser took up a position with the Fieseler aircraft company and he met with Koppenberg on 27 February and was informed of Gosslaus project. Gosslaus design used two engines, Lusser improved the design to use a single engine. A final proposal for the project was submitted to the Technical Office of the RLM on 5 June and the project was renamed Fi 103, as Fieseler was to be the chief contractor. By 30 August, Fieseler had completed the first fuselage, and the first flight of the Fi 103 V7 took place on 10 December, the V-1 was named by The Reich journalist Hans Schwarz Van Berkl in June 1944 with Hitlers approval. The V-1 was designed under the codename Kirschkern by Lusser and Gosslau, with a fuselage constructed mainly of welded sheet steel, the simple, Argus-built pulsejet engine pulsed 50 times per second, and the characteristic buzzing sound gave rise to the colloquial names buzz bomb or doodlebug. It was known briefly in Germany as Maikäfer and Krähe, ignition of the Argus pulsejet was accomplished using an automotive type spark plug located about 76 cm behind the intake shutters, with current supplied from a portable starting unit. The Argus As 014 could operate at zero airspeed because of the nature of its intake shutters, ramp-launch velocity for an operational V-1 was 580 km/h as it left the end of the launch ramp. Beginning in January 1941, the V-1s pulsejet engine was tested on a variety of craft, including automobiles. The unsuccessful prototype was a version of a Sprengboot, in which a boat loaded with explosives was steered towards a target ship, the Tornado was assembled from surplus seaplane hulls connected in catamaran fashion with a small pilot cabin on the crossbeams. The Tornado prototype was a noisy underperformer and was abandoned in favour of conventional piston engined craft. The engine made its first flight aboard a Gotha Go 145 on 30 April 1941, the V-1 guidance system used a simple autopilot developed by Askania in Berlin to regulate altitude and airspeed. A weighted pendulum system provided fore-and-aft attitude measurement to control pitch, operating power for the gyroscope platform and the flight-control actuators was provided by two large spherical compressed air tanks that also pressurized the fuel tank
38.
Mittelbau-Dora
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Mittelbau-Dora was a German Nazi concentration camp located near Nordhausen in Thuringia, Germany. In the summer of 1944, Mittelbau became an independent concentration camp with numerous subcamps of its own, in 1945, most of the surviving inmates were evacuated by the SS. On 11 April 1945, US troops freed the remaining prisoners, around one in three of the roughly 60,000 prisoners who were sent to Mittelbau did not survive. Today, the hosts a memorial and museum. On 18 August 1943, a raid by the Royal Air Force on Peenemünde seriously damaged the facilities. Other air raids had damaged the two sites in June and August. As a result, the Nazi leadership accelerated plans to move construction to areas less threatened by Allied bombers. On 22 August 1943, Adolf Hitler ordered SS leader Heinrich Himmler to use concentration camp workers in future A4/V-2 production, one of the sites selected was at the mountain known as Kohnstein, near Nordhausen in Thuringia. Since 1936, the Wirtschaftliche Forschungsgesellschaft had been building a fuel depot for the Wehrmacht there. By late summer 1943, this was almost finished, to oversee the creation and operation of the new construction facility, Albert Speer, Himmler and Karl Saur agreed on the foundation of Mittelwerk GmbH. To actually run the plant, Albin Sawatzki, who had earlier been in charge of producing the Tiger I tank at Henschel, was appointed. The initial contract for Mittelwerk was for 12,000 rockets, valued at 750 million Reichsmark for a price per unit, once production reached 5,000 units. Especially for Kammler, this became a prestige project, only ten days after the raid on Peenemünde, on 28 August 1943, the first 107 KZ inmates from Buchenwald arrived with their SS guards at the Kohnstein. The official name of the new subcamp of Buchenwald was Arbeitslager Dora, another 1,223 Buchenwald prisoners followed on 2 September and workers from Peenemünde came in mid-October. Over the next months, many prisoners were brought to the area in almost daily transports from Buchenwald. By late September, the number of workers had risen to over 3,000, by late October to 6,800 and by Christmas 1943 to more than 10,500. Since there were initially no huts, the prisoners were housed inside the tunnels - in specially designated Schlafstollen with four levels of beds stacked over each other, there were no sanitary facilities except for barrels that served as latrines. Inmates died from hunger, thirst, cold and overwork, during the first months, most of the work done was heavy construction and transport
39.
Nazi concentration camps
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Nazi Germany maintained concentration camps throughout the territories it controlled before and during the Second World War. Used to hold and torture political opponents and union organizers, the camps initially held around 45,000 prisoners, Heinrich Himmlers SS took full control of the police and concentration camps throughout Germany in 1934–35. Himmler expanded the role of the camps to holding so-called racially undesirable elements of German society, such as Jews, criminals, homosexuals, and Romani. The number of people in camps, which had fallen to 7,500, grew again to 21,000 by the start of World War II and peaked at 715,000 in January 1945. The concentration camps were administered since 1934 by Concentration Camps Inspectorate which in 1942 was merged into SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt and were guarded by SS-Totenkopfverbände, use of the word concentration came from the idea of using documents confining to one place a group of people who are in some way undesirable. The term itself originated in the camps set up in Cuba by General Valeriano Weyler in 1897. Concentration camps had in the past been used by the U. S. against Native Americans, between 1904 and 1908, the Schutztruppe of the Imperial German Army operated concentration camps in German South-West Africa as part of their genocide of the Herero and Namaqua peoples. The Shark Island Concentration Camp in Lüderitz was the biggest and the one with the harshest conditions, when the Nazis came to power in Germany, they quickly moved to suppress all real or potential opposition. The general public was intimidated through arbitrary psychological terror of the special courts, especially during the first years of their existence these courts had a strong deterrent effect against any form of political protest. The first camp in Germany, Dachau, was founded in March 1933, the press announcement said that the first concentration camp is to be opened in Dachau with an accommodation for 5,000 people. Dachau was the first regular concentration camp established by the German coalition government of National Socialist Workers Party, Heinrich Himmler, then Chief of Police of Munich, officially described the camp as the first concentration camp for political prisoners. On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed Theodor Eicke commandant of Dachau, in addition, the remaining SA-run camps were taken over by the SS. Dachau served as a prototype and model for the other Nazi concentration camps, almost every community in Germany had members taken there. The newspapers continuously reported of the removal of the enemies of the Reich to concentration camps making the population more aware of their presence. There were jingles warning as early as 1935, Dear God, make me dumb, between 1933 and the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945, more than 3. Many of these Germans had served in government, the military, or in civil positions, as a result of the Holocaust, the term concentration camp carries many of the connotations of extermination camp and is sometimes used synonymously. Regardless of the circumstances of the camp, which can vary a great deal. During the war, new Nazi concentration camps for undesirables spread throughout the continent, Camps were being created near the centers of dense populations, often focusing on areas with large communities of Jews, Polish intelligentsia, Communists or Romani
40.
Mittelwerk
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Mittelwerk was a German World War II factory built underground in the Kohnstein to avoid Allied bombing. It used forced labor from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp to produce V-2 ballistic missiles, V-1 flying bombs, on the night of 17/18 August 1943, RAF bombers carried out Operation Hydra against the Peenemünde Army Research Center where V-2 development and production was being carried out. On 19 October 1943, the German limited company Mittelwerk GmbH was issued War Contract No, 0011-5565/43 by General Emil Leeb, head of the Army Weapons Office, for 12,000 A-4 missiles at 40,000 Reichsmarks each. Mittelwerk GmbH also headed sites for V-2 rocket development and testing at Schlier, the facility had a communications staff under Captain Dr Kühle, an Administrative Division run by Börner under Mittelwerk board member Otto Karl Bersch, and a Prisoner Labor Supply office. In July 1944, Hans Kammler ordered the North Works to use cross-tunnels 1-20 for a Junkers jet and piston engine factory, during February–April 1945, the Nordhausen plant built Taifun anti-aircraft missiles and Heinkel He 162 jet fighters and put into operation a liquid oxygen plant. Additional plans for V-2 rocket plants were never fulfilled, V-1 flying bomb assembly began during October/November 1944 in the South end of tunnel A. At the end of January 1945,51 V-1s were shipped from a dispersed Fieseler factory in Upper Bavaria to the Nordhausen plant for completion, although there has long been speculation about other exotic weaponry being constructed or stored at Mittelwerk, evidence of this is scarce. The area was attacked with bombs by RAF Bomber Command on the 3 &4 April. What were believed to be barracks were attacked on 3 April, the attack of 4 April hit the barracks and the town of Nordhausen. The Mittelbau-Dora forced labor was evacuated on 4 April, and scientists evacuated to the Alpenfestung, casualties of the V-2 rocket are estimated at 2,541 killed and 5,923 injured. The total also includes 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners killed by British bombs in early April, the Nordhausen area was to become part of the Soviet zone of occupation, and Soviet Army officers arrived to tour the Nordhausen plant on 26 May 1945. In June 1945, the US Army left the Nordhausen plant as required by JCS Directive 1067/14, with parts, machine tools, the Red Army occupied the Mittelwerk on 5 July 1945 and demolished both of the entrances of the tunnel system in the summer of 1948. The 1947 Dora Trial convicted SS Officers and concentration camp kapos, on 19 May 1947, the former head of the Mittelwerk facility, Georg Rickhey, was extradited to Germany from Wright Field in the U. S. and acquitted of war crimes at the Dora Trial. After a new tunnel had been dug to former rail Tunnel A in 1995,710 meters of the tunnel system were opened for visitors. Large parts of the system are flooded by water, while other parts have collapsed. After the reunification of Germany the tunnels were frequently looted by treasure seekers who gained access via the private mine in the north of the Kohnstein. Willi Kramer, a German archaeologist and scientist who dived in the system in 1992 and 1998. Access through these entrances was not secured until 2004, when the mine went into insolvency, V-2 rocket facilities of World War II Project Riese
41.
VFW-Fokker 614
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The VFW-Fokker 614 was a twin-engined jetliner designed and built in West Germany. It was produced in numbers by VFW-Fokker in the early- to mid-1970s. It was originally intended as a DC-3 replacement and its most distinctive feature was that its engines were mounted in pods on pylons above the wing. West German industry was reorganised and Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke was established at Bremen. Development of what was now the VFW614 continued, although Lycoming abandoned the PLF1, development continued using the Rolls-Royce/SNECMA M45H turbofan, which was developed specially for the VFW614. In 1968, the project was given the go-ahead, with 80 percent of the backing from the West German Government, full-scale production was approved in 1970, by which time VFW had merged with Fokker. Also risk sharing agreements had been concluded with SIAT in Germany, Fairey and SABCA in Belgium, final assembly of the aircraft would be done in Bremen. The first of three prototypes flew on July 14,1971, the first flight of the aircraft was also the first time the engine had been airborne as it had not flown on a flying test-bed. The aircraft had an unconventional configuration, with two quiet, smokeless, M45H turbofans mounted on pylons above the wings and this arrangement was used to avoid the structural weight penalties of rear mounted engines and the potential ingestion problems of engines mounted under the wings. This allowed a short and sturdy undercarriage, specially suited for operations from poorly prepared runways, the position of the engine over the wing, compared to under-wing, also shielded people on the ground from intake noise during flyover. This shielding is also present for aft-mounted engines, with the above-wing installation a continuous trailing-edge flap was used with no unfavourable interaction with the engine flow. The continuous flap gave excellent low speed performance, at high speeds interference between the wing and pylon flow fields caused flow separation which limited the cruise Mn to 0.65. A recent aircraft, the HondaJet, with over-wing installation, uses a wing with no unfavourable interference effects. Development of the aircraft was protracted and orders slow to materialise, the situation was not helped by Rolls-Royces bankruptcy in 1971 which threatened the supply of engines. Also, the first prototype was lost on 1 February 1972 due to elevator flutter, by February 1975 only ten aircraft had been ordered. The first production VFW-614 flew in April 1975 and was delivered to Denmarks Cimber Air four months later, only three airlines and the German Air Force operated new VFW 614s. The aircraft was prone to engine problems, and it was too expensive for the small regional airlines for whose needs it was designed. Three aircraft were flown but never delivered, and four airframes were broken up before completion, the programme was officially cancelled in 1977, and the last unsold aircraft flew in July 1978
42.
Cessna 172
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The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is a four-seat, single-engine, high wing, fixed-wing aircraft made by the Cessna Aircraft Company. First flown in 1955, more 172s have been built any other aircraft. Measured by its longevity and popularity, the Cessna 172 is the most successful aircraft in history, Cessna delivered the first production model in 1956 and as of 2015, the company and its partners had built more than 43,000. The aircraft remains in production today, the Skyhawks main competitors have been the Beechcraft Musketeer and Grumman AA-5 series, the Piper Cherokee, and, more recently, the Diamond DA40 and Cirrus SR22. The Cessna 172 started life as a landing gear variant of the taildragger Cessna 170. In January 1955, Cessna flew an improved variant of the Cessna 170, a Continental O-300-A-powered Cessna 170C with larger elevators and a more angular tailfin. Although the variant was tested and certified, Cessna decided to modify it with a landing gear. To reduce the time and cost of certification, the type was added to the Cessna 170 type certificate as the Model 172, later, the 172 was given its own type certificate, 3A12. The 172 became a sales success, and over 1,400 were built in 1956. Early 172s were similar in appearance to the 170s, with the same straight aft fuselage and tall landing gear legs, although the 172 had a straight tailfin while the 170 had a rounded fin and rudder. In 1960, the 172A incorporated revised landing gear and the swept-back tailfin, the final aesthetic development, found in the 1963 172D and all later 172 models, was a lowered rear deck allowing an aft window. Cessna advertised this added rear visibility as Omni-Vision, production halted in the mid-1980s, but resumed in 1996 with the 160 hp Cessna 172R Skyhawk. Cessna supplemented this in 1998 with the 180 hp Cessna 172S Skyhawk SP, the Cessna 172 may be modified via a wide array of supplemental type certificates, including increased engine power and higher gross weights. Available STC engine modifications increase power from 180 to 210 hp, add constant-speed propellers, a Cessna 172 was used in 1958 to set the world record for flight endurance, the record still stands. On December 4,1958, Robert Timm and John Cook took off from McCarran Airfield in Las Vegas, Nevada, in a used Cessna 172, registration number N9172B. They landed back at McCarran Airfield on February 4,1959 after 64 days,22 hours,19 minutes and 5 seconds in flight, the flight was part of a fund-raising effort for the Damon Runyon Cancer Fund. Food and water were transferred by matching speeds with a car on a straight stretch of road in the desert. The drivers steered while a second person matched speeds with the aircraft with his foot on the accelerator pedal
43.
Mathias Rust
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Mathias Rust is a German aviator known for his illegal landing near Red Square in Moscow on 28 May 1987. An amateur pilot, he flew from Helsinki, Finland to Moscow, being tracked several times by Soviet air defense, the Soviet fighters never received permission to shoot him down, and several times he was mistaken for a friendly aircraft. He landed on Vasilevsky Descent next to Red Square near the Kremlin in the capital of the Soviet Union. Rust said he wanted to create a bridge to the East. The incident aided Mikhail Gorbachev in the implementation of his reforms, Rust, aged 18, was an inexperienced pilot, with about 50 hours of flying experience at the time of his flight. He spent the two weeks traveling across Northern Europe, visiting the Faroe islands, spending a week in Iceland. He was later quoted as saying that he had the idea of attempting to reach Moscow even before the departure, in the morning of 28 May 1987, Rust refueled at Helsinki-Malmi Airport. He told air traffic control that he was going to Stockholm, Air controllers tried to contact him as he was moving around the busy Helsinki–Moscow route, but Rust turned off all communications equipment aboard. Rust disappeared from the Finnish air traffic radar near Espoo, control personnel presumed an emergency and a rescue effort was organized, including a Finnish Border Guard patrol boat. They found an oil patch near the place where Rust disappeared from radar, Rust was later fined about €77,500 for this effort. The origin of the oil remains unknown. Rust crossed the Baltic coastline over Estonia and turned towards Moscow, at 14,29 he appeared on Soviet Air Defense radar and, after failure to reply to an IFF signal, was assigned combat number 8255. Three SAM divisions tracked him for time, but failed to obtain permission to launch at him. All air defenses were brought to readiness and two interceptors were sent to investigate, at 14,48 near the city of Gdov one of the pilots observed a white sport plane similar to a Yakovlev Yak-12 and asked for permission to engage, but was denied. The fighters lost contact with Rust soon after this, while they were being directed back to him he disappeared from radar near Staraya Russa. Air defense re-established contact with Rusts plane several times but confusion followed all of these events, the PVO system had shortly before been divided into several districts, which simplified management but created additional overhead for tracking officers at the districts borders. Near Torzhok there was a situation, as increased air traffic was created by a rescue effort for an air crash the previous day. Rust, flying a slow propeller-driven aircraft, was confused with one of the taking part in the rescue
44.
Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square
45.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
46.
Avro Lancaster
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The Avro Lancaster is a British four-engined Second World War heavy bomber designed and built by Avro for the Royal Air Force. The Lanc, as it was known, thus became one of the more famous and most successful of the Second World War night bombers. The Lancaster, an evolution of the troublesome Avro Manchester, was designed by Roy Chadwick and was powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlins, or, in one version and this was the largest payload of any bomber in the war. In 1943, a Lancaster was converted to become an engine test bed for the Metropolitan-Vickers F.2 turbojet, Lancasters were later used to test other engines, including the Armstrong Siddeley Mamba and Rolls-Royce Dart turboprops, and the Avro Canada Orenda and STAL Dovern turbojets. Postwar, the Lancaster was supplanted as the RAFs main strategic bomber by the Avro Lincoln, the Lancaster took on the role of long range anti-submarine patrol aircraft and air-sea rescue. In March 1946, a Lancastrian of BSAA flew the first scheduled flight from the new London Heathrow Airport, the resulting aircraft was the Manchester, which, although a capable aircraft, was underpowered and troubled by the unreliability of the Vulture engine. Only 200 Manchesters were built, with the type withdrawn from service in 1942, at first the aircraft was called Avro Type 683 Manchester III and later renamed the Lancaster. The prototype aircraft BT308 was assembled by the Avro experimental flight department at Ringway Airport, test pilot H. A. Bill Thorn took the controls for its first flight at Ringway, on Thursday,9 January 1941. The aircraft proved to be an improvement on its predecessor. Some of the orders for Manchesters were changed in favour of Lancasters. The Lancaster discarded the stubby central third tail fin of the early Manchesters and used the wider span tailplane, the majority of Lancasters built during the war years were manufactured by Avro at their factory at Chadderton near Oldham, Greater Manchester and test flown from Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire. Other Lancasters were built by Metropolitan-Vickers and Armstrong Whitworth, the Lancaster B III had Packard Merlin engines but was otherwise identical to contemporary B Is, with 3,030 B IIIs built, almost all at Avros Newton Heath factory. The B I and B III were built concurrently and minor modifications were made to both marks as new batches were ordered, of later variants, only the Canadian-built Lancaster B X, manufactured by Victory Aircraft in Malton, Ontario, was produced in significant numbers. The first Lancaster produced in Canada was named the Ruhr Express, the first batch of Canadian Lancasters delivered to England suffered from faulty ailerons. This was traced to the use of unskilled labourers, the Lancaster is a mid-wing cantilever monoplane with an oval all-metal fuselage. The wing was constructed in five sections, the fuselage in five sections. All wing and fuselage sections were built separately and fitted all the required equipment before final assembly. The tail unit had twin fins and rudders
47.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
48.
Konrad Zuse
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Konrad Zuse was a German civil engineer, inventor and computer pioneer. His greatest achievement was the worlds first programmable computer, the functional program-controlled Turing-complete Z3 became operational in May 1941, thanks to this machine and its predecessors, Zuse has often been regarded as the inventor of the modern computer. Zuse was also noted for the S2 computing machine, considered the first process control computer and he founded one of the earliest computer businesses in 1941, producing the Z4, which became the worlds first commercial computer. From 1943 to 1945 he designed the first high-level programming language, in 1969, Zuse suggested the concept of a computation-based universe in his book Rechnender Raum. Much of his work was financed by his family and commerce. Due to World War II, Zuses work went largely unnoticed in the United Kingdom, possibly his first documented influence on a US company was IBMs option on his patents in 1946. There is a replica of the Z3, as well as the original Z4, the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin has an exhibition devoted to Zuse, displaying twelve of his machines, including a replica of the Z1 and several of Zuses paintings. Born in Berlin, Germany, on 22 June 1910, he moved with his family in 1912 to East Prussian Braunsberg, Zuse attended the Collegium Hosianum in Braunsberg. In 1923, the moved to Hoyerswerda, where he passed his Abitur in 1928. He enrolled in the Technische Hochschule Berlin and explored both engineering and architecture, but found them boring, Zuse then pursued civil engineering, graduating in 1935. For a time, he worked for the Ford Motor Company and he started work as a design engineer at the Henschel aircraft factory in Schönefeld near Berlin. This required the performance of many routine calculations by hand, which he found boring, leading him to dream of doing them by machine. In 1937, Zuse submitted two patents that anticipated a von Neumann architecture and he finished the Z1 in 1938. The Z1 contained some 30,000 metal parts and never worked due to insufficient mechanical precision. On 30 January 1944, the Z1 and its original blueprints were destroyed with his parents flat, between 1987 and 1989, Zuse recreated the Z1, suffering a heart attack midway through the project. It cost 800,000 DM, and required four individuals to assemble it, funding for this retrocomputing project was provided by Siemens and a consortium of five companies. Zuse completed his work independently of other leading computer scientists. Between 1936 and 1945, he was in near-total intellectual isolation, in 1939, Zuse was called to military service, where he was given the resources to ultimately build the Z2
