1.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
2.
DDG Hansa
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DDG Hansa, short for Deutsche Dampfschiffahrts-Gesellschaft Hansa was a major German shipping company specialising in heavy freight and scheduled traffic between Europe and the Far East. Founded in Bremen in 1881, the company declared bankruptcy in 1980, the first voyage was by SS Stolzenfels from Newcastle to Singapore in February 1882. Regular service began in 1882 with seven ships, the two companies merged in 1894 and by 1899 the company had 40 ships. The routes were expanded, for example to South America in the 1890s. In 1910 Ahlers was succeeded as Chairman of the Board by Hermann Helms, in World War I the company lost 81 vessels, a total of 437,489 GRT, all but one ship, the Soneck, with which service to Spain resumed in August 1919. Helms, who remained head of the company until 1940, rebuilt the fleet, service to India resumed in 1920. Beginning in 1922, the company began doing increasing business with Persia. 19 ships had to be laid up during the Great Depression of the early 1930s, after World War II, DDG Hansa had lost all their ships to bombing and seizure by the Allies, and the headquarters building was demolished. From 1943 to 1969, the chairman was Hermann Helms, son of the chairman, he was succeeded in turn by his son. In 1948, the company restarted, at first in shipwreck recovery and towing using barges, and then in 1950 resuming freight service to India and Persia with three secondhand ships. In 1956, the company had a fleet of 44 ships, mostly second-hand and new heavy freighters, the company continued to have a reputation for innovation. The Lichtenfels-series of heavy freighters, beginning in 1954 with MT Lichtenfels, were the first heavy lift ships equipped with the Stülcken derrick and they also had an unusual deck configuration, with the wheelhouse in the bow and the other superstructure aft, leading to the nickname Picasso ships. Beginning in 1965, the company diversified into platform supply vessels, through subsidiaries, the company also owned and operated incinerator ships burning chemical waste, beginning with the MT Vulcanus. It was the worlds largest heavy lift shipping company, attempts by the company to reduce high labour costs by outflagging ships to the Philippines flag were not sufficient to staunch losses, even though its foreign flag fleet was profitable. The company ceased operations by 31 December that year, the brand name DDG Hansa was sold in 1984 to Project Carries and is now owned by Deutsche Seereederei of Rostock, operating as Interhansa AG. DDG Hansa gave their ships names ending in -fels, -burg, -eck, the -fels ending was so common, e. g. D/S Freienfels, D/S Goldenfels, D/S Schneefels, D/S Uhenfels, D/S Wachtfels, that they were collectively referred to as the Fels ships. A harbour basin in Rotterdam was named Felshaven in honour of the line,85 years of shipping under the Maltese Cross, 1881–1966, portrait of a major German shipping company. Kendal, Westmoreland, World Ship Society,1967, DDG Hansa—Vom Liniendienst bis zur Spezialschiffahrt
3.
Bremen
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The City Municipality of Bremen is a Hanseatic city in northwestern Germany, which belongs to the state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. As a commercial and industrial city with a port on the River Weser, Bremen is part of the Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region. Bremen is the second most populous city in Northern Germany and eleventh in Germany, Bremen is a major cultural and economic hub in the northern regions of Germany. Bremen is home to dozens of galleries and museums, ranging from historical sculptures to major art museums. Bremen has a reputation as a working class city, along with this, Bremen is home to a large number of multinational companies and manufacturing centers. Companies headquartered in Bremen include the Hachez chocolate company and Vector Foiltec, four-time German football champions Werder Bremen are also based in the city. Bremen is some 60 km south from the Weser mouth on the North Sea, with Bremerhaven right on the mouth the two comprise the state of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. The marshes and moraines near Bremen have been settled since about 12,000 BC, burial places and settlements in Bremen-Mahndorf and Bremen-Osterholz date back to the 7th century AD. Since The Renaissance, some scientists have believed that the entry Fabiranum or Phabiranon in Ptolemys Fourth Map of Europe, written in 150 AD, but Ptolemy gives geographic coordinates, and by these dates Phabiranon is situated northeast of the mouth of river Visurgis. At that time the Chauci lived in the now called north-western Germany or Lower Saxony. By the end of the 3rd century, they had merged with the Saxons, during the Saxon Wars the Saxons, led by Widukind, fought against the West Germanic Franks, the founders of the Carolingian Empire, and lost the war. Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, made a new law, the Lex Saxonum which stated that Saxons were not allowed to worship Odin, in 787 Willehad of Bremen became the first Bishop of Bremen. The citys first stone walls were built in 1032, around this time trade with Norway, England and the northern Netherlands began to grow, thus increasing the importance of the city. The city was recognised as an entity with its own laws. Property was to be inherited without feudal claims for reversion to its original owner. This privilege laid the foundation for Bremens later status of imperial immediacy, since the city was the major taxpayer, its consent was generally sought. In this way the city wielded fiscal and political power within the Prince-Archbishopric, in 1260 Bremen joined the Hanseatic League. In 1350, the number of inhabitants reached 20,000, around this time the Hansekogge became a unique product of Bremen
4.
Code letters
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Code letters or ships call sign were a method of identifying ships before the introduction of modern navigation aids and today also. Later, with the introduction of radio, code letters were used as radio call signs. In 1857, the United Kingdom sponsored the Commercial Code of Signals for the Use of All Nations at Sea, the Commercial Code of Signals, c. 1900, was modified to become the International Code of Signals, by the 1860s, individual ships were being allocated code letters in the United States and Europe. From 1874, code letters were recorded in Lloyds Register as part of individual vessels entry in the register. Generally, code letters allocated to a ship remained with that ship, Code Letters were sometimes reallocated once a ship had been struck from the register, but no two ships bore the same code letters at the same time. With the introduction of radio for communications, code letters were used also as radio call signs, Code letters used the twenty-six flags that represent the letters of the alphabet, plus the ten flags that represent the digits 0 -9 also have been used. The substitute flags have not been used for call signs, if the ships call sign is 3EJH2 the seamen never say Three E J H Two. They say Three Echo Juliet Hotel Two to avoid misunderstanding as every country seamen have own pronunciation of letters, if call sign has 4 characters, the first character or figure of ships call signs means country code for the ships registered under this country flag. If call sign has 5 characters, the first two characters or figure plus character of ships call signs means country code for the registered under this country flag. The variations 4 or 5 characters due to 36 characters are not enough for all countries, for or the Soviet Union was used character U as the first character in call signs, cargo ship Metallurg Anosov had call sign USMW. In case that the changes the flag she has to change call sign also. For example, the ship Heinrich Arp, Code Letters RDWL were changed to Code Letters DHKV, if the ship is scrapped or sunk, her call sign can be given to another ship and, usually after a long time. The last three characters of ships call sign usually mean nothing, but can be one of them used as a code of the government Shipping Companies if the country has more than one Shipping companies and this book must be fresh due to renewal. In this book mentioned, Call sign formed from the call sign series in accordance with Article 19. The sign = in this column indicates that the name of the ship is used to identify the station in radiotelephony, some canals or narrow places have special requirements for the ships to hoist the ships call sign by flags during the transit of this places. It must be mentioned in the maritime books. The Suez Canal requirements includes it in XX century, but today it is not compulsory
5.
Kriegsmarine
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The Kriegsmarine was the navy of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It superseded the Imperial German Navy of the German Empire and the inter-war Reichsmarine, the Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches—along with the Heer and the Luftwaffe —of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany. The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly during German naval rearmament in the 1930s, Kriegsmarine ships were deployed to the waters around Spain during the Spanish Civil War, under the guise of enforcing non-intervention, but in reality supporting the Franco side of the war. In January 1939 Plan Z was ordered, calling for naval parity with the Royal Navy by 1944, however, when World War II broke out in September 1939, Plan Z was shelved in favour of building submarines and prioritizing land and air forces. The Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine was Adolf Hitler, who exercised his authority through the Oberkommando der Marine, the Kriegsmarines most famous ships were the U-boats, most of which were constructed after Plan Z was abandoned at the beginning of World War II. However, the adoption of convoy escorts, especially in the Atlantic, after the Second World War, the Kriegsmarines remaining ships were divided up amongst the Allied powers and were used for various purposes including minesweeping. Adolf Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of all German armed forces, including the Kriegsmarine and his authority was exercised through the Oberkommando der Marine, or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief, a Chief of Naval General Staff and a Chief of Naval Operations. The first Commander-in-Chief of the OKM was Erich Raeder who was the Commander-in-Chief of the Reichsmarine when it was renamed and reorganized in 1935, Raeder held the post until falling out with Hitler after the German failure in the Battle of the Barents Sea. He was replaced by Karl Dönitz on 30 January 1943 who held the command until he was appointed President of Germany upon Hitlers suicide in April 1945, hans-Georg von Friedeburg was then Commander-in-Chief of the OKM for the short period of time until Germany surrendered in May 1945. Subordinate to these were regional, squadron and temporary flotilla commands, regional commands covered significant naval regions and were themselves sub-divided, as necessary. They were commanded by a Generaladmiral or an Admiral, there was a Marineoberkommando for the Baltic Fleet, Nord, Nordsee, Norwegen, Ost/Ostsee, Süd and West. The Kriegsmarine used a form of encoding called Gradnetzmeldeverfahren to denote regions on a map, each squadron also had a command structure with its own Flag Officer. The commands were Battleships, Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, Torpedo Boats, Minesweepers, Reconnaissance Forces, Naval Security Forces, Big Guns and Hand Guns, major naval operations were commanded by a Flottenchef. The Flottenchef controlled a flotilla and organized its actions during the operation, the commands were, by their nature, temporary. As a result the German surface fleet was plagued by design flaws throughout the war, military aircraft were also banned, so Germany could have no naval aviation. Under the treaty Germany could only build new ships to replace old ones, All the ships allowed and personnel were taken over from the Kaiserliche Marine, renamed Reichsmarine. From the outset, Germany worked to circumvent the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. The launching of the first pocket battleship, Deutschland in 1931 was a step in the formation of a modern German fleet, modern destroyers and light cruisers were also built
6.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
7.
Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau
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Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau Aktiengesellschaft was a cooperation of eight German shipyards in the period 1926 to 1945. The leading company was the shipyard AG Weser in Bremen, the Deschimag was founded in 1926 when influential Bremen merchants and bankers decided to found a cooperation of great German shipbuilding companies under the leadership of the shipyard AG Weser. These were, Actien-Gesellschaft Weser, Bremen Vulkan-Werke Hamburg A. G. Hamburg Joh, tecklenborg A. G. Wesermünde AG Vulcan Stettin, Stettin G. Seebeck A. G. Geestemünde Actien-Gesellschaft Neptun, Rostock Nüscke & Co. But in the years most of these companies were closed. At least only AG Weser and Seebeckwerft survived this process of concentration and reduction of shipbuilding capacities, in 1941 Krupp, then the most important German engineering and armaments conglomerate, acquired a majority shareholding in both shipyards. Because of diversification and to new jobs Deschimag also diversified into aircraft construction. In 1933 the Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH – abbreviated Weserflug – was founded and it started making aircraft components and later complete aircraft at different places in Germany, one of them was the former shipyard Frerichswerft AG. In 1936 the Weserflug separated from the Deschimag and became an independent company and it became the fourth largest aircraft manufacturer in Germany in World War II, but only as a licensee of other German aircraft companies, mainly Dornier and Junkers. Deschimag was dissolved after war but AG Weser and Seebeck AG shipyards again survived and continued in shipbuilding, later in 1988 it merged with Schichau Shipyard to SSW Schichau Seebeck Shipyard GmbH, which closed in 2009. SS Lichtenfels 1929, heavy lift ship, for DDG Hansa, used to transport locomotives to India. AG Weser 1929, ocean liner Bremen for Norddeutscher Lloyd, won Blue Riband 1929 and 1933 for fastest Atlantic Ocean crossing. Bremen escaped after beginning of war from New York to Bremerhaven, burnt out 1940 in Bremerhaven, AG Weser 1935, turbo-electric ocean liner Scharnhorst for Norddeutscher Lloyd. Rebuilt to Japanese auxiliary aircraft carrier Shinyo in 1942, sunk 1944 by US submarine USS Spadefish, AG Weser 1935, geared-turbine ocean liner Gneisenau for Norddeutscher Lloyd. Sunk by a mine in the Baltic in May 1943, raised and scrapped in 1950, AG Weser 1936, whale factory ship Terje Viken for United Whalers Ltd. Largest factory ship in the World, March 1941 sunk by U-boats U-47, AG Weser,1937, whale factory ship Unitas for German company Jürgens-Van den Bergh. Became Japanese Nisshin Maru II, scrapped in Taiwan 1987, AG Weser,1937, merchant ship Kandelfels for DDG Hansa. In WW II converted to German auxiliary cruiser Pinguin,1941 sunk by British cruiser HMS Cornwall, AG Weser,1938, merchant ship Ems for Norddeutscher Lloyd. In WW II converted to German auxiliary cruiser Komet,1942 sunk by planes and ships of Royal Air Force, MS Oslofjord for Den norske Amerikalinje MV Mars, cargo liner for Neptun Line
8.
Armed merchantman
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Armed merchantman is a term that has come to mean a merchant ship equipped with guns, usually for defensive purposes, either by design or after the fact. In the days of sail, piracy and privateers, many merchantmen would be armed, especially those engaging in long distance. In more modern times, auxiliary cruisers were used offensively to disrupt trade chiefly during both World War I and World War II, particularly by Germany, while armed merchantmen are clearly inferior to regular warships, sometimes they have scored successes in combat against them. East Indiamen of various European countries were heavily armed for their journeys to the Far East. In particularly dangerous times, such as when the countries were at war. However, many East Indiamen also travelled on their own, and therefore were heavily armed in order to defend themselves against pirates and they also defended themselves against warships, scoring signal victories at the Battle of Pulo Aura and the Action of 4 August 1800. The British Royal Navy purchased several that it converted to ships of the line, in 1856, privateering lost international sanction under the Declaration of Paris. From 1861–65 European countries built high speed ships to run the Union Blockade during the American Civil War, some of these were armed and served as Confederate States Navy raiders. Russia purchased three ships in 1878 of 6,000 long tons armed with 6-inch guns for use as auxiliary cruisers for a Russian Volunteer Fleet. Germany and the United Kingdom responded to the precedent by asking their shipping companies to design fast steamers with provision for mounting guns in time of war, in 1892 Russia likewise built two more auxiliary cruisers. In both World Wars, both Germany and the United Kingdom used auxiliary cruisers, while the British used armed passenger liners defensively for protecting their shipping, the German approach was to use them offensively to attack enemy shipping. The armed merchant cruisers of the British Royal Navy were employed for protection against enemy warships. They ultimately proved to have limited value and many, particularly ocean liners, were converted into troopships. Documentary evidence quoted by the BBC researched from the stages of the First World War suggests that the express liners had greater speed than most warships. The downside proved to be their high consumption, and that using them in a purely AMC role would have burned through the Admiralty reserve supplies of steam coal in less than three months. The ships were vulnerable to fire, because they lacked warship armour and they used local control of guns, rather than director fire-control systems. By coincidence, Cap Trafalgar was disguised as Carmania, in World War II, HMS Jervis Bay — the sole escort for convoy HX84 in November 1940 — stood off the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer, when the German ship attacked the convoy. Though she was sunk alonside 5 vessels, this enabled the rest of the convoy to escape and her master, Acting Captain Edward Fegen was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions
9.
Merchant raider
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Merchant raiders are armed commerce raiding ships that disguise themselves as non-combatant merchant vessels. Germany used several merchant raiders early in World War I, the most famous captain of a German merchant raider, Felix von Luckner, used the sailing ship SMS Seeadler for his voyage. The Germans used a ship at this stage of the war because coal-fired ships had limited access to fuel outside of territories held by the Central Powers due to the Allied Blockade of Germany. Germany sent out two waves of six surface raiders each during World War II, most of these vessels were in the 8, 000–10,000 long tons range. Many of these vessels had originally been refrigerator ships, used to transport food from the tropics. These vessels were faster than regular merchant vessels, which was important for a warship and they were armed with six 15cm naval guns, some smaller guns, torpedoes, reconnaissance seaplanes and some were equipped for minelaying. Several captains demonstrated great creativity in disguising their vessels to masquerade as allied or as neutral merchants, kormoran sank the Australian cruiser Sydney in one of the most well-known episodes involving merchant raiders during World War II. Italy intended to outfit four refrigerated banana boats as merchant raiders during World War II, only Ramb I and Ramb II served as merchant raiders and neither ship sank enemy vessels. These commerce raiders carried no armour because their purpose was to attack merchantmen, also it would be difficult to fit armour to a civilian vessel. Eventually most were sunk or transferred to other duties, the British deployed Armed Merchant Cruisers in World War I and in World War II. Generally adapted from passenger liners, they were larger than the German merchant raiders, during World War I, the British Royal Navy deployed Q-ships to combat German U-boats
10.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
11.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
12.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
13.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
14.
15 cm SK L/45
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The 15 cm SK L/45 was a German naval gun used in World War I and World War II. The 15 cm SK L/45 was a widely used naval gun on many classes of World War I Dreadnoughts and it was constructed of an A tube and two layers of hoops with a Krupp horizontal sliding wedge breech block. During World War I a few pre-war cruisers that were armed with 10.5 cm guns were rearmed with these weapons, in World War II the 15 cm SK L/45 was widely used as Coastal artillery and as primary armament on German Auxiliary Cruisers. Ship classes that carried the 15 cm SK L/45 include, Ammunition was of separate loading quick fire type, the projectiles were 61 cm long with a single bagged charge which weighed 13–14 kg. One example was 3. /Marine-Artillerie Abteilung 604 in Jersey and they show it using 44 kilograms shells with a range of 18,000 metres It was also used as a railroad gun during World War I. BL6 inch Mk XII naval gun British equivalent Notes Citations Gander, Terry, Chamberlain, Weapons of the Third Reich, An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939–1945. Naval Weapons of World War Two, naval Weapons of World War One. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships, 1906–1921, the 15cm SK L/45 on NavWeaps
15.
3.7 cm SK C/30
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The 3.7 cm SK C/30 was the German Kriegsmarines primary 3.7 cm anti-aircraft gun during the Second World War. It was superseded by the fully automatic 3.7 cm FlaK43 late in the war and its muzzle velocity was on the other hand far superior, which greatly eased the aiming. The SK C/30U gun was modified for use by submarines, All mountings were suitable for use against both air and soft surface targets. The Doppellafette C/30 was a mount with each gun in a separate cradle. It had a crew on the mount itself plus additional ammunition handlers. The mounting was manually traversed and elevated and was gyro-stabilized up to a limit of 19. 5° degrees to counteract the roll, most German ships, fleet torpedo boat or larger, carried at least one Dopp L C/30 mounting. The Einheitslafette C/34 was a gun mounted on a pedestal with a two-man crew. Some mounts were fitted with a 8 millimetres gun shield and it was used on the smaller Kriegsmarine ships like the Schnellboot. A number were used on land to supplement the anti-aircraft defenses of ports, the Ubts L C/39 submarine mount used the SK C/30U gun. It was a pedestal mount with a two-man crew, one of whom trained the gun with the shoulder stirrup. The SK C/30 used two types of tracer rounds. The 3.7 cm Br Sprgr Patr 40 L/4.1 Lh 37M was a round with an incendiary filling while the 3.7 cm Sprgr Patr 40 L/4.1 Lh 37 lacked the incendiary fill. Tracers were available in red, yellow or white and were marked on the shell by a band of the appropriate color. A complete round weighed 1.78 kilograms, naval Weapons of World War Two. Weapons of the Third Reich, An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery, hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two. Leichte und mittlere Artillerie auf deutschen Kriegsschiffen
16.
2 cm Flak 30/38/Flakvierling
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The Flak 30 and improved Flak 38 were 20 mm anti-aircraft guns used by various German forces throughout World War II. It was not only the primary German light anti-aircraft gun, and it was produced in a variety of models, notably the Flakvierling 38 which combined four Flak 38 autocannons onto a single carriage. The Germans fielded the unrelated early 2 cm Flak 28 just after World War I, the original Flak 30 design was developed from the Solothurn ST-5 as a project for the Kriegsmarine, which produced the 20 mm C/30. The gun fired the Long Solothurn, a 20 ×138 mm belted cartridge that had developed for the ST-5 and was one of the most powerful 20 mm rounds in existence. The C/30, featuring a length of 65 calibres, had a rate of about 120 rounds per minute. Disappointingly, it proved to have feeding problems and would often jam, nevertheless, the C/30 became the primary shipborne light AA weapon and equipped a large variety of German ships. Rheinmetall then started an adaptation of the C/30 for Army use, generally similar to the C/30, the main areas of development were the mount, which was fairly compact. Set-up could be accomplished by dropping the gun to the ground off its two-wheeled carriage, the result was a triangular base that allowed fire in all directions. But the main problem with the design remained unsolved, the rate of fire of 120 RPM was not particularly fast for a weapon of this calibre. Rheinmetall responded with the 2 cm Flak 38, which was similar but increased the rate of fire to 220 RPM. The Flak 38 was accepted as the standard Army gun in 1939, in order to provide airborne and mountain troops with AA capabilities, Mauser was contracted to produce a lighter version of the Flak 38, which they introduced as the 2 cm Gebirgsflak 38. It featured a dramatically simplified mount using a tripod that raised the gun off the ground. These changes reduced the weight of the gun to a mere 276.0 kg. Production started in 1941 and entered service in 1942, a wide variety of 20x138B ammunition was manufactured to be used in 2 cm Flak weapons, some of the more commonly used types are listed on the following table. Other kinds than in existence included numerous practice rounds and a number of different AP types, a high-velocity PzGr 40 round with a tungsten carbide core in an aluminium body existed in 20x138B caliber. This meant it could keep enemy aircraft under fire over longer time spans, the 20 mm weapons had always had weak development perspectives, often being reconfigured or redesigned just enough to allow the weapons to find use. Indeed, it came as a surprise when Rheinmetall introduced the 2 cm Flakvierling 38, the term Vierling literally translates to quadruplet and refers to the four 20 mm gun constituting the design. The Flakvierling weapon consisted of quad-mounted 2 cm Flak 38 AA guns with collapsing seats, folding handles, the mount had a triangular base with a jack at each leg for levelling the gun
17.
Torpedo tube
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A torpedo tube is a cylinder shaped device for launching torpedoes. There are two types of torpedo tube, underwater tubes fitted to submarines and some surface ships. Thus a submarine torpedo tube operates on the principle of an airlock, the diagram on the right illustrates the operation of a submarine torpedo tube. The diagram is somewhat simplified but does show the working of a torpedo launch. A torpedo tube has a number of interlocks for safety reasons. For example, an interlock prevents the door and muzzle door from opening at the same time. The submarine torpedo launch sequence is, in simplified form, Open the breech door in the torpedo room, load the torpedo into the tube. Hook up the connection and the torpedo power cable. Shut and lock the breech door, turn on power to the torpedo. A minimum amount of time is required for torpedo warmup, fire control programs are uploaded to the torpedo. This may be manually or automatically, from sea or from tanks. The tube must be vented during this process to allow for complete filling, Open the equalizing valve to equalize pressure in the tube with ambient sea pressure. If the tube is set up for Impulse Mode the slide valve will open with the muzzle door, if Swim Out Mode is selected, the slide valve remains closed. The slide valve allows water from the pump to enter the tube. Modern torpedoes have a safety mechanism that prevents activation of the torpedo unless the torpedo senses the required amount of G-force, the power cable is severed at launch. However, if a wire is used, it remains connected through a drum of wire in the tube. Torpedo propulsion systems vary but electric torpedoes swim out of the tube on their own and are of a smaller diameter,21 weapons with fuel-burning engines usually start outside of the tube. Once outside the tube the torpedo begins its run toward the target as programmed by the control system
18.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
19.
Heinkel He 114
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The Heinkel He 114 was a sesquiwing reconnaissance seaplane produced for the Kriegsmarine in the 1930s for use from warships. It replaced the companys He 60, but did not remain in service long before being replaced in turn by the Arado Ar 196 as Germanys standard spotter aircraft, while the fuselage and flotation gear of the He 114 were completely conventional, its wing arrangement was highly unusual. The He 114 was never a success, was not built in large numbers. 24 aircraft were exported to Romania, where the last 8 remained in service until 1 May 1960, in 1943 Spain acquired a total amount of 12 aircraft of the A and C variants, they were retired in 1954. On November 1,1939 Sweden ordered 12 aircraft of the B-1 variant, when the ban was lifted the 12 aircraft originally intended for Sweden had already been taken into service of the Luftwaffe. By the end of 1940 Germany gave notice that it could deliver 12 aircraft, Sweden accepted, the purchase could however be realized in 1941 and 12 used He 114 arrived to Sweden dismantled in boxes in Spring the same year. The airplanes were assembled and given an overhaul before entering service at Roslagens flygflottilj in Hägernäs under the designation S12. In 2012, two divers discovered the wreckage of a Heinkel 114 at the bottom of Lake Siutghiol, in Romania, near the Heinkel were also sections of two other seaplanes, a Savoia-Marchetti S.55 and a Junkers W34. He 114A-010 pre-production aircraft, powered by a 656 kW BMW 132Dc engine and he 114A-1 Training version, powered by a 656 kW BMW 132Dc engine. He 114A-2 Main production shipborne version and he 114B-1 Export version of the He 114A-2 for Sweden. He 114B-2 Export version of the He 114A-2 for Romania and he 114B-3 Export version for Romania. He 114C-1 Reconnaissance biplane for the Luftwaffe, Germany Luftwaffe Romania Royal Romanian Air Force Romanian Air Force - Postwar. Spain Spanish Air Force Spanish Navy Sweden Swedish Air Force Data from Warplanes of the Luftwaffe
20.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
21.
Commerce raiding
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It is also known, in French, as guerre de course and, in German, Handelskrieg, from the nations most heavily committed to it historically as a strategy. Commerce raiding was heavily criticised by the naval theorist A. T, mahan, who regarded it as a distraction from the destruction of the enemys fighting power. Nevertheless, commerce raiding was an important part of strategy from the Early Modern period through the Second World War. Usually, commerce raiding is chosen by a naval power against a stronger. The best protection against a commerce raiding strategy is for merchant vessels to sail in convoy, the first sort of commerce raiding was for nations to commission privateers. This quickly became a commercial enterprise, with privateer vessels, often in groups, being outfitted by venture capital. A privateer was distinguished from a pirate by the letter of marque, privateers formed a large part of the total military force at sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. In the First Anglo-Dutch War, English privateers attacked the trade on which the United Provinces entirely depended, Dutch privateers and others also attacked British trade, whether coastal, Atlantic, or Mediterranean, in the Second and Third Anglo-Dutch wars. During the Nine Years War, French policy strongly encouraged privateers, including the famous Jean Bart, to attack English, england lost roughly 4,000 merchant ships during the war. In the following War of Spanish Succession, privateer attacks continued, parliament passed an updated Cruisers and Convoys Act in 1708, allocating regular warships to the defence of trade. In the War of Austrian Succession, the Royal Navy was able to more on defending British ships. Britain lost 3,238 merchantmen, a fraction of her merchant marine than the enemy losses of 3,434. During Britains wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France, the Royal Navy dominated the seas, France adopted a guerre de course strategy by licensing civilian privateers to seize British shipping. British East Indiamen of the time were heavily armed to protect themselves against such raids, at the cost of considerable speed. Some East Indiamen, such as the Arniston, were able to fend off these attacks in other parts of the world, others. U. S. and British privateers also actively raided each others shipping during the War of 1812, during the American Civil War, the Confederate Navy operated a fleet of commissioned Confederate States Navy commerce raiders. These differed from privateers as they were state-owned ships with orders to destroy enemy commerce rather than privately owned ships with letters of marque and these included Sumter, Florida, Alabama, and Shenandoah. Most of the used in this period were built in Britain
22.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
23.
Bernhard Rogge
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Bernhard Rogge was a German naval officer who, during World War II, commanded a merchant raider. Later, he became a Konteradmiral in West Germanys Bundesmarine and he was awarded a Japanese ornate Samurai sword and the Oak Leaves to the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross for his actions as the commander of the Hilfskreuzer Atlantis. Rogge eventually became a Vizeadmiral by the end of World War II, and, Rogge also was one of the few German officers of flag rank who was not arrested by the Allies after the war. This was due to the way he had exercised his command of Atlantis, Rogge was born in Schleswig, the son of a Lutheran minister, and was himself devoutly religious. Rogge was one of many German officers who were forced to apply for a German Blood Certificate and his wife, Anneliese née Frahm, committed suicide on 4 September 1939. The next day, his mother-in-law also ended her life willingly, J. Armstrong White, captain of the British City of Baghdad, which Atlantis sank in July 1941, stated, His treatment of prisoners left respect, instead of hatred. White later wrote the foreword to Atlantis, the Story of a German Surface Raider, admiral Karl Dönitz, who was prosecuted for war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials, cited his own support of Rogge in an effort to clear himself of the charge of being antisemitic. Rogge confirmed the sentence of the 21-year-old sailor Johann Christian Süss. Süss was executed by firing squad on 11 May 1945, new York, Ballantine,1960, which is a translation of Schiff 16. Rogge and the cruise of Atlantis were depicted in the 1960 film Sotto dieci bandiere starring Van Heflin, bernhard Rogge in the German National Library catalogue
24.
Iron Cross
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The Iron Cross was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia, and later in the German Empire and Nazi Germany. It was established by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia in March 1813 backdated to the birthday of his late wife Queen Louise on 10 March 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, Louise was the first person to receive this decoration. The recommissioned Iron Cross was also awarded during the Franco-Prussian War, World War I, the Iron Cross was normally a military decoration only, though there were instances of it being awarded to civilians for performing military functions. The design of the symbol was black with a white or silver outline. It was ultimately derived from the cross pattée occasionally used by the Teutonic Order from the 13th century, the black cross patty was also used as the symbol of the German Army from 1871 to March/April 1918, when it was replaced by the Balkenkreuz. In 1956, it was re-introduced as the symbol of the Bundeswehr, the Black Cross is the emblem used by the Prussian Army, and by the army of Germany from 1871 to present. It was designed on the occasion of the German Campaign of 1813, from this time, the Black Cross also featured on the Prussian war flag alongside the Black Eagle. The design is due to neoclassical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, based on a sketch by Frederick William, the design is ultimately derivative of the black cross used by the Teutonic Order. This heraldic cross took various forms throughout the history, including a simple Latin cross. When the Quadriga of the Goddess of Peace was retrieved from Paris at Napoleons fall, an Iron Cross was inserted into her laurel wreath, making her into a Goddess of Victory. The Black Cross was used on the naval and war flags of the German Empire, the Black Cross was used as the symbol of the German Army until 1915, when it was replaced by a simpler Balkenkreuz. The Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany, the traditional design in black is used on armored vehicles and aircraft, while after German reunification, a new design in blue and silver was introduced for use in other contexts. The ribbon for the 1813,1870 and 1914 Iron Cross was black with two white bands, the colors of Prussia. The non-combatant version of this award had the same medal, but the black, the ribbon color for the 1939 EKII was black/white/red/white/black. Since the Iron Cross was issued several different periods of German history. For example, an Iron Cross from World War I bears the year 1914, the reverse of the 1870,1914 and 1939 series of Iron Crosses have the year 1813 appearing on the lower arm, symbolizing the year the award was created. The 1813 decoration also has the initials FW for King Frederick William III, the final version shows a swastika. There was also the 1957 issue, a replacement medal for holders of the 1939 series which substituted an oak-leaf cluster for the banned swastika
25.
Cruiser
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A cruiser is a type of warship. The term has been in use for several hundred years, and has had different meanings throughout this period. In the middle of the 19th century, cruiser came to be a classification for the intended for cruising distant waters, commerce raiding. Cruisers came in a variety of sizes, from the medium-sized protected cruiser to large armored cruisers that were nearly as big as a pre-dreadnought battleship. With the advent of the battleship before World War I. The very large battlecruisers of the World War I era that succeeded armored cruisers were now classified, along with dreadnought battleships, in the later 20th century, the obsolescence of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant after the aircraft carrier. The role of the cruiser varied according to ship and navy, often including air defense, during the Cold War, the Soviet Navys cruisers had heavy anti-ship missile armament designed to sink NATO carrier task forces via saturation attack. The U. S. Adams guided-missile destroyers tasked with the air defense role. Indeed, the newest U. S. Navy destroyers are more heavily-armed than some of the cruisers that they succeeded, currently only three nations operate cruisers, the United States, Russia, and Peru. The term cruiser or cruizer was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship, Cruiser meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the Royal Navy—and later French and Spanish navies—subsequently caught up in terms of their numbers, during the 18th century the frigate became the preeminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, the other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. During the 19th century, navies began to use steam power for their fleets, the 1840s saw the construction of experimental steam-powered frigates and sloops. By the middle of the 1850s, the British and U. S. Navies were both building steam frigates with very long hulls and a gun armament, for instance USS Merrimack or Mersey. The 1860s saw the introduction of the ironclad, the first ironclads were frigates, in the sense of having one gun deck, however, they were also clearly the most powerful ships in the navy, and were principally to serve in the line of battle. In spite of their speed, they would have been wasted in a cruising role. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the Belliqueuse and these station ironclads were the beginning of the development of the armored cruisers, a type of ironclad specifically for the traditional cruiser missions of fast, independent raiding and patrol
26.
HMS Devonshire (39)
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HMS Devonshire, pennant number 39, was a County-class heavy cruiser of the London sub-class built for the Royal Navy in the late 1920s. The ship spent most of her pre-World War II career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet aside from a tour with the China Station. She spent the first two months of the Second World War in the Mediterranean until she was transferred to the Home Fleet, Devonshire took part in the Norwegian Campaign in mid 1940 and evacuated much of the Norwegian Government in June. Several months later, she participated in the Battle of Dakar, the ship remained in the South Atlantic afterwards and supported Free French efforts to take control of French Equatorial Africa in addition to searching for German commerce raiders. Shortly afterwards, the ship was sent to the South Atlantic where she sank the Q-ship Atlantis, Devonshire was then assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean and supported the Allied invasion of Madagascar in mid-1942. She then spent the year escorting convoys before returning home to begin a lengthy refit. After it was completed in early 1944, the ship escorted various aircraft carriers for the rest of the war as they attacked targets in Norway, after the German surrender in May 1945, she sailed to Norway and escorted two surrendered German cruisers from Denmark to the UK. Devonshire then began ferrying British troops home from Australia for the rest of the year, in 1947, the ship was converted into a training ship for naval cadets and served until she was sold for scrap in 1954. Devonshire displaced 9,850 long tons at load and 13,315 long tons at deep load. The ship had a length of 632 feet 8 inches, a beam of 66 feet. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving four shafts, steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers. Devonshire carried a maximum of 3,425 long tons of oil that gave her a range of 13,300 nautical miles at 12 knots. The ships complement was 784 officers and men, the ship mounted eight 8-inch guns in four twin gun turrets, designated A, B, X, and Y from front to rear. Her secondary armament consisted of four QF 4-inch Mk V anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, Devonshire also mounted four single 2-pounder light AA guns. The ship was equipped with two torpedo tube above-water mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. Devonshire was only lightly protected with little more than an inch of plating protecting vital machinery. Her magazines were the exception and were protected by 2–4.375 inches of armour, space and weight was reserved for one aircraft catapult and its seaplane, but they were not fitted until after she was completed. Devonshire, the ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy, was named for the county
27.
German auxiliary cruiser Pinguin
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Pinguin was a German auxiliary cruiser which served as a commerce raider in World War II. Pinguin was known to the Kriegsmarine as Schiff 33, and designated HSK5, the most successful commerce raider of the war, she was known to the British Royal Navy as Raider F. Formerly a freighter named Kandelfels, she was built by Deschimag A. G. Weser in 1936 and she was the sister-ship of Kybfels, and a half-sister of Goldenfels, which was converted into the raider Atlantis. In the winter of 1939–40, she was requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine and converted to a warship by Deschimag A. G. Weser and she was supplied with two Heinkel He 114A-2 seaplanes and 300 seamines. She also carried 25 G7a torpedoes and 80 U-Boat mines for replenishing U-boats, the escort duties were taken over by Sperrbrecher IV on 18 June and later by the Type 23 torpedo boat Falke and the Type 24 torpedo boat Jaguar. The convoy then sailed through the Great Belt into the Kattegat, the three-ship convoy passed through the Skagerrak on 19 June with Luftwaffe air cover from a Dornier Do 18 flying boat and two fighters and entered the North Sea. Her escort was reinforced with the minesweepers M17 and M18, and they headed up the coast of Norway, Schiff 33 and the minesweepers carried on northwards to Sörgulenfjord. In the fjord the grey German auxiliary Schiff 33 was disguised as the black-hulled Soviet cargo ship Petschura with hammer and they emerged from the fjord on 22 June en route to the Denmark Strait. Schiff 33s mission was to rendezvous with and replenish submarine U-A off the Cape Verde and then to disrupt traffic in the Indian Ocean and she was then to head south to seek out the British and Norwegian whaling fleets in the Antarctic. The convoy headed into heavy weather and high winds and the two turned back. Sailing westwards at 15 knots a surfacing submarine was spotted and on sighting Petschura disappeared, assuming it was British Petschura headed northwards to give the impression of a Soviet ship headed for Murmansk. Surfacing again the submarine increased speed and gave chase signalling first What ship, and on being ignored Heave to, or we open fire. Petschura continued at speed and left the submarine behind. Petschura continued northeasterly up the coast of Norway, on 28 June Pinguin headed south surrounded by icebergs. She inched southwards until 29 June she sailed through the Denmark Strait into the Atlantic on 1 July to rendezvous with U-A on 18 July, on 10 July she was re-camouflaged as the Greek Kassos. On 18 July U-A had serious troubles and because of bad weather it was not safe to transfer the torpedoes, water. They decided to seek calmer waters to the south transferring 70 tons of fuel to the submarine en route. On 20 July in calmer waters 700 miles south-west of the Cape Verde they started the replenishment and it was first time a submarine was ever re-supplied at sea by a raider
28.
Van Heflin
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Van Heflin was an American theatre, radio and film actor. He played mostly character parts over the course of his film career and he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in Johnny Eager. Heflin was born Emmett Evan Heflin, Jr. in Walters, Oklahoma, the son of Fanny Bleecker and Dr. Emmett Evan Heflin and he was of Irish and French ancestry. Heflins sister was Daytime Emmy-nominated actress Frances Heflin, Heflin attended Classen High School in Oklahoma City and the University of Oklahoma, where he received a bachelors degree in 1932 and was a member of Phi Delta Theta fraternity. He earned a degree in theater at Yale University. Heflin began his career on Broadway in the early 1930s before being signed to a contract by RKO Radio Pictures. He made his debut in A Woman Rebels, opposite Katharine Hepburn. MGM began to groom him as a man in B movies. Heflin continued to hone his skills throughout the early 1940s. Heflin served during World War II in the United States Army Air Corps as a cameraman in the Ninth Air Force in Europe. Heflin also performed on stage throughout his acting career, playing a huge variety of roles in both films and on stage, probably his best-known film became the 1953 classic western Shane, in which he co-starred with Alan Ladd. As Joe Starrett, the plain, honest farmer who tries to unite a small community of sodbusters his performance is a bedrock of the film, although it was not recognised among the awards of 1953. The Adventures of Philip Marlowe was a detective drama that aired from June 17,1947, through September 15,1951. He also acted on the Lux Radio Theatre, Suspense, Cavalcade of America and his film Cry of Battle was playing at the Texas Theatre in Dallas on November 22,1963. His name and the title appear on the marquee. It was that theater where Lee Harvey Oswald was apprehended in the aftermath of President Kennedys assassination, Heflin appeared in a short but dramatic role as an eyewitness of Jesus raising of Lazarus from death in the 1965 Bible film, The Greatest Story Ever Told. After seeing the miracle he ran from Bethany to the walls of Jerusalem and he played D. O. Guerrero, a failure who schemes to blow himself up on an airliner so that his wife can collect on a life insurance policy. After a six-month marriage to actress Eleanor Shaw, he married RKO contract player Frances Neal and they had two daughters, actresses Vana OBrien and Cathleen Heflin, and a son, Tracy
29.
Cargo ship
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A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the worlds seas and oceans each year, cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, cargo ships/freighters can be divided into five groups, according to the type of cargo they carry. Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo, dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form. Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo – e. g. liquid, a Reefer ship is specifically designed and used for shipping perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and other foodstuffs. Specialized types of cargo vessels include ships and bulk carriers. Cargo ships fall into two categories that reflect the services they offer to industry, liner and tramp services. Those on a published schedule and fixed tariff rates are cargo liners. Tramp ships do not have fixed schedules, users charter them to haul loads. Generally, the shipping companies and private individuals operate tramp ships. Cargo liners run on fixed schedules published by the shipping companies, each trip a liner takes is called a voyage. However, some cargo liners may carry passengers also, a cargo liner that carries 12 or more passengers is called a combination or passenger-cum-cargo line. The desire to trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year. Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being armed, sometimes heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons. They were also escorted by warships. Piracy is still common in some waters, particularly in the Malacca Straits. In 2004, the governments of three nations agreed to provide better protection for the ships passing through the Straits. The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also prone to piracy, while smaller vessels are also in danger along parts of the South American, Southeast Asian coasts, the words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual usage
30.
Funnel (ship)
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A funnel is the smokestack or chimney on a ship used to expel boiler steam and smoke or engine exhaust. They are also referred to as stacks. In steam ships the funnels also served to help induce a convection draught through the boilers, since the introduction of steam-power to ships in the 19th century, the funnel has been a distinctive feature of the silhouette of a vessel, and used for recognition purposes. The required funnel cross-sectional area is determined by the volume of exhaust gases produced by the propulsion plant, often this area is too great for a single funnel. Early steam vessels needed multiple funnels, but as efficiency increased new machinery needed fewer funnels, merchant shipping companies were quick to recognise the publicity value of distinctive funnels, both in terms of shape, number of funnels, and the colours they were painted. Each company would have their own colours, which were often used in publicity material as well as for recognition. Some companies became so associated with their funnel colours that their nickname became a de facto company name. For example, the line actually registered as Alfred Holt & Company was more widely known as the Blue Funnel Line. The Southampton, Isle of Wight and South of England Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has traded under the name Red Funnel for most of its 150+ year history, sometimes the shape of the funnel is used as distinguishing feature rather than just the colour. Cunard fitted ships of its Saxonia class with streamlined round tops to the funnels, there was a trend for designer funnels on liners in the 1960s as fashion and aerodynamic advances combined to offer designers more options that the traditional cylindrical smokestack. In the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century the number of funnels became associated with speed, for this reason a number of the great liners carried additional false funnels that they did not need. In most cases the false funnel was the aftermost of the funnels, for example, the RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 was built with very distinctive wind-scoops at the base of her funnel. A mack is a stack and mast, as fitted to some classes of 20th century warships. Although they can reduce top-weight, they have not gained popularity due to the problem of exhaust smoke fouling of electrical aerials
31.
Scottish Terrier
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The Scottish Terrier, popularly called the Scottie, is a breed of dog. They are an independent and rugged breed with an outer coat. The First Earl of Dumbarton nicknamed the breed the diehard, the modern breed is said to be able to trace its lineage back to a single female, named Splinter II. They are a breed of terrier with a distinctive shape and have had many roles in popular culture. They are also known for being a playing piece in the board game Monopoly. Described as a territorial, feisty dog, they can make a good watchdog and they are also one of the more successful dog breeds at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show with a recent best in show in 2010. The Scottish Terrier is a small, compact, short-legged, sturdily-built terrier of good bone and they have a hard, wiry, weather-resistant coat and a thick-set, cobby body which is hung between short, heavy legs. These characteristics, joined with his very special keen, piercing, varminty expression, the Scottish Terriers bold, confident, dignified aspect exemplifies power in a small package. The eyes should be small, bright and piercing, and almond-shaped not round, the color should be dark brown or nearly black, the darker the better. The ears should be small, prick, set well up on the skull and pointed and they should be covered with short velvety hair. Height at withers for both genders should be roughly 25 cm, and the length of back from withers to tail is roughly 28 cm, generally a well-balanced Scottie dog should weigh from 8.5 to 10 kg and a female from 8 to 9.5 kg. It is about 10 to 11 inches in height, the Scottish Terrier typically has a hard, wiry outer coat with a soft, dense undercoat. The coat should be trimmed and blended into the furnishings to give a distinct Scottish Terrier outline, the longer coat on the beard, legs and lower body may be slightly softer than the body coat but should not be or appear fluffy. The coat colours range from gray to jet black and brindle. Scotties with wheaten coats sometimes occur, and are similar in appearance to the Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier or West Highland White Terrier, Scotties are territorial, alert, quick moving and feisty, perhaps even more so than other terrier breeds. The breed is known to be independent and self-assured, playful, intelligent and has nicknamed the Diehard because of its rugged nature. The Diehard nickname was given to it in the 19th century by George. The Earl had a pack of Scottish Terriers, so brave that they were named “Diehards”
32.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
33.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
34.
Cabin (ship)
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A cabin or berthing is an enclosed space generally on a ship or an aircraft. A cabin which protrudes above the level of a deck may be referred to as a deckhouse. In sailing ships, the officers and paying passengers would have an individual or shared cabin, the captain or commanding officer would occupy the great cabin that normally spanned width of the stern with large windows. In most modern warships, the officer has a main cabin, the in-port cabin, often adjacent to the ships central control room. Thus, when likely to be called from sleep or attending to administration, the sea cabin is sparsely equipped, containing just a bunk, a desk, and basic toilet facilities. The in-port cabin is more lavishly furnished, with separate bedroom and combination sitting room/office, for ships intended to act as flagships, like the aircraft carrier the USS Lexington, the admiral also has a sea cabin and an in-port cabin, in addition to the captains cabins. Admiral Fletchers sea cabin in the USS Yorktown in World War II had a bed, a chair, a table. Officers will normally have their own cabins, which double as their offices, some senior petty officers may have cabins for similar reasons. In ships carrying passengers, they are accommodated in cabins. First class cabins were referred to as staterooms, and today many cruise lines now prefer to refer to passenger cabins as staterooms or suites. In cruise ship terms, a crawl is an event where passengers tour the cabins of fellow passengers. A cruise ship may also offer a cabin crawl of cabins or suites which did not sell for a particular sailing, the purpose of a cabin crawl is to give passengers an idea of the space and layout of various cabin options for their next cruise. Cabin crawls are normally organized prior to a cruise, through cruise-fan websites, inside spacecraft, the cabins are required to fully supply food and oxygen for their crew. On missions lasting a year or longer, the cabins have to be self-sustaining, i. e. replenish their own water, the space cabin for any long-range manned mission is expected to be reasonably spacious, with approximately 28 cubic metres allotted to each occupant. In addition, cabins have life support systems that should have the capability to meet a variety of conditions, including cabin fires, depressurization. Frequently, these conditions occur so quickly that automatic control systems offer the possibility for recovery. In the late 1960s, several experimental ground facilities were developed to evaluate regenerative life support systems for manned space flight
35.
Seaplane
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A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing on water. Seaplanes that can take off and land on airfields are in a subclass called amphibious aircraft. Their use gradually tailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war, the word seaplane is used to describe two types of air/water vehicles, the floatplane and the flying boat. A floatplane has slender pontoons, or floats, mounted under the fuselage, two floats are common, but other configurations are possible. Only the floats of a floatplane normally come into contact with water, some small land aircraft can be modified to become float planes, and in general, floatplanes are small aircraft. Floatplanes are limited by their inability to handle wave heights typically greater than 12 inches and these floats add to the empty weight of the airplane and to the drag coefficient, resulting in reduced payload capacity, slower rate of climb, and slower cruise speed. Most flying boats have small floats mounted on their wings to keep them stable, not all small seaplanes have been floatplanes, but most large seaplanes have been flying boats, with their great weight supported by their hulls. The term seaplane is used by some instead of floatplane and this is the standard British usage. This article treats both flying boats and floatplanes as types of seaplane, in the US fashion, an amphibious aircraft can take off and land both on conventional runways and water. A true seaplane can only take off and land on water, there are amphibious flying boats and amphibious floatplanes, as well as some hybrid designs, e. g. floatplanes with retractable floats. Modern production seaplanes are typically light aircraft, amphibious, and of a floatplane design, on 6 June 1905, Gabriel Voisin took off and landed on the River Seine with a towed kite glider on floats. The first of his flights was 150 yards. He later built a powered floatplane in partnership with Louis Blériot, other pioneers also attempted to attach floats to aircraft in Britain, Australia, France and the United States. On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre flew the first successful powered seaplane, the Gnome Omega-powered hydravion, fabres first successful take off and landing by a powered seaplane inspired other aviators, and he designed floats for several other flyers. The first hydro-aeroplane competition was held in Monaco in March 1912, featuring aircraft using floats from Fabre, Curtiss, Tellier and this led to the first scheduled seaplane passenger services, at Aix-les-Bains, using a five-seat Sanchez-Besa from 1 August 1912. The French Navy ordered its first floatplane in 1912, in 1911−12, François Denhaut constructed the first seaplane with a fuselage forming a hull, using various designs to give hydrodynamic lift at take-off. Its first successful flight was on 13 April 1912, throughout 1910 and 1911, American pioneering aviator Glenn Curtiss developed his floatplane into the successful Curtiss Model D land-plane, which used a larger central float and sponsons. Combining floats with wheels, he made the first amphibian flights in February 1911 and was awarded the first Collier Trophy for US flight achievement, from 1912, his experiments with a hulled seaplane resulted in the 1913 Model E and Model F, which he called flying-boats
36.
Arado Ar 196
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The Arado Ar 196 was a shipboard reconnaissance low-wing monoplane aircraft built by the German firm of Arado starting in 1936. The next year it was selected as the winner of a design contest, in 1933, the Kriegsmarine looked for a standardized shipboard reconnaissance aircraft. After a brief period, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium decided on the Heinkel He 60 biplane. This was one of a line of developments of a basic biplane airframe that appeared as a number of floatplanes, trainers, deliveries started in a matter of months. By 1935, it was found that the He 60s performance was lacking, the result was the He 114. The plane proved to have slightly better performance than the He 60. Rushed modifications resulted in a series of nine prototypes in an attempt to solve some of the problems, the Navy gave up, and the planes were eventually sold off to Romania, Spain and Sweden. In October 1936, the RLM asked for a He 114 replacement, the only stipulations were that it would use the BMW132, and they wanted prototypes in both twin-float and single-float configurations. Designs were received from Dornier, Gotha, Arado and Focke-Wulf, Heinkel declined to tender, contending that the He 114 could still be made to work. With the exception of the Arado low-wing monoplane design, all were conventional biplanes and that gave the Arado better performance than any of the others and the RLM ordered four prototypes. The RLM was also conservative by nature, so they also ordered two of the Focke-Wulf Fw 62 design as a backup. It quickly became clear that the Arado would work effectively, the Ar 196 prototypes were all delivered in summer 1937, V1 and V2 with twin floats as A models, and V3 and V4 on a single float as B models. Both versions demonstrated excellent water handling and there seemed to be little to one over the other. Since there was a possibility of the outrigger floats on the B models digging in. A single additional prototype, V5, was produced in November 1938 to test final changes,10 A-0s were delivered in November and December 1938, with a single 7.92 mm MG15 machine gun in the rear seat for defense. Five similarly equipped B-0s were also delivered to land-based squadrons and this was followed by 20 A-1 production models starting in June 1939, enough to equip the surface fleet. Starting in November, production switched to the heavier land-based A-2 model and it added shackles for two 50 kg bombs, two 20 mm MG FF cannons in the wings, and a 7.92 mm MG17 machine gun in the cowling. The A-4 replaced it in December 1940, strengthening the airframe, adding another radio, the apparently mis-numbered A-3, which had additional strengthening of the airframe, replaced the A-4
37.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
38.
SMS Hessen
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SMS Hessen was the third of five pre-dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class. She was laid down in 1902, launched the following year and she was named after the state of Hesse. Her sister ships were SMS Braunschweig, SMS Elsass, SMS Preussen, during World War I, Hessen saw action in the Battle of Jutland as the second ship of the III Division of the II Battle Squadron. After the battle, the vessel was disarmed and used as a depot ship, Hessen was one of the few obsolete battleships Germany was permitted to retain under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. She served as a coastal ship in the 1920s and early 1930s. The following year, the ship was converted into a radio-controlled target, during World War II Hessen served in this capacity, while also working as an icebreaker in the Baltic and North Seas. The ship was ceded to the Soviet Union in 1946 after the end of the war and, renamed Tsel, Hessen was 127.7 m long overall and had a beam of 22.2 m and a draft of 8.1 m forward. The ship was powered by three 3-cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws, steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers, all of which burned coal. Hessens powerplant was rated at 16,000 metric horsepower, which generated a top speed of 18 knots, hessens armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm SK L/40 guns in twin gun turrets, one fore and one aft of the central superstructure. Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 17 cm SK L/40 guns, the armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm torpedo tubes, all mounted submerged in the hull. Hessens keel was laid in 1899, at the Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 100, the third unit of her class, she was ordered under the contract name L as a new unit for the fleet. Hessen was launched on 18 September 1903 and commissioned on 19 July 1905, in July 1908, Hessen participated in the annual summer cruise, which went into the Atlantic that year. During the cruise, the ship stopped in Tenerife, along with the battleships Deutschland, during fleet exercises on 23 August 1911, Hessen accidentally rammed and sank the Danish steamer Askesund. The crew of the steamer was rescued and there were no reported injuries, in October, the ship was badly damaged when she was rammed by the Danish steamer Argo. In July 1913, Hessen collided with the torpedo boat G110, the torpedo boat suffered significant damage, though it did not sink, and three of its crew were killed. At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the ship was assigned to the IV Battle Squadron along with her four sisters, Hessen performed fleet duties up through the first two years of World War I. Hessen was present as part of the distant support for the battlecruisers that bombarded Scarborough, Hartlepool, during the operation, the German battle fleet of 12 dreadnoughts and 8 pre-dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi of an isolated squadron of six British battleships. Another raid on the English coast followed on 24–25 April, this time, during this operation, the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a British mine and had to return to port prematurely
39.
Icebreaker
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An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels. For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack, a hull, an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice. Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into ice pockets, the bending strength of sea ice is so low that usually the ice breaks without noticeable change in the vessels trim. In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship, even in the earliest days of polar exploration, ice-strengthened ships were used. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to the hull, bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, stern and along the keel, such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was nipped by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in a vise and this vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. Although such wind and tidal forces may be exerted many miles away, the first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the indigenous Arctic people. Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a deck, and one or more cockpits. Such boats, of course, have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light, in the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic, and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings, however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the 11th century, in North-Russia started settling the coasts of the White Sea, named so for being ice-covered for over half of a year. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors. Gradually they developed a type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships, used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi, the kochs hull was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage. If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water, in the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Fram is said to be the ship to have sailed farthest north and farthest south. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre wooden paddle steamer,1, that was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837
40.
Weather ship
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A weather ship, or Ocean Station Vessel, was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather forecasting. They were primarily located in the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans, research vessels remain heavily used in oceanography, including physical oceanography and the integration of meteorological and climatological data in Earth system science. The idea of a weather ship was proposed as early as 1921 by Météo-France to help support shipping. They were used during World War II but had no means of defense and this number was eventually negotiated down to nine. The agreement of the use of ships by the international community ended in 1985. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as commercial shipping tended to avoid weather systems for safety reasons and they were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones. Beginning in the 1970s, their role was superseded by weather buoys because of the ships significant cost. The removal of a ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M, Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation. The vessels were involved in search and rescue operations involving aircraft, the vessels themselves had search radar and could activate a homing beacon to guide lost aircraft towards the ships known locations. Each ships homing beacon used a different frequency. In addition, the ships provided a platform where scientific and oceanographic research could be conducted, the role of aircraft support gradually changed after 1975, as jet aircraft began using polar routes. At the same time, the transmission of the data using Morse code was replaced by a system using telex-over-radio. The director of Frances meteorological service, Météo-France, proposed the idea of a weather ship in 1921 in order to aid shipping. In 1938 and 1939, France established a merchant ship as the first stationary weather ship, the Atlantic Weather Observation Service was authorized by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on January 25,1940. The Germans began to use weather ships in the summer of 1940, however, three of their four ships had been sunk by November 23, which led to the use of fishing vessels for the German weather ship fleet. Their weather ships were out to sea for three to five weeks at a time and German weather observations were enciphered using Enigma machines. By February 1941, five 327-foot United States Coast Guard cutters were used in weather patrol, as World War II continued, the cutters were needed for the war effort and by August 1942, six cargo vessels had replaced them
Germany
Nazi Germany
United Kingdom
Norway
France
Yugoslavia
Egypt
