1.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
2.
Otto von Bismarck
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Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg, known as Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germanys position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, in 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890. He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France, in 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the Iron Chancellor, German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion. A master of politics at home, Bismarck created the first welfare state in the modern world. In the 1870s, he allied himself with the Liberals and fought the Catholic Church in what was called the Kulturkampf and he lost that battle as the Catholics responded by forming a powerful Centre party and using universal male suffrage to gain a bloc of seats. Bismarck then reversed himself, ended the Kulturkampf, broke with the Liberals, imposed protective tariffs, a devout Lutheran, he was loyal to his king, who argued with Bismarck but in the end supported him against the advice of his wife and his heir. Under Wilhelm I, Bismarck largely controlled domestic and foreign affairs, until he was removed by the young Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, bismarck—a Junker himself—was strong-willed, outspoken and sometimes judged overbearing, but he could also be polite, charming and witty. Occasionally he displayed a violent temper, and he kept his power by threatening resignation time and again. He possessed not only a national and international vision but also the short-term ability to juggle complex developments. As the leader of what historians call revolutionary conservatism, Bismarck became a hero to German nationalists, many historians praise him as a visionary who was instrumental in uniting Germany and, once that had been accomplished, kept the peace in Europe through adroit diplomacy. Bismarck was born in Schönhausen, a family estate situated west of Berlin in the Prussian province of Saxony. He had two siblings, Bernhard and Malwine, the world saw Bismarck as a typical Prussian Junker, an image that he encouraged by wearing military uniforms. Bismarck was well educated and cosmopolitan with a gift for conversation, in addition to his native German, he was fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish and Russian. Bismarck was educated at Johann Ernst Plamanns elementary school, and the Friedrich-Wilhelm, from 1832 to 1833, he studied law at the University of Göttingen, where he was a member of the Corps Hannovera, and then enrolled at the University of Berlin. In 1838, while stationed as an army reservist in Greifswald, at Göttingen, Bismarck befriended the American student John Lothrop Motley
3.
Blohm+Voss
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Blohm + Voss. also written historically as Blohm & Voss and Blohm und Voss. is a German shipbuilding and engineering company. It is currently a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems, the company also oversees maintenance and repair of large cruise ships such as RMS Queen Mary 2 and the MS Queen Victoria. In the 1930s the company established the Hamburger Flugzeugbau subsidiary which built aircraft before and during World War II and, shortly after the wars outbreak, took on its parent companys name. ThyssenKrupp announced in December 2011 that it had agreed the sale of Blohm + Voss civil shipbuilding division to British investment company STAR Capital Partners, on September 28,2016, it was announced that Lürssen would acquire Blohm + Voss in a long-term partnership. Blohm & Voss was founded on 5 April 1877, by Hermann Blohm, the company name was shown with the ampersand until 1955. The companys logo is now a dark blue rectangle with rounded corners bearing the white letters Blohm+Voss. The company has built ships and other large machinery continuously for 125 years and it now builds warships both for the German Navy and for export, as well as oil drilling equipment and ships for numerous commercial customers. It administers the Elbe 17 dry dock at Hamburg, the company is, along with Howaldtswerke at Kiel and Nordseewerke at Emden, a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems. With the rise of the Nazi Party to power in 1933 and this rescued the company, then run by brothers Rudolf and Walther Blohm, from a financial crisis. From July 1944 to April 1945 the company used inmates of its own concentration subcamp at its shipyard in Hamburg-Steinwerder, a memorial stands on the site of the camp and the company continues to pay an undisclosed amount to the Fund for Compensation of Forced Laborers. The first planes it produced had the company designation Ha, e. g. Ha 135, richard Vogt joined the Hamburger Flugzeugbau as Chief Designer not long after its formation. He was highly innovative and many of his designs had unusual features and his most significant design were flying boats, used by the Luftwaffe for maritime patrol and reconnaissance. Most numerous was the BV138, a twin-boom trimotor, while the BV222 Wiking was much larger, largest of all was the BV238 prototype, the largest aircraft built by any of the Axis forces. Other notable types include the asymmetric BV141, which was built in moderate numbers, Blohm & Voss was established in the days of sail and did not produce a notable steamship until 1900. TS Pretoria and TS Windhuk, Deutsche Ost-Afrika Linie passenger cargo liners, MV Wilhelm Gustloff, Kraft durch Freude cruise ship and the worlds worst maritime disaster when she was sunk towards the end of the Second World War MV Aurora As the Wappen Von Hamburg. It was the first luxury liner to be built after World War II, grille – built as the German state yacht, converted to minelayer at the beginning of World War II, later reconverted to state yacht of Nazi Germany, Hitlers official maritime conveyance. Lady Moura – the 19th-largest private yacht MV Savarona – built for an American heiress in 1931, later the Turkish Presidential yacht and now a charter yacht. Still among the largest yachts, at 446 feet long, some munitions, such as glide bombs, were included in the series designations.111 – a design similar to the 237, except that it was a flying boat with three engines
4.
Wehrmachtbericht
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Wehrmachtbericht was the daily Wehrmacht High Command mass-media communiqué and a key component of Nazi propaganda during World War II. Produced by the Propaganda Department of the OKW, it covered Germanys military situation and was broadcast daily on the Reich Broadcasting Corporation of Nazi Germany, all broadcasts were authorized by the Reich Ministry of Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels. Despite the latters attempts to temper excessive optimism, they exaggerated the success of the German army. During World War II, the Wehrmacht communiqué was the official news communication medium about the situation of the Reich. The communiqué was produced by a propaganda department attached to the Wehrmacht Chief of Operation Staff, general Alfred Jodl. Commanded by general Hasso von Wedel, the department oversaw the growing number of companies of the Wehrmacht Propaganda Troops, the propaganda wing of the Wehrmacht. At its peak in 1942, the troops included 15,000 men. The planning for propaganda activities by the Wehrmacht began in 1938, Joseph Goebbels, the head of Ministry of Propaganda, sought to establish effective cooperation with the Wehrmacht to ensure a smooth flow of propaganda materials from the front. He deferred to the military in setting up and controlling the propaganda companies and these troops, who were trained soldiers, were responsible for preparing the combat reports to be used as source material for the OKW communiqués. The propaganda companies were only news-reporting units in areas of military operation, the troops produced the written, audio and film materials from the front and sent them to a processing center in Germany, where they were reviewed by censors, mostly for security purposes. The filtered materials were then forwarded to the Ministry of Propaganda for immediate dissemination, all Wehrmachtbericht broadcasts were authorized by Goebbelss ministry as the controlling institution of the German media. A Ministry of Propaganda official attended daily Wehrmacht conferences, where the initial versions of the communiqué were provided to state, Goebbelss day at the ministry began with his adjutant reading out the text of the communiqués to him. While Goebbels did not have a say in what went into the communiqués. The first communiqué aired with the start of World War II on 1 September 1939, the communiqués were broadcast daily on the Reich Broadcasting Corporation and published in the press. From 12 May 1940 onwards, Major Erich Murawski of the OKW Propaganda Department was given the task of adding commentary to them, the commentary was aimed at the civilian audience, and were written in laymans language so that the population could easily grasp the daily military developments. The communiqués were read twice, the first at a speed. As the operation progressed, however, it was more and more difficult to sustain the illusion of a swift, the subsequent reports were at times in stark contrast with the deteriorating situation on the ground, which was noted by the German troops. After the Soviet Yelnya Offensive east of Smolensk in early September 1941, but to me it was so much bullshit
5.
Bismarck-class battleship
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The Bismarck class was a pair of battleships built for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine shortly before the outbreak of World War II. The ships were the largest warships built for the Kriegsmarine, Bismarck was laid down in July 1936 and completed in September 1940, while her sister Tirpitzs keel was laid in October 1936 and work finished in February 1941. Both ships had short service careers, Bismarck conducted only one operation, Operation Rheinübung, a sortie into the North Atlantic to raid supply convoys sent from North America to Great Britain. During the operation, she destroyed the British battlecruiser HMS Hood, Bismarck was defeated and sunk in a final engagement after a three-day chase by the Royal Navy. Disagreements over the cause of the sinking persist with chiefly British sources claiming responsibility for the sinking of the ship, evidence reviewed by Robert Ballard and James Cameron indicates that her loss was most likely due to scuttling as originally claimed by her surviving crew-members. Tirpitzs career was less dramatic, she was sent to Norwegian waters in 1942 and she was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force. In 1944, Lancaster bombers hit the ship with three Tallboy bombs, which caused internal damage and capsized the battleship. Tirpitz was broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957, a series of conceptual designs was begun in 1932 to determine the ideal characteristics of a battleship built to the 35,000 long tons limit of the Washington Naval Treaty. These early studies determined that the ship should be armed with eight 33 cm guns, have a top speed of 30 knots, the design work for what became the Bismarck class was begun in 1933 and continued until 1936. In June 1935, Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Germany to build battleships at a ratio of 35 percent to the tonnage of the Royal Navy. It also made Germany party to the treaty system begun at the Washington Conference. At the time, France, which had begun a program of expansion, was viewed as the most likely threat. As a result, Bismarck and Tirpitz were intended to counter the new French battleships being built at the time, a series of questions needed to be answered during the design process, including the calibre of the main battery, the propulsion system, and armour protection. The deciding factor for the adoption of 38 cm guns for Bismarck and it was decided that four twin turrets would provide the best solution to distribution of the main battery, as it would provide equal firepower forward and aft, as well as simplify fire control. This arrangement was similar to the last German battleships of the Imperial period, very thick vertical belt armour was adopted, along with heavy upper-citadel armour plating and extensive splinter protection in the bow and stern of the ships. The displacement of Bismarck and Tirpitz were limited by the capabilities of existing infrastructure in Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. On 11 February 1937, the Construction Office informed Generaladmiral Erich Raeder that the ships could not displace more than 42,000 long tons due to harbour constraints, the office also expressed a preference for building a third vessel and remaining within the 35, 000-ton treaty limit. Japan refused to sign the new treaty, and so on 1 April 1937 an escalator clause permitting treaty signatories to build ships up to a limit of 45,000 long tons went into effect
6.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
7.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
8.
Waterline length
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The waterline length is the length of a ship or boat at the point where it sits in the water. It excludes the length of the boat, such as features that are out of the water. Most boats rise outwards at the bow and stern, so a boat may be quite a bit longer than its waterline length. In a ship with raked stems, naturally the waterline length changes as the draft of the ship changes. Length at the waterline is often abbreviated as lwl, w/l and this measure is essential in determining a lot of properties of a vessel, such as how much water it displaces, where the bow and stern waves are, hull speed, amount of bottom-paint needed, etc. In sailing boats, longer waterline length will usually enable a greater speed, because it allows greater sail area. Higher beam and draft causes higher resistance against the water and this maximum speed, also known as theoretical hull speed, can be calculated using the formula x 1.34. Length overall Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
9.
Length overall
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Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
10.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
11.
Kilowatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
12.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
13.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
14.
38 cm SK C/34 naval gun
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The 38 cm SK C/34 naval gun was developed by Germany mid to late 1930s. It armed the Bismarck-class battleships and was planned as the armament of the O-class battlecruisers, six twin-gun mountings were also sold to the Soviet Union and it was planned to use them on the Kronshtadt-class battlecruisers, however they were never delivered. Spare guns were used as artillery in Denmark, Norway. One gun is currently on display at Møvig Fortress outside Kristiansand and it used the standard German naval system of ammunition where the base charge was held in a metallic cartridge case and supplemented by another charge in a silk bag. Almost 40 per-cent lighter, this shell could be fired with a reduced charge at 920 metres per second to 40 kilometres. With a full charge it reached 1,050 metres per second, the data given is according to Krupp datasheet 38 cm S. K. C/34 e WA52-453. This gun was mounted in pairs in the Drh. L, c/34e turret which allowed elevation from -5°30 to +30°. Each gun had a cradle, spaced 3.5 metres apart. In general the turret was powered, but the training gear, auxiliary elevation, auxiliary hoists. The turrets weighed 1,048 tonnes to 1,056 tonnes, rested on ball bearings on a 8.75 metres diameter track, could elevate 6° per second, the guns were loaded at +2. 5° and used a telescoping chain-operated rammer. According to German manuals the required permanent capacity for the equipment for ammunition was 2.5 shells per minute. During testing period at the Baltic Sea the AVKS Report states an output of the delivery system up to 3.125 shells per minute. Under battle conditions Bismarck averaged roughly one round per minute in her battle with HMS Hood, sixteen guns were used for the Bismarck and Tirpitz and six were ordered for the Gneisenau when it was to be re-armed in 1942. Six were intended for each of the O-class battlecruisers, but it is uncertain how many of these last were actually delivered, six mountings with twelve guns were sold to the Soviet Union who planned to use them on two Kronshtadt-class battlecruisers, but these were never delivered. Surplus guns were used as coast defense guns, Tirpitz fired her main battery against Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm aircraft in Operations Planet, Brawn, Tiger Claw, Mascot and Goodwood. In Operations Paravane, Obviate, and Catechism, Tirpitzs 38 cm fragmentation shells proved ineffective in countering the Royal Air Forces high-level bombers and these guns were modified with a larger chamber for coast defense duties to handle the increased amount of propellant used for the special long-range Siegfried shells. Gander and Chamberlain quote a weight of only 105.3 tonnes for these guns, an armored single mount, the Bettungsschiessgerüst C/39 was used by these guns. It had an elevation of 60° and could traverse up to 360°
15.
15 cm SK C/28
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The 15 cm SK C/28 was a German, medium-caliber, naval gun used during the Second World War. It served as the armament for the Bismarck class and Scharnhorst-class battleships, Deutschland-class cruisers. It shared the earlier design with a loose barrel, jacket. LC/34 twin-gun mount was the most common mount for the gun in the Kriegsmarine and it was used as the secondary armament of the Bismarck-class and Scharnhorst-class battleships and was planned to equip the proposed H-class battleships. The mount weighed between 114–120 tonnes, depending on its thickness, the Scharnhorsts mounts had between 14–3 cm of armor while the Bismarcks had 10–2 cm. Maximum elevation was 40°, giving a range of 23,000 metres and maximum depression was -10°, each mount was designed for full 360° of traverse, but was limited to much less than that by the ships superstructure. Speed in train was a maximum of 9° per second, the fastest firing cycle was 7.5 seconds, or 8 rounds per minute. Ammunition was supplied by twin hoists between the guns, at the rear of the mount, the M-class cruiser was intended to use a lighter version of this mount with thinner armor that only weighed approximately 102 tonnes. This may have designated as the Drh, lC/40, but development ceased when the ships were canceled in 1939. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau also carried four single MPL C/35 mounts that weighed 26.71 tonnes with armor between 6–2 cm thick, each mount could depress -10° and elevate to 35°, this gave a maximum range of 22,000 metres. The MPL C/28 mount used in the Deutschland-class cruisers was virtually identical to the newer mount except its gun shield was smaller so it weighed only 24.83 tonnes, the Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carriers were going to carry eight twin-gun Dopp MPL C/36 casemate mountings. These weighed 47.6 tonnes and had an armored shield 30 millimetres thick, the mount elevated at a speed of 6° per second and trained at a rate of 8° per second. The Küsten-Marinepivotlafette was a successful mobile coast defense mount fitted with a gun shield. The gun traversed on a firing platform that allowed 360° of traverse. It could depress -7° and elevate to a maximum of 47°30, the gun on its carriage weighed 19,761 kilograms. It was towed via two two-axle trailers, one at each end, for travel the four lateral legs of the platform folded vertically. They were converted to Heer-standard percussion firing, most guns were replaced by 17 centimetres barrels as they became available, but one battery retained them through the beginning of the Battle of Kursk in July 1943. The SK C/28 used several different shells depending on its target, the 15 cm Sprgr L/4.6 KZ m Hb weighed 45.5 kg and had a muzzle velocity of 785 m/s
16.
10.5 cm FlaK 38
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The 10.5 cm FlaK38 was a German anti-aircraft gun used during World War II by the Luftwaffe. An improved version was introduced as the 10.5 cm FlaK39, the Flak 38 was introduced as a competitor to the 8.8 cm FlaK18. In this role it proved to be too heavy for use while having roughly similar performance as the 88 mm. The Flak 39 was a version, which replaced the electrical gun laying system with a mechanical one. The 10.5 cm SK C/33 was used by the Kriegsmarine, related to the Flak 38, it was installed on the Bismarck and Scharnhorst classes of battleships as well as the Deutschland- and Admiral Hipper-class cruisers. They were mounted in pairs on an electrically powered tri-axial mounting, intended to compensate for the motion of the ship, the mounting was not properly waterproofed as the mountings were open to the weather and sea swell, resulting in a high maintenance burden. 10.5 cm Flak 38,39, Multi-Purpose Gun German 10.5 cm/65 SK C/33 Gander, Terry, Chamberlain, Weapons of the Third Reich, An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939–1945. Hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two
17.
3.7 cm SK C/30
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The 3.7 cm SK C/30 was the German Kriegsmarines primary 3.7 cm anti-aircraft gun during the Second World War. It was superseded by the fully automatic 3.7 cm FlaK43 late in the war and its muzzle velocity was on the other hand far superior, which greatly eased the aiming. The SK C/30U gun was modified for use by submarines, All mountings were suitable for use against both air and soft surface targets. The Doppellafette C/30 was a mount with each gun in a separate cradle. It had a crew on the mount itself plus additional ammunition handlers. The mounting was manually traversed and elevated and was gyro-stabilized up to a limit of 19. 5° degrees to counteract the roll, most German ships, fleet torpedo boat or larger, carried at least one Dopp L C/30 mounting. The Einheitslafette C/34 was a gun mounted on a pedestal with a two-man crew. Some mounts were fitted with a 8 millimetres gun shield and it was used on the smaller Kriegsmarine ships like the Schnellboot. A number were used on land to supplement the anti-aircraft defenses of ports, the Ubts L C/39 submarine mount used the SK C/30U gun. It was a pedestal mount with a two-man crew, one of whom trained the gun with the shoulder stirrup. The SK C/30 used two types of tracer rounds. The 3.7 cm Br Sprgr Patr 40 L/4.1 Lh 37M was a round with an incendiary filling while the 3.7 cm Sprgr Patr 40 L/4.1 Lh 37 lacked the incendiary fill. Tracers were available in red, yellow or white and were marked on the shell by a band of the appropriate color. A complete round weighed 1.78 kilograms, naval Weapons of World War Two. Weapons of the Third Reich, An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery, hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two. Leichte und mittlere Artillerie auf deutschen Kriegsschiffen
18.
2 cm Flak 30/38/Flakvierling
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The Flak 30 and improved Flak 38 were 20 mm anti-aircraft guns used by various German forces throughout World War II. It was not only the primary German light anti-aircraft gun, and it was produced in a variety of models, notably the Flakvierling 38 which combined four Flak 38 autocannons onto a single carriage. The Germans fielded the unrelated early 2 cm Flak 28 just after World War I, the original Flak 30 design was developed from the Solothurn ST-5 as a project for the Kriegsmarine, which produced the 20 mm C/30. The gun fired the Long Solothurn, a 20 ×138 mm belted cartridge that had developed for the ST-5 and was one of the most powerful 20 mm rounds in existence. The C/30, featuring a length of 65 calibres, had a rate of about 120 rounds per minute. Disappointingly, it proved to have feeding problems and would often jam, nevertheless, the C/30 became the primary shipborne light AA weapon and equipped a large variety of German ships. Rheinmetall then started an adaptation of the C/30 for Army use, generally similar to the C/30, the main areas of development were the mount, which was fairly compact. Set-up could be accomplished by dropping the gun to the ground off its two-wheeled carriage, the result was a triangular base that allowed fire in all directions. But the main problem with the design remained unsolved, the rate of fire of 120 RPM was not particularly fast for a weapon of this calibre. Rheinmetall responded with the 2 cm Flak 38, which was similar but increased the rate of fire to 220 RPM. The Flak 38 was accepted as the standard Army gun in 1939, in order to provide airborne and mountain troops with AA capabilities, Mauser was contracted to produce a lighter version of the Flak 38, which they introduced as the 2 cm Gebirgsflak 38. It featured a dramatically simplified mount using a tripod that raised the gun off the ground. These changes reduced the weight of the gun to a mere 276.0 kg. Production started in 1941 and entered service in 1942, a wide variety of 20x138B ammunition was manufactured to be used in 2 cm Flak weapons, some of the more commonly used types are listed on the following table. Other kinds than in existence included numerous practice rounds and a number of different AP types, a high-velocity PzGr 40 round with a tungsten carbide core in an aluminium body existed in 20x138B caliber. This meant it could keep enemy aircraft under fire over longer time spans, the 20 mm weapons had always had weak development perspectives, often being reconfigured or redesigned just enough to allow the weapons to find use. Indeed, it came as a surprise when Rheinmetall introduced the 2 cm Flakvierling 38, the term Vierling literally translates to quadruplet and refers to the four 20 mm gun constituting the design. The Flakvierling weapon consisted of quad-mounted 2 cm Flak 38 AA guns with collapsing seats, folding handles, the mount had a triangular base with a jack at each leg for levelling the gun
19.
Arado Ar 196
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The Arado Ar 196 was a shipboard reconnaissance low-wing monoplane aircraft built by the German firm of Arado starting in 1936. The next year it was selected as the winner of a design contest, in 1933, the Kriegsmarine looked for a standardized shipboard reconnaissance aircraft. After a brief period, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium decided on the Heinkel He 60 biplane. This was one of a line of developments of a basic biplane airframe that appeared as a number of floatplanes, trainers, deliveries started in a matter of months. By 1935, it was found that the He 60s performance was lacking, the result was the He 114. The plane proved to have slightly better performance than the He 60. Rushed modifications resulted in a series of nine prototypes in an attempt to solve some of the problems, the Navy gave up, and the planes were eventually sold off to Romania, Spain and Sweden. In October 1936, the RLM asked for a He 114 replacement, the only stipulations were that it would use the BMW132, and they wanted prototypes in both twin-float and single-float configurations. Designs were received from Dornier, Gotha, Arado and Focke-Wulf, Heinkel declined to tender, contending that the He 114 could still be made to work. With the exception of the Arado low-wing monoplane design, all were conventional biplanes and that gave the Arado better performance than any of the others and the RLM ordered four prototypes. The RLM was also conservative by nature, so they also ordered two of the Focke-Wulf Fw 62 design as a backup. It quickly became clear that the Arado would work effectively, the Ar 196 prototypes were all delivered in summer 1937, V1 and V2 with twin floats as A models, and V3 and V4 on a single float as B models. Both versions demonstrated excellent water handling and there seemed to be little to one over the other. Since there was a possibility of the outrigger floats on the B models digging in. A single additional prototype, V5, was produced in November 1938 to test final changes,10 A-0s were delivered in November and December 1938, with a single 7.92 mm MG15 machine gun in the rear seat for defense. Five similarly equipped B-0s were also delivered to land-based squadrons and this was followed by 20 A-1 production models starting in June 1939, enough to equip the surface fleet. Starting in November, production switched to the heavier land-based A-2 model and it added shackles for two 50 kg bombs, two 20 mm MG FF cannons in the wings, and a 7.92 mm MG17 machine gun in the cowling. The A-4 replaced it in December 1940, strengthening the airframe, adding another radio, the apparently mis-numbered A-3, which had additional strengthening of the airframe, replaced the A-4
20.
Floatplane
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A floatplane is a type of seaplane, with one or more slender pontoons mounted under the fuselage to provide buoyancy. By contrast, a flying boat uses its fuselage for buoyancy, either type of seaplane may also have landing gear suitable for land, making the vehicle an amphibious aircraft. Since World War II and the advent of helicopters, advanced aircraft carriers and land-based aircraft and this, coupled with the increased availability of civilian airstrips, have greatly reduced the number of flying boats being built. These floatplanes have found their niche as one type of plane, for light duty transportation to lakes. They may operate on a basis, provide scheduled service, or be operated by residents of the area for private. Floatplanes have often been derived from land-based aircraft, with fixed floats mounted under the fuselage instead of retractable undercarriage, attaching floats to a landplane also allows for much larger production volumes to pay for the development and production of the small number of aircraft operated from water. Additionally, on all but the largest seaplanes, floatplane wings usually offer more clearance over obstacles, such as docks, a typical single engine flying boat is unable to bring the hull alongside a dock for loading while most floatplanes are able to do so. Floats inevitably impose extra drag and weight, rendering floatplanes slower and less manoeuvrable during flight, with a rate of climb. Some early twin float designs had additional wingtip stabilizing floats, by comparison, dual floats restrict handling, often to waves as little as one foot in height. However, twin float designs facilitate mooring and boarding, and – in the case of torpedo bombers – leave the free to carry a torpedo. Popular Science, February 1945, pp. 134–135
21.
Aircraft catapult
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An aircraft catapult is a device used to launch aircraft from ships, most commonly used on aircraft carriers, as a form of assisted take off. Different means have been used to propel the catapult, such as weight and derrick, gunpowder, flywheel, air pressure, hydraulic, and steam power. The U. S. Navy is developing the use of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch Systems with the construction of the Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carrier, aviation pioneer and Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Langley used a spring-operated catapult to launch his successful flying models and his failed aerodrome of 1903. Likewise the Wright Brothers beginning in 1904 used a weight and derrick styled catapult to assist their early aircraft with a takeoff in a limited distance, on 31 July 1912, Theodore Gordon Ellyson became the first person to be launched from a U. S. Navy catapult system. The Navy had been perfecting a compressed-air catapult system and mounted it on the Santee Dock in Annapolis, the first attempt nearly killed Lt. Ellyson when the plane left the ramp with its nose pointing upward and it caught a crosswind, pushing the plane into the water. Ellyson was able to escape from the wreckage unhurt, on 12 November 1912, Lt. Ellyson made history as the Navys first successful catapult launch, from a stationary coal barge. On 5 November 1915, LCDR Henry C, mustin made the first catapult launch from a ship underway. The US Navy experimented with other sources and models, including catapults that utilized gunpowder. On 14 December 1924, a Martin MO-1 observation plane flown by Lt. L. C, hayden was launched from USS Langley using a catapult powered by gunpowder. Following this launch, this method was used aboard both cruisers and battleships, up to and during World War II, most catapults were hydraulic. They were mostly used for experimental purposes, and their use was discontinued during the latter half of the war. Many naval vessels apart from aircraft carriers carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and they were catapult-launched and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. There were submarine aircraft carriers, and some Japanese submarines used them for offensive operations also, the first launch off a Royal Navy battlecruiser was from HMAS Australia on 8 March 1918. The aircraft carried were the Fairey Seafox or Supermarine Walrus, some like HMS Nelson did not use a catapult, and the aircraft was lowered onto the sea for takeoff. Some had their aircraft and catapult removed during WWII e. g. HMS Duke of York and these were used for convoy escort duties to drive off enemy reconnaissance bombers. CAM ships carried a Hawker Sea Hurricane, dubbed a Hurricat or Catafighter, ground-launched V-1s were typically propelled up an inclined launch ramp by an apparatus known as a Dampferzeuger. Following World War II, the Royal Navy was developing a new system for their fleet of carriers. Mitchell, RNV, recommended a system as an effective
22.
Kriegsmarine
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The Kriegsmarine was the navy of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It superseded the Imperial German Navy of the German Empire and the inter-war Reichsmarine, the Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches—along with the Heer and the Luftwaffe —of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany. The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly during German naval rearmament in the 1930s, Kriegsmarine ships were deployed to the waters around Spain during the Spanish Civil War, under the guise of enforcing non-intervention, but in reality supporting the Franco side of the war. In January 1939 Plan Z was ordered, calling for naval parity with the Royal Navy by 1944, however, when World War II broke out in September 1939, Plan Z was shelved in favour of building submarines and prioritizing land and air forces. The Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine was Adolf Hitler, who exercised his authority through the Oberkommando der Marine, the Kriegsmarines most famous ships were the U-boats, most of which were constructed after Plan Z was abandoned at the beginning of World War II. However, the adoption of convoy escorts, especially in the Atlantic, after the Second World War, the Kriegsmarines remaining ships were divided up amongst the Allied powers and were used for various purposes including minesweeping. Adolf Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of all German armed forces, including the Kriegsmarine and his authority was exercised through the Oberkommando der Marine, or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief, a Chief of Naval General Staff and a Chief of Naval Operations. The first Commander-in-Chief of the OKM was Erich Raeder who was the Commander-in-Chief of the Reichsmarine when it was renamed and reorganized in 1935, Raeder held the post until falling out with Hitler after the German failure in the Battle of the Barents Sea. He was replaced by Karl Dönitz on 30 January 1943 who held the command until he was appointed President of Germany upon Hitlers suicide in April 1945, hans-Georg von Friedeburg was then Commander-in-Chief of the OKM for the short period of time until Germany surrendered in May 1945. Subordinate to these were regional, squadron and temporary flotilla commands, regional commands covered significant naval regions and were themselves sub-divided, as necessary. They were commanded by a Generaladmiral or an Admiral, there was a Marineoberkommando for the Baltic Fleet, Nord, Nordsee, Norwegen, Ost/Ostsee, Süd and West. The Kriegsmarine used a form of encoding called Gradnetzmeldeverfahren to denote regions on a map, each squadron also had a command structure with its own Flag Officer. The commands were Battleships, Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, Torpedo Boats, Minesweepers, Reconnaissance Forces, Naval Security Forces, Big Guns and Hand Guns, major naval operations were commanded by a Flottenchef. The Flottenchef controlled a flotilla and organized its actions during the operation, the commands were, by their nature, temporary. As a result the German surface fleet was plagued by design flaws throughout the war, military aircraft were also banned, so Germany could have no naval aviation. Under the treaty Germany could only build new ships to replace old ones, All the ships allowed and personnel were taken over from the Kaiserliche Marine, renamed Reichsmarine. From the outset, Germany worked to circumvent the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. The launching of the first pocket battleship, Deutschland in 1931 was a step in the formation of a modern German fleet, modern destroyers and light cruisers were also built
23.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
24.
German battleship Tirpitz
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Tirpitz was the second of two Bismarck-class battleships built for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine during World War II. Work was completed in February 1941, when she was commissioned into the German fleet, like her sister ship Bismarck, Tirpitz was armed with a main battery of eight 38-centimetre guns in four twin turrets. After a series of wartime modifications she was 2,000 tonnes heavier than Bismarck, after completing sea trials in early 1941, Tirpitz briefly served as the centrepiece of the Baltic Fleet, which was intended to prevent a possible break-out attempt by the Soviet Baltic Fleet. In early 1942, the sailed to Norway to act as a deterrent against an Allied invasion. While stationed in Norway, Tirpitz was also intended to be used to intercept Allied convoys to the Soviet Union and this was the only feasible role for her, since the St Nazaire Raid had made operations against the Atlantic convoy lanes too risky. Tirpitz acted as a fleet in being, forcing the British Royal Navy to retain significant naval forces in the area to contain the battleship. In September 1943, Tirpitz, along with the battleship Scharnhorst, bombarded Allied positions on Spitzbergen, shortly thereafter, the ship was damaged in an attack by British mini-submarines and subsequently subjected to a series of large-scale air raids. On 12 November 1944, British Lancaster bombers equipped with 12, a deck fire spread to the ammunition magazine for one of the main battery turrets, which caused a large explosion. Figures for the number of men killed in the range from 950 to 1,204. Between 1948 and 1957 the wreck was broken up by a joint Norwegian and German salvage operation, Tirpitz was ordered as Ersatz Schleswig-Holstein as a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought Schleswig-Holstein, under the contract name G. The Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract, where the keel was laid on 20 October 1936, the hull was launched on 1 April 1939, during the elaborate ceremonies, the ship was christened by the daughter of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the ships namesake. Adolf von Trotha, an admiral in the Imperial German Navy, spoke at the ships launching. Fitting-out work followed her launch, and was completed by February 1941, British bombers repeatedly attacked the harbour in which the ship was being built, no bombs struck Tirpitz, but the attacks did slow construction work. Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February for sea trials, Tirpitz displaced 42,900 t as built and 52,600 tonnes fully loaded, with a length of 251 m, a beam of 36 m and a maximum draft of 10.60 m. Her standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1,962 enlisted men, as built, Tirpitz was equipped with Model 23 search radars mounted on the forward, foretop, and rear rangefinders. These were later replaced with Model 27 and then Model 26 radars, a Model 30 radar, known as the Hohentwiel, was mounted in 1944 in her topmast, and a Model 213 Würzburg fire-control radar was added on her stern 10.5 cm Flak rangefinders. She was armed with eight 38 cm SK C/34 L/52 guns arranged in four gun turrets. Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm L/55 guns, sixteen 10.5 cm L/65 and sixteen 3.7 cm L/83, the number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to 58
25.
Ernst Lindemann
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Otto Ernst Lindemann was a German Kapitän zur See. He was the commander of the battleship Bismarck during its eight months of service in World War II. Lindemann joined the German Imperial Navy in 1913, and after his military training. On board SMS Bayern, he participated in Operation Albion in 1917, after World War I, he served in various staff and naval gunnery training positions. In May 1941, Lindemann commanded Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung, Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen formed a task force under the command of Admiral Günther Lütjens on board Bismarck. Orders were to break out of their base in German occupied Poland, the task forces first major engagement was the Battle of the Denmark Strait which resulted in the sinking of HMS Hood. Less than a later, on 27 May, Lindemann. He was posthumously awarded the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross, the medal was presented to his widow, Hildegard, on 6 January 1942. Otto Ernst Lindemann was born on 28 March 1894 in Altenkirchen in the Westerwald and he was the first of three children of Dr. jur. Georg Heinrich Ernst Lindemann and Maria Lindemann, née Lieber, known as Ernst, Georg Lindemann was a probationary judge and later president of the Prussian Central Land Credit Company, a Prussian credit bank. Otto Ernst Lindemann was baptised into the Protestant Church on 26 April 1894, the family moved to the Charlottenburg quarter of Berlin, where they lived at 6 Carmer Street, in 1895. His younger brother—Kurt—was born in 1896, followed by a brother, Hans-Wolfgang. The family relocated again in 1903, this time to their own house in the Dahlem quarter of Berlin, near the Grunewald forest. In 1910, when Lindemann was 16, his uncle Kapitän zur See Friedrich Tiesmeyer was in command of the light cruiser SMS Mainz of the Imperial Navy, at a family reunion in Hamelin, Lindemann talked with his uncle and heard of his seafaring adventures in the Far East. These conversations gave Lindemann the idea of a naval career, Lindemann graduated from the Bismarck-Gymnasium in Berlin-Wilmersdorf with his Abitur late in 1912 with an average-to-good overall rating. For the next six months, he attended the Royal Polytechnic Institution in Richmond, Ernst Lindemann met Charlotte Weil, a Berlin singer, in the spring of 1920. The couple married on 1 February 1921, and they had a daughter, Helga Maria, Lindemanns job as a naval officer demanded that he be away from his family for long periods of time. This proved to be too demanding on the marriage, and they were divorced in 1932, Lindemann was engaged again on 20 July 1933 to his youngest brothers sister-in-law, Hildegard Burchard
26.
Heavy cruiser
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The heavy cruiser was a type of cruiser, a naval warship designed for long range and high speed, armed generally with naval guns of roughly 203mm calibre and displacing approximately 10,000 tons. The heavy cruiser can be seen as a lineage of ship design from 1915 until 1945, the heavy cruisers immediate precursors were the light cruiser designs of the 1900s and 1910s, rather than the armoured cruisers of before 1905. With their intended targets being other cruisers and smaller vessels, the role of the heavy cruiser differed fundamentally from that of the armored cruiser, also, the heavy cruiser was designed to take advantage of advances in naval technology and design. They often had a number of main guns than did armoured cruisers. This arrangement saved tonnage and enabled the ship to all guns on one broadside. They also benefited from the introduction of control in the 1920s and 1930s. These developments meant that the cruiser was an overall more powerful ship type than the armoured cruiser had been. At the end of the 19th century, cruisers were classified as first and their essential role had not changed since the age of sail—to serve on long-range missions, patrol for enemy warships and raid and defend commerce. Armoured cruisers had proved less versatile than needed to do this adequately, in a race to outsize and outgun one another, they had grown to around 15,000 tons and up to 9. While Japanese armored cruisers had distinguished themselves at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, tactics and technology were gearing towards naval encounters held over increasingly longer ranges, which demanded an armament of primarily large caliber guns. The demand for speed with which to outflank a potential enemy, thirty percent was the ratio by which frigates had been faster than ships of the line in the days of sail. If a battleship sailed at 20 knots, this would mean that an armored cruiser would have to steam at least 26 or 27 knots, armoured cruisers could not fulfill these criteria without being built much larger and taking on a different form than they had in the past. HMS Invincible and her two sister ships were designed specifically to fulfill these requirements, however, they were much larger, faster and better-armed than armored cruisers, able to outpace them, stay out of range of their weapons and destroy them with relative impunity. All these factors made battlecruisers attractive fighting units, although Britain, Germany and they also meant that the armored cruiser as it had been known was now outmoded. No more were built after 1910 and by the end of World War I, although Lord Fisher, the man behind the building of Invincible, had hoped to replace practically all forms of cruisers with battlecruisers, they proved to be too costly to build in large numbers. At the same time, the third class cruiser started to carry thin steel armour on the outside of its hull, the first such design was the British Atlantic cruiser proposal of 1912, which proposed a long-range cruiser of about 8,000 tons displacement with 190 mm guns. This was a response to a rumour that Germany was building cruisers to attack merchant shipping in the Atlantic with 170mm guns, the German raiders proved to be fictional and the Atlantic cruisers were never built. However, in 1915 the requirement for long-range trade-protection cruisers resurfaced and resulted in the Hawkins class, essentially enlarged light cruisers, the Hawkins-class each carried seven 190 mm guns, and had a displacement just under 10,000 tons
27.
German cruiser Prinz Eugen
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Prinz Eugen was an Admiral Hipper-class heavy cruiser, the third member of the class of five vessels. She served with Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine during World War II, the ship was laid down in April 1936, launched in August 1938, and entered service after the outbreak of war, in August 1940. She was named after Prince Eugene of Savoy, an 18th-century Austrian general, Prinz Eugen saw action during Operation Rheinübung, an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship Bismarck in May 1941. The two ships destroyed the British battlecruiser Hood and moderately damaged the battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of the Denmark Strait, Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping, but this was cut short due to engine troubles. After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs, the participated in Operation Cerberus. In February 1942, Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway, although her time stationed there was curtailed when she was torpedoed by the British submarine Trident days after arriving in Norwegian waters, the torpedo severely damaged the ships stern, which necessitated repairs in Germany. Upon returning to service, the ship spent several months training officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support for the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front. After the German collapse in May 1945, she was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize. After examining the ship in the United States, the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll, having survived the atomic blasts, Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll, where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946. The wreck remains partially visible above the approximately two miles northwest of Bucholz Army Airfield, on the edge of Enubuj. One of her propellers was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany. Prinz Eugen was 207.7 meters long overall, and had a beam of 21.7 m, after launching, her straight bow was replaced with a clipper bow, increasing the length overall to 212.5 meters. The new bow kept her foredeck much drier in heavy weather, the ship had a design displacement of 16,970 t and a full-load displacement of 18,750 long tons. Prinz Eugen was powered by three sets of geared turbines, which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra-high pressure oil-fired boilers. The ships top speed was 32 knots, at 135,619 shaft horsepower, as designed, her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1,340 enlisted men. The ships primary armament was eight 20.3 cm SK L/60 guns mounted in four turrets, placed in superfiring pairs forward. Her anti-aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10.5 cm L/65 guns, twelve 3.7 cm guns, the ship also carried a pair of triple 53.3 cm torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure. For aerial reconnaissance, she was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult, Prinz Eugens armored belt was 70 to 80 mm thick, her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm thick and her main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm thick
28.
Battle of the Denmark Strait
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The Battle of the Denmark Strait was a Second World War naval battle between ships of the Royal Navy and the German Kriegsmarine, fought on 24 May 1941. Less than 10 minutes after the British opened fire, a shell from Bismarck struck Hood near her aft ammunition magazines, soon afterward, Hood exploded, and sank within three minutes with the loss of all but three of her crew. Incensed by the loss of Hood, a large British force pursued, the two German ships were expected to sail westward and break through the Greenland-Iceland-UK gap. Due to cloud and rain, aircraft scheduled to assist in the search could not do so when the German ships attempted their breakout and these cruisers—each carrying eight 8-inch guns—were patrolling the Denmark Strait under the command of Rear-Admiral Frederic Wake-Walker. With the help of Suffolks newly installed radar the cruisers shadowed the German ships, the next morning, at the exit to the Strait between Iceland and Greenland a force of eight British ships was in place, to intercept the Germans. The British fleet included the battleship Prince of Wales, the battlecruiser HMS Hood, Prince of Wales was a newly commissioned King George V-class battleship, similar to Bismarck in size and power. Prince of Wales had not yet been properly shaken down, and she still had mechanical problems, especially with her main armament. The ship had sailed with shipyard workers still aboard working on her and she thus sortied to war at a marked disadvantage against the new capital ships of the Axis. With the ships in position, Admiral Tovey concluded the better-protected Prince of Wales could draw the German battleships large-shell gunfire. Ultimately, Admiral Tovey did not give the order, later saying I did not feel such interference with such a senior officer justified, Vice-Admiral Hollands battle plan was to have Hood and Prince of Wales engage Bismarck while Suffolk and Norfolk engaged Prinz Eugen. Holland hoped to meet the enemy at approximately 02,00, sunset in this latitude was at 01,51. The Germans would not expect an attack from this quarter, giving the British the advantage of surprise, the plans success depended on Suffolks continually unbroken contact with the German ships. However, Suffolk lost contact from 00,28, for 90 minutes, Holland neither sighted the German ships nor received any further news from Norfolk or Suffolk. Reluctantly, Holland ordered Hood and Prince of Wales to turn south-southwest, before contact was re-established, the two squadrons missed each other narrowly. Had the German ships not altered course to the west at 01,41 to follow the line of the Greenland icepack, the British destroyers were just 10 mi to the southeast when the Germans made this course change. If the visibility had not been reduced to 3–5 mi, the German vessels would probably have been spotted, just before 03,00, Suffolk regained contact with Bismarck. Hood and Prince of Wales were 35 mi away, slightly ahead of the Germans, Holland signaled to steer toward the Germans and increased speed to 28 kn. Suffolks loss of contact had placed the British at a disadvantage, instead of the swiftly closing head-on approach Holland had envisioned, he would have to converge at a wider angle, much more slowly
29.
Battlecruiser
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The battlecruiser, or battle cruiser, was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century. They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, however, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships. British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where their armour made them very vulnerable to large-caliber shells. Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, in the post–Cold War era, the Soviet Kirov class of large guided missile cruisers have also been termed battlecruisers. The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser. The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection. However, the results were satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship. As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, in the 1890s, technology began to change this balance. New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships. In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as allies in the event of war, started to build large. In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause difficulties for the British Empires worldwide trade. Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type and this building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction. The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, the cost of this cruiser arms race was significant. In the period 1889–96, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers, from 1897–1904, it spent £26.9 million. Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large, the increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely. The battleships main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size, however, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value. The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, however, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques. The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were likely to hit the enemy
30.
HMS Hood
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HMS Hood was the last battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy. Commissioned in 1920, she was named after the 18th-century Admiral Samuel Hood, one of four Admiral-class battlecruisers ordered in mid-1916, Hood had design limitations, though her design was revised after the Battle of Jutland and improved while she was under construction. For this reason she was the ship of her class to be completed. As one of the largest and most powerful warships in the world and she was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet following the outbreak of the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. When the Spanish Civil War broke out, Hood was officially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until she had to return to Britain in 1939 for an overhaul, by this time, advances in naval gunnery had reduced Hoods usefulness. She was scheduled to undergo a major rebuild in 1941 to correct these issues, after a brief overhaul of her propulsion system, she sailed as the flagship of Force H, and participated in the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir. Relieved as flagship of Force H, Hood was dispatched to Scapa Flow, on 24 May 1941, early in the Battle of the Denmark Strait, Hood was struck by several German shells, exploded and sank. Due to her perceived invincibility, the loss affected British morale, the Royal Navy conducted two inquiries into the reasons for the ships quick demise. The first, held soon after the loss, concluded that Hoods aft magazine had exploded after one of Bismarcks shells penetrated the ships armour. A second inquiry was held after complaints that the first board had failed to consider alternative explanations and it was more thorough than the first board and concurred with the first boards conclusion. Other historians have concentrated on the cause of the magazine explosion, the design was revised after the Battle of Jutland to incorporate heavier armour and all four ships were laid down. Hood was significantly larger than her predecessors of the Renown class, as completed, she had an overall length of 860 feet 7 inches, a maximum beam of 104 feet 2 inches, and a draught of 32 feet at deep load. This was 110 feet longer and 14 feet wider than the older ships and she displaced 42,670 long tons at load and 46,680 long tons at deep load, over 13,000 long tons more than the older ships. The ship had a double bottom. Hood had a height of 4.2 feet at deep load. The additional armour added during construction increased her draught by about 4 feet at deep load, at full speed, or in heavy seas, water would flow over the ships quarterdeck and often entered the messdecks and living quarters through ventilation shafts. This characteristic earned her the nickname of the largest submarine in the Navy, the persistent dampness, coupled with the ships poor ventilation, was blamed for the high incidence of tuberculosis aboard. The ships complement varied widely over her career, in 1919, she was authorised 1433 men as a flagship, in 1934
31.
HMS Prince of Wales (53)
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HMS Prince of Wales was a King George V-class battleship of the Royal Navy, built at the Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead, England. Prince of Wales had a battle history, first seeing action in August 1940 while still being outfitted in her drydock. The wreck lies upside down in 223 feet of water, near Kuantan, in the South China Sea. In the aftermath of the First World War, the Washington Naval Treaty was drawn up in 1922 in an effort to stop an arms race developing between Britain, Japan, France, Italy and the United States. This treaty limited the number of each nation was allowed to build. As a result, the Admiralty ordered the construction of a new battleship class, Prince of Wales was originally named King Edward VIII but upon the abdication of Edward VIII the ship was renamed even before she had been laid down. This occurred at Cammell Lairds shipyard in Birkenhead on 1 January 1937 and she was still fitting out when war was declared in September, causing her construction schedule, and that of her sister, King George V, to be accelerated. Nevertheless, the delivery of gun mountings caused delays in her outfitting. During early August 1940, while she was still being outfitted and was in a semi-complete state, one bomb fell between the ship and a wet basin wall, narrowly missing a 100-ton dockside crane, and exploded underwater below the bilge keel. The explosion took place about six feet from the port side in the vicinity of the after group of 5. 25-inch guns. The flooding was severe, due to the fact that final compartment air tests had not yet been made, the water was pumped out through the joint efforts of a local fire company and the shipyard, and Prince of Wales was later dry docked for permanent repairs. This damage and the problem with the delivery of her main guns, Prince of Wales displaced 36,727 long tons as built and 43,786 long tons fully loaded. The ship had a length of 745 feet, a beam of 103 feet. Her designed metacentric height was 6 feet 1 inch at normal load and 8 feet 1 inch at deep load and she was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving four propeller shafts. Steam was provided by eight Admiralty boilers which normally delivered 100,000 shaft horsepower and this gave Prince of Wales a top speed of 28 knots. The ship carried 3,542 long tons of fuel oil and she also carried 180 long tons of diesel oil,256 long tons of reserve feed water and 444 long tons of freshwater. Prince of Wales mounted 10 BL 14-inch Mk VII guns, the 14-inch guns were mounted in one Mark II twin turret forward and two Mark III quadruple turrets, one forward and one aft. The guns could be elevated 40 degrees and depressed 3 degrees, training arcs were, turret A,286 degrees, turret B,270 degrees, turret X,270 degrees
32.
Fairey Swordfish
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The Fairey Swordfish was a biplane torpedo bomber designed by the Fairey Aviation Company. It was initially operated primarily as an attack aircraft, during its later years. The type was in service throughout the entirety of the Second World War. By the end of the war, the Swordfish held the distinction of having caused the destruction of a tonnage of Axis shipping than any other Allied aircraft. The Swordfish remained in service until V-E Day, having outlived multiple aircraft that had been intended to replace it in service. Receiving the internal designation of T. S. R, I, standing for Torpedo-Spotter-Reconnaissance I, the proposed design adopted a biplane configuration and a single 645 hp Bristol Pegasus IIM radial engine as its powerplant. The company chose to pursue development of the project as a self-financed private venture while both customers and applicable requirements for the type were sought. I was in parallel to Faireys activities upon Air Ministry Specification S, Fairey promptly informed the Air Ministry of their work on the Greek order, whose interest had eventually waned, and proposed its solution to the requirements for a spotter-reconnaissance plane. In 1934, the Air Ministry issued the more advanced Specification S. 15/33, on 21 March 1933, the prototype T. S. R. I, F1875, conducted its maiden flight from Great West Aerodrome, Heathrow, on 11 September 1933, F1875 was lost during a series of spinning tests in which it became unable to recover, the pilot survived the incident. On 17 April 1934, the prototype T. S. R II, K4190, performed its maiden flight, following successful water-handling trials, K4190 conducted a series of aircraft catapult and recovery tests aboard the battlecruiser HMS Repulse. K4190 was later restored to its wheeled undercarriage prior to an evaluation process by the Aeroplane. All three pre-production aircraft were powered by the Pegasus IIIM3 engine, but adopted a three-bladed Fairey-Reed propeller in place of the two-bladed counterpart used on the earlier prototype, on 31 December 1935, the first pre-production Swordfish, K5660, made its maiden flight. In early 1936, a production contract for 68 Swordfish aircraft was received, designated at the Swordfish I. Manufactured at Faireys factory in Hayes, West London, the first production aircraft was completed in early 1936, less than a year later, the first Blackburn-built Swordfish conducted its first flight. During 1941, Blackburns Sherburn factory assumed primary responsibility for the fuselage, along with final assembly, like many other wartime aircraft, efforts were made to disperse production and to employ the use of shadow factories to minimise the damage caused by Luftwaffe bombing raids. Major sub-assemblies for the Swordfish were produced by a total of four based in neighbouring Leeds. The Swordfish II carried ASV Mk. II radar and featured metal undersurfaces to the wings to allow the carriage of 3 rockets
33.
Biplane
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A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, while a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural techniques, better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs, they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading, however, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above, the term is also occasionally used in biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals. In a biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other, either or both of the main wings can support ailerons, while flaps are more usually positioned on the lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of wires and/or slender interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage. The primary advantage of the biplane over the traditional single plane or monoplane is to combine great stiffness with light weight. A braced monoplane wing must support itself fully, while the two wings of a help to stiffen each other. The biplane is therefore inherently stiffer than the monoplane, also, the structural forces in the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore much lighter. A disadvantage of the biplane was the need for extra struts to space the wings apart, the low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation meant that aeroplanes could only fly slowly. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading, combining both large wing area with light weight. A biplane wing of a span and chord has twice the area of a monoplane the same size and so can fly more slowly. Alternatively, a wing of the same area as a monoplane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between the two planes and this means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, given the slow speed and low power of early aircraft, the drag penalty of the wires and struts and the mutual interference of airflows were relatively minor and acceptable factors. The smaller biplane wing also allows greater maneuverability, during World War One, this further enhanced the dominance of the biplane and, despite the need for speed, military aircraft were among the last to abandon the biplane form. Specialist sports Aerobatic biplanes are still occasionally made, biplanes were originally designed with the wings positioned directly one above the other
34.
Torpedo bomber
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A torpedo bomber is a military aircraft designed primarily to attack ships with aerial torpedoes. They were an important element in many famous Second World War battles, notably the British attack at Taranto, Torpedo bombers first appeared immediately prior to the First World War. Generally, they carried torpedoes specifically designed for air launch, which were smaller and lighter than those used by submarines and surface warships. Many early torpedo bombers were floatplanes, such as the Short 184, some postwar jet aircraft were adapted as torpedo bombers in the late 1940s and 1950s. The last known torpedo bomber attack was made by US Navy Skyraiders against the Hwacheon Dam during the Korean War, the North Korean Air Force finally retired the worlds last operational torpedo bombers in the 1980s. Many naval staffs began to appreciate the possibility of using aircraft to launch torpedoes against moored ships in the period before the First World War, captain Alessandro Guidoni, an Italian naval captain, experimented with dropping weights from Farman MF.7 in 1912. Fiske of the United States Navy took out a patent in 1912 for a torpedo carrying aircraft entitled Method of and he suggested that aircraft would attack at night. Winston Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty from October 1911 to May 1915, was a proponent of naval air power. He established the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1912 and took flying lessons to foster aviation development, Churchill ordered the RNAS to design reconnaissance spotters and torpedo bombers for the Fleet. The British Admiralty ordered the Short Admiralty Type 81 biplane floatplane as a reconnaissance aircraft and it first flew in July 1913 and was loaded aboard the cruiser HMS Hermes, which had been converted to become the Royal Navys first seaplane tender. On 28 July 1914, Arthur Longmore dropped the first aerial torpedo, the support wires of the floats were moved to allow the torpedo to be carried above the water and a specially designed quick-release mechanism was used. The first plane designed from the outset as a bomber was the five-seat floatplane biplane AD Seaplane Type 1000 or AD1. However, it proved to be a failure, when the prototype built by J. Samuel White from the Isle of Wight first flew in June 1916, it was found to be too heavy and its float struts too weak for operations. On 12 August 1915, a Royal Naval Air Service Short 184 floatplane torpedo bomber sank a Turkish merchantman in the Sea of Marmara and it was operating from HMS Ben-my-Chree, a seaplane carrier converted from a ferry. Fitted with a hangar, Ben-my-Chree was used to carry up to six biplanes with their wings folded back to reduce carrying space. This was the first ship sunk by air-launched torpedo, five days later, another ship supplying Turkish forces in the Gallipoli campaign against British, Australian and New Zealand troops was also sunk. Production of the Short 184 continued until after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and it served in eight navies, including the Imperial Japanese Navy, which built them under licence. The first torpedo bomber designed for operation from aircraft carriers was the Sopwith Cuckoo, the Admiralty planned to use five carriers and 100-120 Cuckoos to attack the German High Seas Fleet, which had been sheltering in Kiel since the Battle of Jutland in 1916
35.
HMS Ark Royal (91)
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HMS Ark Royal was an aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy that served during the Second World War. Designed in 1934 to fit the restrictions of the Washington Naval Treaty, Ark Royal was built by Cammell Laird and Company Ltd. at Birkenhead, England and her design differed from previous aircraft carriers. Ark Royal was the first ship on which the hangars and flight deck were a part of the hull. Designed to carry a number of aircraft, she had two hangar deck levels. She served during a period that first saw the use of naval air power. Ark Royal served in some of the most active theatres of the Second World War. She was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, operations off Norway, the search for the German battleship Bismarck, Ark Royal survived several near misses and gained a reputation as a lucky ship. The Germans incorrectly reported her as sunk on multiple occasions and she was torpedoed on 13 November 1941 by the German submarine U-81 and sank the following day, one of her 1,488 crew members was killed. Her sinking was the subject of inquiries, investigators were keen to know how the carrier was lost, in spite of efforts to save the ship. They found that several design flaws contributed to the loss, which were rectified in new British carriers, in 1923, the Admiralty prepared a 10-year building programme which included an aircraft carrier and 300 aircraft for the Fleet Air Arm. The economic downturn following the First World War caused it to be postponed, in 1930, the Director of Naval Construction, Sir Arthur Johns, began to update the plans for the carrier by incorporating recently developed technology. The hangar decks were placed inside the hull, thus benefiting from the protection of the 4. 5-inch belt armour, three lifts moved aircraft between the hangars and the flight deck. Another feature was the length and height of the flight deck, at 800 feet, the flight deck was 118 feet longer than the keel, the latter dictated by the length of Royal Navy drydocks in Gibraltar and Malta. As hangar decks were within the hull, the flight deck rose to 66 feet above the waterline. The Washington and London Naval treaties had restricted warship tonnage for a number of nations after the end of the war and were both soon to expire by the end of 1936. Installation of a flight deck was not possible, as the weight would have placed Ark Royal above the proposed limit, while reducing her endurance. The ship was fitted with six boilers, which powered three Parsons geared turbines, the turbines were connected via three driveshafts to three propellers 16 feet in diameter, to produce a maximum theoretical speed of 30 knots. Speed was important, as with catapults and arrestor gear, Ark Royal would have to turn into the wind to launch and recover aircraft
36.
Last battle of the battleship Bismarck
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The last battle of the German battleship Bismarck took place in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 300 nmi west of Brest, France, on 26–27 May 1941. Although it was an action between capital ships, it has no generally accepted name. On 24 May, before the action, Bismarcks fuel tanks were damaged and several machinery compartments. Her intention was to reach the port of Brest for repair, late in the day Bismarck briefly turned on her pursuers to cover the escape of her companion, the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to continue further into the Atlantic. Early on 25 May the British forces lost contact with Bismarck and she was rediscovered in the late morning of 26 May by a Catalina flying boat from No.209 Squadron RAF and subsequently shadowed by aircraft from Force H steaming north from Gibraltar. The final action consisted of four main phases, the second phase was the shadowing and harassment of Bismarck during the night of 26/27 May by British destroyers, with no serious damage to any ship. The third phase on the morning of 27 May was an attack by the British battleships King George V, after about 100 minutes of fighting, Bismarck was sunk by the combined effects of shellfire, torpedo hits and deliberate scuttling. On the British side, Rodney was lightly damaged by near-misses, British warships rescued 111 survivors from Bismarck before being obliged to withdraw because of an apparent U-boat sighting, leaving several hundred men to their fate. Bismarcks second sea battle was made unavoidable by the decisions of the Fleet Commander, taken well before the encounter with Hood, the decrease in speed made Force H’s airborne torpedo attacks inevitable, and those attacks led directly to the final encounter with the Home Fleet. Determined to avenge the sinking of the Pride of the Navy HMS Hood in the Battle of the Denmark Strait, Prince of Wales and the cruisers Norfolk and Suffolk were still at sea in the area and tailing the German ships. A British force, the battleship King George V, the carrier Victorious, the battleship Rodney was detached from escort duties on 24 May. One hit was scored, but caused only superficial damage to Bismarcks armoured belt, for some time, Bismarck remained under long-distance observation by the British. Contact was lost for four hours, however, perhaps in awe of British radar capabilities, however, a plotting error made onboard King George V, now in pursuit of the Germans, incorrectly calculated Bismarcks position and caused the chase to veer too far to the north. Bismarck was therefore able to make good time on 25/26 May in her unhindered passage towards France, by now, however, fuel was becoming a major concern to both sides. The British had a stroke of luck on 26 May, Smith, USNR, spotted Bismarck and reported her position to the Admiralty. All British hopes were now pinned on Force H, whose units were the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, the battlecruiser HMS Renown. This battle group, commanded by Admiral James Somerville, had been diverted north from Gibraltar, at dusk that evening, and in atrocious weather conditions, Swordfish from Ark Royal launched an attack. The first wave mistakenly targeted Sheffield which had detached from Force H under orders to close
37.
Scuttling
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Scuttling is the deliberate sinking of a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull. This can be achieved in several ways—valves or hatches can be opened to the sea and their success would have halted his inland march and conquest of the Aztec Empire. HMS Sapphire was a 32-gun, fifth-rate sailing frigate of the Royal Navy in Newfoundland Colony to protect the English migratory fishery, the vessel was trapped in Bay Bulls harbour by four French naval vessels led by Jacques-François de Brouillan. To avoid capture, the English scuttled the vessel on 11 September 1696, the British sank one ship on October 10,1781 to prevent it from getting captured by the French fleet. During the Belgian war of independence, Dutch gunboat commander Jan van Speijk came under attack from a mob of Antwerp labourers. When they forced him and his crew to surrender, he ignited a barrel of gunpowder, thus sinking his ship and killing himself, according to tradition, in his last words he said hed rather be blown up than become a Belgian. Van Speijk went on to become a hero in The Netherlands. After the war, it became a challenge to recover the ships. In 1861, the Federal steam frigate Merrimack was set afire in Gosport Shipyard to keep her from falling into Confederate hands, the unsuccessful attempt at scuttling enabled the Confederate Navy to raise and rebuild her as Virginia. Virginia was later sunk by the Confederates after her famous battle with USS Monitor to keep her from being taken back. During the War of the Pacific, as Chilean troops entered Lima and El Callao, in August 1914, SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was requisitioned by the Kaiserliche Marine and converted into an auxiliary cruiser, assigned to commerce raiding in the Atlantic. She was fitted with six 10.5 cm guns and two 37 mm guns, after sparing two passenger ships because they were carrying many women and children, she sank two freighters before she herself was sunk on 26 August 1914. She was caught refuelling off the shore of the then Spanish colony of Río de Oro in western Africa by the old British 6-inch gunned cruiser HMS Highflyer, badly outgunned, the ship eventually ran out of ammunition. The crew abandoned and scuttled her, British sources at the time insisted that Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse sank because of the damage inflicted by Highflyer. In December 1914, SMS Dresden was the only German warship to escape destruction in the Battle of the Falkland Islands and she eluded her British pursuers for several more months, until she put into Más a Tierra in March 1915. Her engines were out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers. There, she was trapped by British cruisers, which violated Chilean neutrality, dresdens Executive Officer - the future Admiral Wilhelm Canaris - negotiated with the British and bought time for his shipmates to scuttle Dresden. Thetis, Intrepid and Iphigenia were filled with concrete then sent to block a critical canal, heavy defensive fire caused the Thetis to scuttle prematurely, the other two cruisers sank themselves successfully in the narrowest part of the canal
38.
Robert Ballard
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He is most known for the discoveries of the wrecks of the RMS Titanic in 1985, the battleship Bismarck in 1989, and the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown in 1998. He discovered the wreck of John F. Kennedys PT-109 in 2002 and visited Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana and he leads ocean exploration on E/V Nautilus. Ballard grew up in Pacific Beach, San Diego, California to a mother of German heritage, at North American, he worked on North Americans failed proposal to build the submersible Alvin for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. In 1965, Ballard graduated from the University of California, Santa Barbara, earning degrees in chemistry. While a student in Santa Barbara, California, he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity and his first graduate degree was in geophysics from the University of Hawaiis Institute of Geophysics where he trained porpoises and whales. Subsequently, he returned to Andreas Rechnitzers Ocean Systems Group at North American Aviation, Ballard was working towards a Ph. D. in marine geology at the University of Southern California in 1967 when he was called to active duty. Upon his request, he was transferred from the Army into the US Navy as an oceanographer, the Navy assigned him as a liaison between the Office of Naval Research and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Four years later he received a Ph. D. in marine geology, Ballards first dive in a submersible was in the Ben Franklin in 1969 off the coast of Florida during a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution expedition. In summer 1970, he began a field mapping project of the Gulf of Maine for his doctoral dissertation. It used an air gun that sent sound waves underwater to determine the structure of the ocean floor and the submersible Alvin. A1979 expedition was aided by deep-towed still camera sleds that were able to take pictures of the ocean floor, when Alvin inspected one of the sites they located, the scientists observed black smoke billowing out of the vents, something not observed at the Galápagos Rift. Ballard and geophysicist Jean Francheteau went down in Alvin the day after the black smokers were first observed and they were able to take an accurate temperature reading of the active vent, and recorded 350 °C. They continued searching for more vents along the East Pacific Rise between 1980 and 1982, Ballard joined the United States Army in 1965 through the Armys Reserve Officers Training program. He was designated as an officer and initially received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Army Reserve. When called to duty in 1967, he asked to fulfill his obligation in the United States Navy. His request was approved, and he was transferred to the Navy Reserve on the active duty list. He retired from the Navy as a commander in 1995 after reaching the statutory service limit, while Ballard had been interested in the sea since an early age, his work at Woods Hole and his scuba diving experiences off Massachusetts spurred his interest in shipwrecks and their exploration. As early as 1973, he saw this as way of searching for the wreck of the Titanic, in 1977, he led his first expedition, which was unsuccessful
39.
Pre-dreadnought battleship
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Pre-dreadnought battleships were sea-going battleships built between the mid- to late 1880s and 1905, before the launch of HMS Dreadnought. Pre-dreadnoughts replaced the ironclad battleships of the 1870s and 1880s and they were powered by coal-fuelled triple-expansion steam engines. The similarity in appearance of battleships in the 1890s was underlined by the number of ships being built. The decisive clash of pre-dreadnought fleets was between the Imperial Russian Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 and these battleships were abruptly made obsolete by the arrival of HMS Dreadnought in 1906. Dreadnought followed the trend in design to heavier, longer-ranged guns by adopting an all-big-gun armament scheme of ten 12-inch guns. Her innovative steam turbine engines also made her faster, the pre-dreadnought developed from the ironclad battleship. The first ironclads — the French Gloire and HMS Warrior — looked much like sailing frigates, only eight years later HMVS Cerberus, the first breastwork monitor, was launched. Only three years later followed HMS Devastation, a turreted ironclad which more resembled a pre-dreadnought than previous, each ship lacked masts and carried four heavy guns in two turrets fore and aft. Navies worldwide continued to build masted, turretless battleships which had sufficient freeboard and were enough to fight on the high seas. The distinction between battleship and cruising battleship became blurred with the Admiral class, ordered in 1880. These ships reflected developments in design, being protected by iron-and-steel compound armour rather than wrought iron. Equipped with breech-loading guns of between 12-inch and 16 ¼-inch calibre, the Admirals continued the trend of ironclad warships towards gigantic weapons, the guns were mounted in open barbettes to save weight. Some historians see these ships as a step towards pre-dreadnoughts, others view them as a confused. The subsequent Royal Sovereign class of 1889 retained barbettes but were armed with 13. 5-inch guns. Just as importantly, the Royal Sovereigns had a higher freeboard, the pre-dreadnought design reached maturity in 1895 with the Majestic class. These ships were built and armoured entirely of steel, and their guns were mounted in fully enclosed barbettes and they also adopted a 12-inch main gun, which, due to advances in casting and propellant, was lighter and more powerful than the previous guns of larger calibre. The Majestics provided the model for building in the Royal Navy. Pre-dreadnoughts carried guns of different calibres, for different roles in ship-to-ship combat
40.
SMS Hannover
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SMS Hannover was the second of five Deutschland-class pre-dreadnoughts of the German Imperial Navy. Hannover and the three subsequently constructed ships differed slightly in design and construction from the lead ship Deutschland in their propulsion systems and slightly thicker armor. The ship was named after the Prussian province of Hannover, now in Lower Saxony, Hannover and her sisters saw extensive service with the fleet. The ship took part in all major training maneuvers until World War I broke out in July 1914, Hannover and her sisters were immediately pressed into guard duties in the mouth of the Elbe River while the rest of the fleet mobilized. The ship took part in a number of advances, which culminated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May –1 June 1916. During the battle, Hannover served as the flagship for the IV Division of the II Battle Squadron, after Jutland, Hannover and her three surviving sisters were removed from active duty with the fleet to serve as guard ships. In 1917, Hannover was briefly used as a ship before being returned to guard duties in the Baltic Sea. The ship was decommissioned in December 1918, shortly after the end of the war, Hannover was brought back to active service in the Reichsmarine, the post-war Germany navy. She served with the fleet for ten years, from 1921 to 1931, the navy planned to convert the ship into a radio-controlled target ship for aircraft, but this was never carried out. The ship was broken up for scrap between 1944 and 1946 in Bremerhaven. Her bell is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden, Hannover was intended to fight in the German battle line with the other battleships of the High Seas Fleet. The ship was laid down on 7 November 1904 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven and she was launched on 29 May 1905 and commissioned for trials on 1 October 1907, but the fleet exercises in the Skagerrak in November interrupted the trials. Trials resumed after the maneuvers were completed, and by 13 February 1908 Hannover was ready to join the active fleet and she was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet, joining her sisters Deutschland and Pommern. However, the new British battleship HMS Dreadnought—armed with ten 12-inch guns—was commissioned in December 1906, Dreadnoughts revolutionary design rendered obsolete every ship of the German navy, including the brand-new Hannover. Hannover was 127.60 m long, had a beam of 22.20 m, and she had a full-load displacement of 14,218 metric tons. The ship was equipped with triple expansion engines that produced a rated 17,524 indicated horsepower, at a cruising speed of 10 knots, she could steam for 4,520 nautical miles. The ships primary armament consisted of four 28 cm SK L/40 guns in two twin turrets and she was also equipped with fourteen 17 cm guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8.8 cm guns in pivot mounts. The ship was armed with six 45 cm torpedo tubes
41.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
42.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
43.
Fitting-out
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Fitting-out, or outfitting”, is the process in shipbuilding that follows the float-out of a vessel and precedes sea trials. It is the period all the remaining construction of the ship is completed and readied for delivery to her owners. Since most of the process is interior work, this stage can overlap with latter stages. After a vessel has been floated or launched, it is towed out of its drydock. While still afloat, its construction is then continued, depending on the type of vessel, fitting-out can last weeks or many months. Vessels with comparatively little space for human occupation, such as oil tankers, bulk carriers and container ships, conversely, passenger ships take the longest. Whatever construction is completed during fitting is also dependent on the shipyard’s capabilities, for example, Queen Mary 2 was originally to have its propeller pods installed prior to floating, but this was not done until the fitting-out stage. Contemporary ship construction usually has the vessel returning to several times for installation of propulsion mechanisms
44.
Stem (ship)
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The stem is the most forward part of a boat or ships bow and is an extension of the keel itself. It is often found on boats or ships, but not exclusively. The stem is the curved edge stretching from the keel below and it is part of the physical structure of a wooden boat or ship that gives it strength at the critical section of the structure, bringing together the port and starboard side planks of the hull. There are two styles of stems, plumb and raked, when the stem comes up from the water, if it is perpendicular to the waterline it is plumb. If it is inclined at an angle to the waterline it is raked, because the stem is very sturdy, the top end of it may have something attached, either ornamental or functional in nature. On smaller vessels, this might be a wood carving or cleat. On large wooden ships, figureheads can be attached to the end of the stem. Beakhead Bow Deadwood Prow V-hull Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
45.
Scharnhorst-class battleship
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The Scharnhorst class were the first capital ships, alternatively referred to as battlecruisers or battleships, built for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine after World War I. The class comprised two vessels, the lead ship Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and they marked the beginning of German naval rearmament after the Treaty of Versailles. The ships were armed with nine 28 cm SK C/34 guns in three turrets, though there were plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm SK C/34 guns in twin turrets. The two ships were laid down in 1935, launched in late 1936, and commissioned into the German fleet by early 1939, Scharnhorst and Gneisenau operated together for much of the early portion of World War II, including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping. The two ships participated in Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Norway, during operations off Norway, the two ships engaged the battlecruiser HMS Renown and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious on 8 June 1940. In the engagement with Glorious, Scharnhorst achieved one of the naval gunfire hits in history. In early 1942, the two made a daylight dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany. In late 1942, Gneisenau was heavily damaged in an Allied air raid against Kiel, in early 1943, Scharnhorst joined the Bismarck-class Tirpitz in Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. Scharnhorst and several destroyers sortied from Norway to attack a convoy, during the battle of North Cape, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Duke of York sank Scharnhorst. In the meantime, repair work on Gneisenau had begun, however, when Scharnhorst was sunk, work on her sister was abandoned. Instead, she was sunk as a blockship in Gotenhafen in 1945 and they were the first class of German ships to be officially classified by the Kriegsmarine as Schlachtschiff. Previous German battleships were classified as Linienschiffe, and Panzerschiffe and their adversary, the Royal Navy, rated them as battlecruisers though after the war classified them as battleships. Janes Fighting Ships 1940 lists both the Scharnhorst and Bismarck classes as Battleships Another adversary, the United States Navy, rated them as battleships, in English language reference works they are sometimes referred to as battleships and sometimes as battlecruisers. The Treaty of Versailles, which established the terms concluding World War I, the first design, completed in 1928, called for a 17,500 long tons battlecruiser armed with eight 30.5 cm guns in four twin gun turrets. In 1933, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, he made clear to the command that he had no intention of building a large fleet to challenge British supremacy at sea. He was primarily concerned with the possibility of a war with France. To this end, he authorized two more ships—the D class—to augment the three Deutschland-class Panzerschiffe and these ships would displace 19,000 tons and have the same armament and speed as the Panzerschiffe, the extra tonnage would be taken up by increased protection. Hitler wanted to follow this course so he would not be seen as overtly flouting the Treaty of Versailles, to combat the German Panzerschiffe, the French built two small Dunkerque-class battleships in the early 1930s
46.
Sea trial
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A sea trial is the testing phase of a watercraft. It is also referred to as a cruise by many naval personnel. It is usually the last phase of construction and takes place on open water, sea trials are conducted to measure a vessel’s performance and general seaworthiness. Testing of a speed, maneuverability, equipment and safety features are usually conducted. Usually in attendance are technical representatives from the builder, governing and certification officials, successful sea trials subsequently lead to a vessel’s certification for commissioning and acceptance by its owner. Although sea trials are commonly thought to be conducted only on new-built vessels, in new vessels, they are used to determine conformance to construction specifications. On commissioned vessels, they are used to confirm the impact of any modifications. Sea trials can also refer to a short test trip undertaken by a buyer of a new or used vessel as one determining factor in whether to purchase the vessel. Sea trials are fairly standardized using technical bulletins published by ITTC, SNAME, BMT and they involve demonstrations and tests of the ships systems and performance. The ships heading is adjusted to have the wind and tide as close to bow-on as possible, the vessel is allowed to come to speed and the speed is continuously recorded using differential GPS. The trial will be executed with different speeds including service and maximum speed, the ship is then turned through 180° and the procedure is followed again. This reduces the impact of wind and tide, the final Trials Speed is determined by averaging all of the measured speeds during each of the runs. This process may be repeated in various sea states, the trial begins once the order to Execute Crash Stop is given. At this point the propulsion machinery is set to full-astern and the helm is put hard-over to either port or starboard, the speed, position and heading are continuously recorded using differential GPS. The final time to stop track line, drift and advance are all calculated, the trial may be repeated at various starting speeds. The fuel flow, exhaust and cooling temperatures and ships speed are all recorded. Maneuvering trials involve a number of trials to determine the maneuverability and these include a direct and reverse spiral manoeuvres, zig-zag, and lateral thruster use. Seakeeping trials were used exclusively for passenger ships but now used in a variety of vessels, involves measurements of ship motions in various sea states followed by a series of analyses to determine comfort levels, likelihood of sea sickness and hull damage
47.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
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