1.
Queen consort of Hungary
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This is a list of the queens consorts of Hungary, the consorts of the kings of Hungary. After the extinction of the dynasty and later the Angevin dynasty. After 1526, the title of Queen of Hungary belonged to the wife of the Habsburg Emperors who were also King of Hungary, Queens of Hungary also held the titles after 1526, Holy Roman Empress and Queen consort of Bohemia. Since Leopold I, all kings of Hungary used the title of Apostolic King of Hungary – the title given to Saint Stephen I by the Pope –, the title lasted just a little over nine centuries, from 1000 to 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary also had two queens regnant who were crowned as kings, Maria I and Maria II Theresa, Charles Martel and Klementia were never the proper King and Queen. Charles Martel also died in his parents lifetime, ulászló I had no children and did not get married. He was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447 after a three-year interregnum, in Hungary, he was succeeded by his former rival, the child Ladislaus the Posthumous. Ladislaus the Posthumous died suddenly in Prague on 23 November 1457 while preparing for his marriage to Magdalena of Valois and he and Magdalena, therefore, never married. List of Austrian consorts List of Bohemian consorts List of Transylvanian consorts
2.
Andrew II of Hungary
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Andrew II, also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and he was the younger son of Béla III of Hungary, who entrusted him with the administration of the newly conquered Principality of Halych in 1188. Andrews rule was unpopular, and the boyars expelled him, Béla III willed property and money to Andrew, obliging him to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. Instead, Andrew forced his brother, King Emeric of Hungary. The following year, Andrew occupied Hum, despite the fact that Andrew did not stop conspiring against Emeric, the dying king made Andrew guardian of his son, Ladislaus III, in 1204. After the premature death of Ladislaus, Andrew ascended the throne in 1205, Andrew introduced a new grants policy, the so-called new institutions, giving away money and royal estates to his partisans despite the loss of royal revenues. He was the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of King of Halych and he waged at least a dozen wars to seize the two Rus principalities, but the local boyars and neighboring princes prevented him from conquering the principalities. He participated in the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218, when the servientes regis, or royal servants, rose up, Andrew was forced to issue the Golden Bull of 1222, confirming their privileges. This led to the rise of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary and his Diploma Andreanum of 1224 listed the liberties of the Transylvanian Saxon community. The employment of Jews and Muslims to administer the royal revenues led him into conflict with the Holy See, Andrew pledged to respect the privileges of the clergymen and to dismiss his non-Christian officials in 1233, but he never fulfilled the latter promise. Andrews first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was murdered in 1213, because her blatant favoritism towards her German kinsmen, the veneration of their daughter, Elizabeth of Hungary, was confirmed by the Holy See during Andrews lifetime. After Andrews death, his sons, Béla and Coloman, accused his wife, Beatrice dEste, of adultery and never considered her son, Stephen. Andrew was the son of King Béla III and Bélas first wife. The year of Andrews birth is not known, but modern historians agree that he was born around 1177, Andrew was first mentioned in connection to his fathers invasion of the Principality of Halych in 1188. That year, Béla III invaded Halych upon the request of its prince, Vladimir II Yaroslavich. Béla forced the new prince, Roman Mstislavich, to flee, after conquering Halych, he granted it to Andrew. Béla also captured Vladimir Yaroslavich and imprisoned him in Hungary, after Bélas withdrawal from Halych, Roman Mstislavich returned with the assistance of Rurik Rostislavich, Prince of Belgorod Kievsky. They tried to expel Andrew and his Hungarian retinue, but the Hungarians routed the forces of Mstislavich and Rostislavich
3.
Elisabeth of Hungary
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Francis, by which she is honored as its patroness. Elizabeth was married at the age of 14, and widowed at 20, after her husbands death she sent her children away and regained her dowry, using the money to build a hospital where she herself served the sick. She became a symbol of Christian charity after her death at the age of 24 and was quickly canonized, Elizabeth was the daughter of King Andrew II of Hungary and Gertrude of Merania. Her mothers sister was St. Hedwig of Andechs, wife of Duke Heinrich I of Silesia and her ancestry included many notable figures of European royalty, going back as far as Vladimir the Great of Kievan Rus. According to tradition, she was born in Kingdom of Hungary, possibly in the castle of Sárospatak, on 7 July 1207. A sermon printed in 1497 by the Franciscan friar Osvaldus de Lasco, the veracity of this account is not without reproach, Osvaldus also transforms the miracle of the roses to Elizabeths childhood in Sárospatak, and has her leave Hungary at the age of five. According to a different tradition she was born in Pozsony, Kingdom of Hungary and she was raised by the Thuringian court, so she would be familiar with the local language and culture. In 1221, at the age of fourteen, Elizabeth married Louis, the year he was enthroned as Landgrave. After her marriage, she continued her charitable practices, which included spinning wool for the clothing of the poor, in 1223, Franciscan friars arrived, and the teenage Elizabeth not only learned about the ideals of Francis of Assisi, but started to live them. It was also about time that the priest and later inquisitor Konrad von Marburg gained considerable influence over Elizabeth when he was appointed as her confessor. Elizabeth assumed control of affairs at home and distributed alms in all parts of their territory, even giving away state robes, below Wartburg Castle, she built a hospital with twenty-eight beds and visited the inmates daily to attend to them. Elizabeths life changed irrevocably on 11 September 1227 when Louis, en route to join the Sixth Crusade, died of a fever in Otranto, on hearing the news of her husbands death, Elizabeth is reported to have said, He is dead. It is to me as if the world died today. His remains were returned to Elizabeth in 1228 and entombed at the Abbey of Reinhardsbrunn, after Louis death, his brother, Henry Raspe, assumed the regency during the minority of Elizabeths eldest child, Hermann. About 1888 various investigators asserted that Elizabeth left the Wartburg voluntarily and she was not able at the castle to follow Konrads command to eat only food obtained in a way that was certainly right and proper. Following her husbands death, Elizabeth made solemn vows to Konrad similar to those of a nun and these vows included celibacy, as well as complete obedience to Konrad as her confessor and spiritual director. Konrads treatment of Elizabeth was extremely harsh, and he held her to standards of behavior which were almost impossible to meet, among the punishments he is alleged to have ordered were physical beatings, he also ordered her to send away her three children. Her pledge to celibacy proved a hindrance to her familys political ambitions, Elizabeth was more or less held hostage at Pottenstein, the castle of her uncle, Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg, in an effort to force her to remarry
4.
Coloman of Lodomeria
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Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeria was a member of the Árpád dynasty. He was Prince of Halych and he became the first anointed and crowned King of Galicia–Volhynia, during the second half of his life, he was Duke of Slavonia. Coloman was the son of King Andrew II of Hungary and his queen. In 1214, his father had a meeting with Grand Duke Leszek I of Poland and they agreed that Coloman would marry Leszeks daughter, Salomea, and their allied armies invaded and occupied the neighboring country and thus Coloman became Prince of Halych. Upon Colomans fathers request, Pope Innocent III authorized Archbishop John of Esztergom to anoint the young Coloman king, nevertheless, he was crowned king by the Archbishop John with the permission of Pope Innocent. In 1216, his father and father-in-law made a new agreement, their troops occupied Halych, the country was, in practise, probably governed by regents appointed by his father. On 14 August 1219, his troops were defeated by Prince Mstislav and Coloman, Coloman returned to Hungary, styled king until his death. In the first half of 1226, his father entrusted him with the government of Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia, provinces governed since 1220 by his elder brother, Béla. Coloman cooperated with his brother who had been endeavouring to take back the royal domains their father had granted to his followers, in his province, Coloman confiscated some possessions his father had granted to the Knights Templar. In 1231, Coloman granted privileges to Vukovar, Coloman, similarly to his brother, opposed his fathers third marriage with Beatrice dEste and following the death of King Andrew II they accused their young stepmother of adultery. Pope Gregory IX persuaded him to pursue the heretics in his provinces and in the adjacent territories, therefore he invaded and occupied Bosnia and Zachlumia and he supported the establishment of the Diocese of Bosnia and he granted Đakovo to its bishop. When he was informed that the Mongols invaded the kingdom, he joined to his brothers troops, however, their troops were defeated at the Battle of Mohi. Coloman suffered serious wounds and died of his injuries a few weeks after the battle, kristó, Gyula, Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon - 9-14. Század, Akadémiai Kiadó,1994, Budapest, ISBN 963-05-6722-9
5.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
6.
House of Andechs
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The House of Andechs was a feudal line of German princes in 12th and 13th century. One Count Rasso is documented in Dießen, who fought against the invading Magyars in the early 10th century. By their ancestor Count Palatine Berthold of Reisensburg, a grandson of the Bavarian duke Arnulf the Bad, Berthold appears a fierce enemy of King Otto I of Germany and was blamed as a traitor at the 955 Battle of Lechfeld against the Hungarians. He probably married a daughter of Duke Frederick I of Upper Lorraine, his descendant Count Berthold II and he served as vogt of Benediktbeuern Abbey and by marriage with Sophie, daughter of Margrave Poppo II, came into property of lands in the March of Istria and Carniola. In the year 1180, the County of Andechs acquired the town of Innsbruck, Otto II of Andechs was bishop of Bamberg in 1177–1196. In 1208, when Philip of Swabia, King of the Germans, was assassinated at Bamberg by Otto VIII of Wittelsbach, saint Hedwig of Andechs was one of eight children born to Berthold IV, Duke of Merania, Count of Dießen-Andechs and Margrave of Istria. Of her four brothers, two bishops, Ekbert of Bamberg, and Berthold, Patriarch of Aquileia. Otto succeeded his father as Duke of Dalmatia, and Henry became Margrave of Istria, a history of the House of Andechs was written by the statesman and historian Joseph Hormayr, Baron zu Hortenburg, and published in 1796
7.
Berthold, Duke of Merania
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Berthold IV, a member of the House of Andechs, was Margrave of Istria and Carniola. About 1180/82 he already bore the title of a Duke of Merania, that is, Berthold was the son of Count Berthold III of Andechs and his wife Hedwig of Wittelsbach. His father had been a loyal liensman of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, young Berthold IV first appeared in 1170 and was mentioned as Count of Andechs in a 1172 deed. In 1175 he served as co-ruler in the March of Istria, after Emperor Frederick deposed Duke Henry the Lion in 1180, his mothers relative Otto of Wittelsbach received the Duchy of Bavaria, while Berthold was received the Duchy of Merania. In 1186, he accompanied Emperor Fredericks son Henry VI to Italy, in 1189, he led the third division of the imperial army and was its standard-bearer on the Third Crusade. In 1195, he appeared as Vogt of Tegernsee Abbey in Bavaria, Berthold committed himself to join the Crusade of 1197, however, he did not participate until Henrys death in the same year. Though he had opposed the emperors Erbreichsplan, he backed the claims of Henrys younger brother Philip of Swabia against the politics of Pope Innocent III who supported Philips Welf rival Otto IV. At this juncture, the House of Andechs was at the height of its power and influence, Berthold died in 1204 and was buried at the Andechs private monastery in Dießen, Bavaria. About 1180, Berthold married Agnes of Rochlitz, a daughter of Margrave Dedi III of Lusatia from the Saxon House of Wettin, while passing through Serbia on the Third Crusade, Frederick Barbarossa met the Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš on 27 July 1189. There it was negotiated that a daughter of Berthold would marry Tohu and this marriage does not seem to have taken place and the Historia de Expeditione Friderici Imperatoris does not name the daughter. Scholars are divided whether it was one of Bertholds known daughters or else a fifth daughter not otherwise recorded
8.
Agnes of Rochlitz
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Agnes of Rochlitz came from the Wettin family and was daughter of Dedi III, Margrave of Lusatia and his wife, Matilda of Heinsburg. She is also known as Agnes of Wettin, Agnes married Berthold IV, Duke of Merania. From this marriage Agnes gained the titles of Duchess of Merania, in 1186, Agnes husband accompanied Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, to the Kingdom of Sicily. In 1189, he led the division of the imperial army and was its standard-bearer on the Third Crusade. Gertrude became Queen of Hungary, but was murdered because she gave Hungarian lands to her relatives, hedwig was eventually canonized in 1267. Agnes is a descendent of several women with the same name, one of them was Agnes of Germany, who married Frederick I, Duke of Swabia. Their daughter was Bertha of Swabia, Agnes of Germany was a daughter of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor and his first wife Bertha of Savoy. Henrys parents were Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor and Agnes of Poitou, Agnes of Poitou was a daughter of William V, Duke of Aquitaine and his third wife Agnes of Burgundy
9.
List of Hungarian consorts
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This is a list of the queens consorts of Hungary, the consorts of the kings of Hungary. After the extinction of the dynasty and later the Angevin dynasty. After 1526, the title of Queen of Hungary belonged to the wife of the Habsburg Emperors who were also King of Hungary, Queens of Hungary also held the titles after 1526, Holy Roman Empress and Queen consort of Bohemia. Since Leopold I, all kings of Hungary used the title of Apostolic King of Hungary – the title given to Saint Stephen I by the Pope –, the title lasted just a little over nine centuries, from 1000 to 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary also had two queens regnant who were crowned as kings, Maria I and Maria II Theresa, Charles Martel and Klementia were never the proper King and Queen. Charles Martel also died in his parents lifetime, ulászló I had no children and did not get married. He was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447 after a three-year interregnum, in Hungary, he was succeeded by his former rival, the child Ladislaus the Posthumous. Ladislaus the Posthumous died suddenly in Prague on 23 November 1457 while preparing for his marriage to Magdalena of Valois and he and Magdalena, therefore, never married. List of Austrian consorts List of Bohemian consorts List of Transylvanian consorts
10.
Regent
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A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency, a regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title, if the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a Regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. In a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons and this was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic Primate who served as the regent, in the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent, or Capitani Reggenti, are elected semi-annually as joint heads of state and of government. Famous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to terms such as Regency era. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, as of 1 December 2016, Liechtenstein is the only country with an active regency. The term regent may refer to lower than the ruler of a country. The term may be used in the governance of organisations, typically as an equivalent of director, some university managers in North America are called regents and a management board for a college or university may be titled the Board of Regents. The term regent is used for members of governing bodies of institutions such as the national banks of France. This type of group portrait was popular in Dutch Golden Age painting during the 17th century, in the Dutch East Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized state as a regentschap. Consequently, in the state of Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati. Again in Belgium and France, Regent is the title of a teacher in a lower secondary school. In the Philippines, specifically, the University of Santo Tomas, the Father Regent and they also form the Council of Regents that serves as the highest administrative council of the university. In the Society of Jesus, a regent is a training to be a Jesuit. A regent in the Jesuits is often assigned to teach in a school or some other academic institution as part of the formation toward final vows, list of regents Viceroy, an individual who, in a colony or province, exercised the power of a monarch on his behalf
11.
Duchy of Bavaria
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The Duchy of Bavaria was, from the sixth through the eighth century, a frontier region in the southeastern part of the Merovingian kingdom and was ruled by dukes under Frankish lordship. In the late ninth century a new duchy was created from this area and it was one of the stem duchies of the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. Between 1070 and 1180 the Emperor was opposed by Bavaria, especially by the House of Welf, in the final conflict between the Duke Henry the Lion and the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I, Frederick I triumphed and deprived Henry of his fiefs. Bavaria then passed over to the House of Wittelsbach, which held it until 1918, the origins of the older Bavarian duchy can be traced to the year 551/555. In his Getica, the chronicler Jordanes writes, That area of the Swabians has the Bavarii in the east, until the end of the first duchy, all rulers descended from the family of the Agilolfings. The first documented duke was Garibald I, a scion of the Frankish Agilolfings, at around 743, the Bavarian duke Odilo vassalised the Slavic princes of Carantania, who had asked him for protection against the invading Avars. The residence of the largely independent Agilolfing dukes was then Regensburg, in the adjacent Alamannic lands west of the Lech river, Augsburg was a bishops seat. When Boniface established the Diocese of Passau in 739, he could build on local Early Christian traditions. In the south, Saint Rupert had founded in 696 the Diocese of Salzburg, probably after he had baptized Duke Theodo of Bavaria at his court in Regensburg, becoming the Apostle of Bavaria. In 798 Pope Leo III created the Bavarian ecclesiastical province with Salzburg as metropolitan seat and Regensburg, Passau, Freising, in the west, the Carolingian mayor of the palace Carloman had suppressed the last Alamannic revolt at the 746 Blood court at Cannstatt. The last tribal stem duchy to be incorporated was Bavaria in 788, the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne entailed the fall of Tassilo, who was deposed in 788. Bavaria was then administrated by Frankish prefects, from 825 Louis the German styled himself King of Bavaria in the territory that was to become the centre of his power. Carlomans natural son Arnulf of Carinthia, raised in the former Carantanian lands, secured possession of the March of Carinthia upon his fathers death in 880, Carinthia and Bavaria were the bases of his power, with Regensburg as the seat of his government. Due mainly to the support of the Bavarians, Arnulf could take the field against Charles in 887, in 899 Bavaria passed to Louis the Child, during whose reign continuous Hungarian ravages occurred. During the reign of Louis the Child, Luitpold, Count of Scheyern, the German king Conrad I unsuccessfully attacked Arnulf when the latter refused to acknowledge his royal supremacy. The Carolingian reign in East Francia ended in 911 when Arnulfs son, King Louis the Child, the discontinuation of the central authority led to a new strengthening of the German stem duchies. At the same time, East Francia was exposed to the threat from Hungarian invasions. In 907 the army of Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria suffered a defeat at the Battle of Pressburg
12.
Duchy of Merania
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The Duchy of Merania was a fiefdom of the Holy Roman Empire from 1152 until 1248. The name Merania comes from the Slavic word for sea, morje, the exact territorial extent of Merania is unknown. It probably included coast of the Kvarner Gulf, either on the Istrian peninsula or across from it, the actual duchy contained at most only a small part of the region of Dalmatia, which had historically belonged to Croatia. By the twelfth century, Croatia was in a union with Hungary. This territory came under control during the reign of Henry IV. Despite this inconsistency in the chronicle, several historians, led by Ljudmil Hauptmann, have connected this Dalmatian borderland with the later duchy of Merania. It is not clear to what extent the Meranian dukes of the Dachau or Andechs lines ever managed to exert their control over the region, there are older theories proposing a different etymology of Merania. Erwin Herrmann argues that Merania was actually in northern Italy, around the town of Marano Lagunare, likewise, Merania is sometimes mistakenly identified with Meran, a town in the Tyrol, because the Andechser dukes held land in the Tyrol. August Dimitz, while correcting the Tyrolean error, equates Merania with the march of Istria, Merania thus bordered the Kingdom of Croatia, which belonged to Hungary. This was done despite the fact that the Diet had refused to approve Fredericks proposed invasion of Hungary and it was also part of a reorganisation of the southeastern frontier that included the creation of the Duchy of Austria in 1156. He proposed that Willibirg was heir to Adelaide, who was heir to her brother Ulrich II, thus, the creation of Conrads duchies was a partial vindication of his claims on Carniola and had a hereditary basis. This theory had not found acceptance, since several duchies were created in Germany in the twelfth century with no cleary hereditary basis. These new ducal titles created in the century were often based on insignificant or diminished territories. Merania was small, with little in the way of rights or income for its holder, in 1180, Frederick Barbarossa transferred Merania to Berthold, the son of the count of Andechs. This was probably done in order to maintain a balance of power, although some sources ascribe the transfer of Merania to Conrads death and propose that Berthold was his heir through his mother, in fact Conrad II did not die until 1182. The transfer of 1180 was part of a reorganization of the frontier by the emperor. Berthold inherited the marches of Istria and Carniola from his father in 1188, although the Andechsers primary lands lay elsewhere in the Empire, their southeastern connection involved them in its foreign affairs. Although Berthold consented, the marriage never took place
13.
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor
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Frederick I, also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and he became King of Italy in 1155 and was crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155. Two years later, the term sacrum first appeared in a document in connection with his Empire and he was later formally crowned King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178. He was named Barbarossa by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule, Barbarossa means red beard in Italian, in German, he was known as Kaiser Rotbart, before his imperial election, Frederick was by inheritance Duke of Swabia. He was the son of Duke Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, Frederick therefore descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him an acceptable choice for the Empires prince-electors. Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empires greatest medieval emperors, in 1147 he became Duke of the southern German region of Swabia, and shortly afterwards made his first trip to the East, accompanied by his uncle, the German king Conrad III, on the Second Crusade. The expedition proved to be a disaster, but Frederick distinguished himself, when Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at his deathbed. Frederick energetically pursued the crown and at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 the kingdoms princely electors designated him as the next German king and he was crowned King of the Romans at Aachen several days later, on 9 March 1152. Fredericks father was from the Hohenstaufen family, and his mother was from the Welf family, the Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, the family seat in Swabia, the Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs. The reigns of Henry IV and Henry V left the status of the German empire in disarray, for a quarter of a century following the death of Henry V in 1125, the German monarchy was largely a nominal title with no real power. The king was chosen by the princes, was given no resources outside those of his own duchy, the royal title was furthermore passed from one family to another to preclude the development of any dynastic interest in the German crown. When Frederick I of Hohenstaufen was chosen as king in 1152, royal power had been in abeyance for over twenty-five years. The only real claim to lay in the rich cities of northern Italy. The Salian line had died out with the death of Henry V in 1125, one of the Hohenstaufens gained the throne as Conrad III of Germany. When Frederick Barbarossa succeeded his uncle in 1152, there seemed to be excellent prospects for ending the feud, the Welf duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, would not be appeased, however, remaining an implacable enemy of the Hohenstaufen monarchy. Barbarossa had the duchies of Swabia and Franconia, the force of his own personality, the Germany that Frederick tried to unite was a patchwork of more than 1600 individual states, each with its own prince. A few of these, such as Bavaria and Saxony, were large, many were too small to pinpoint on a map. The titles afforded to the German king were Caesar, Augustus, by the time Frederick would assume these, they were little more than propaganda slogans with little other meaning
14.
House of Wettin
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The House of Wettin is a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors and kings that once ruled territories in the present-day German states of Saxony and Thuringia. The dynasty is one of the oldest in Europe, and its origins can be traced back to the town of Wettin, the Wettins gradually rose to power within the Holy Roman Empire. Members of the family became the rulers of medieval states. Other states they gained were Meissen in 1089, Thuringia in 1263, the family divided into two ruling branches in 1485 by the Treaty of Leipzig, the Ernestine and Albertine branches. The older Ernestine branch played a key role during the Protestant Reformation, many ruling monarchs outside Germany were later tied to its cadet branch, the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The Albertine branch, while less prominent, ruled most of Saxony, agnates of the House of Wettin have, at various times, ascended the thrones of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium. Only the British and Belgian lines retain their thrones today, the oldest member of the House of Wettin who is known for certain is Theodoric I of Wettin, also known as Dietrich, Thiedericus, and Thierry I of Liesgau. He was most probably based in the Liesgau, around 1000, the family acquired Wettin Castle, which was originally built by the local Slavic tribes, after which they named themselves. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin in the Hassegau on the Saale River, around 1030, the Wettin family received the Eastern March as a fief. The prominence of the Wettins in the Slavic Saxon Eastern March caused Emperor Henry IV to invest them with the March of Meissen as a fief in 1089. The family split into two ruling branches in 1485 when the sons of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony divided the territories hitherto ruled jointly, as Albert ruled under the title of Duke of Saxony, his possessions were also known as Ducal Saxony. The older Ernestine branch remained predominant until 1547 and played an important role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation, Frederick III appointed Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon to the University of Wittenberg, which he had established in 1502. The Ernestine predominance ended in the Schmalkaldic War, which pitted the Protestant Schmalkaldic League against the Emperor Charles V, although itself Lutheran, the Albertine branch rallied to the Emperors cause. Charles V had promised Moritz the rights to the electorship, after the Battle of Mühlberg, Johann Friedrich der Großmütige, had to cede territory and the electorship to his cousin Moritz. Although imprisoned, Johann Friedrich was able to plan a new university and it was established by his three sons on 19 March 1548 as the Höhere Landesschule at Jena. On 15 August 1557, Emperor Ferdinand I awarded it the status of university, the Ernestine line was thereafter restricted to Thuringia and its dynastic unity swiftly crumbled, dividing into a number of smaller states, the Ernestine duchies. In the 18th century, Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, established what was to become known as Weimar Classicism at his court in Weimar, notably by bringing Johann Wolfgang von Goethe there. The Ernestine Wettins, on the hand, repeatedly subdivided their territory
15.
Agnes of Merania
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Agnes Maria of Andechs-Merania was a Queen of France. She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers, Agnes Maria was the daughter of Berthold, Duke of Merania, who was Count of Andechs, a castle and territory near Ammersee, Bavaria. Her mother was Agnes of Rochlitz, in June 1196 Agnes married Philip II of France, who had repudiated his second wife Ingeborg of Denmark in 1193. Pope Innocent III espoused the cause of Ingeborg, but Philip did not submit until 1200, Agnes died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of Poissy, and was buried in the Convent of St Corentin, near Nantes. Agnes and Philip had two children, Philip I, Count of Boulogne and Mary, were legitimized by the Pope in 1201 at the request of the King, little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip. She has been made the heroine of a tragedy by François Ponsard, Agnès de Méranie and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Agnes of Meran. Endnotes, See The notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp II, a genealogical notice is furnished by the Chronicon of the monk Alberic of Fontaines, in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii. Pp.872 f. and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p.229, media related to Agnes of Merania at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Philip II of France
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Philip II, known as Philip Augustus, was King of France from 1180 to 1223, a member of the House of Capet. Philips predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks, but from 1190 onward, Philip became the first French monarch to style himself king of France. The son of King Louis VII and his wife, Adèle of Champagne, he was originally nicknamed Dieudonné God-given because he was the first son of Louis VII. Philip was given the nickname Augustus by the chronicler Rigord for having extended the Crown lands of France so remarkably, the military actions surrounding the Albigensian Crusade helped prepare the expansion of France southward. Philip did not participate directly in these actions, but he allowed his vassals, Philip transformed France from a small feudal state into the most prosperous and powerful country in Europe. He checked the power of the nobles and helped the towns to free themselves from seigniorial authority and he built a great wall around Paris, re-organized the French government and brought financial stability to his country. Philip was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165 and he spent much of the following night attempting to find his way out, but to no avail. Exhausted by cold, hunger and fatigue, he was discovered by a peasant carrying a charcoal burner. His father went on pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket to pray for Philips recovery and was told that his son had indeed recovered, however, on his way back to Paris, he suffered a stroke. In declining health, Louis VII had his 14-year-old son crowned and anointed as king at Rheims on 1 November 1179 by the Archbishop Guillaume aux Blanches Mains. He was married on 28 April 1180 to Isabelle of Hainaut, the daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut, and Margaret I, Countess of Flanders, who brought the County of Artois as her dowry. From the time of his coronation, all power was transferred to Philip. Eventually, Louis died on 18 September 1180, while the royal demesne had increased under Philip I and Louis VI, it had diminished slightly under Louis VII. In April 1182, partially to enrich the French crown, Philip expelled all Jews from the demesne, Philips eldest son Louis was born on 5 September 1187 and inherited the County of Artois in 1190, when his mother Isabelle died. The main source of funding for Philips army was from the royal demesne, in times of conflict, he could immediately call up 250 knights,250 horse sergeants,100 mounted crossbowmen,133 crossbowmen on foot,2,000 foot sergeants, and 300 mercenaries. Towards the end of his reign, the king could muster some 3,000 knights,9,000 sergeants,6,000 urban militiamen, using his increased revenues, Philip was the first Capetian king to build a French navy actively. By 1215, his fleet could carry a total of 7,000 men, within two years, his fleet included 10 large ships and many smaller ones. In 1181, Philip began a war with Philip, Count of Flanders, over the Vermandois, which King Philip claimed as his wifes dowry, finally the Count of Flanders invaded France, ravaging the whole district between the Somme and the Oise before penetrating as far as Dammartin
17.
Hedwig of Silesia
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She was reported in the two-volume historical atlas of Herman Kinder and another author to have been great in war and defended from the Teutonic Knights. She was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1267, the daughter of Count Berthold IV of Andechs and his second wife Agnes of Wettin, she was born at Andechs Castle in the Duchy of Bavaria. Hedwigs brother was Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg, Count of Andechs-Meranien, another brother was Berthold, Archbishop of Kalocsa und Patriarch of Aquileia. Through her sister Gertrude, she was the aunt of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, at the age of twelve, Hedwig married Henry I the Bearded, son and heir of the Piast duke Boleslaus the Tall of Silesia. In 1229 he was captured and arrested at Płock Castle by rivaling Duke Konrad I of Masovia, Hedwig proceeded to Płock pleading for Henry and was able to have him released. In 1238, upon his death, Henry was buried at a Cistercian monastery of nuns, Trzebnica Abbey, Hedwig accepted the death of her beloved husband with faith. She said, The widow moved into the monastery, which was led by her sister Gertrude, assuming the religious habit of a lay sister, but she did not take vows. Hedwig and Henry had several daughters, though one surviving son, Henry II the Pious. The widow however had to witness the killing of her son, vainly awaiting the support of Emperor Frederick II, the hopes for a re-united Poland were lost and even Silesia fragmented into numerous Piast duchies under Henry IIs sons. Hedwig and her daughter-in-law, Henry IIs widow Anna of Bohemia, established a Benedictine abbey at the site of the battle in Legnickie Pole, Hedwig and Henry had lived very pious lives, and Hedwig had great zeal for religion. She had supported her husband in donating the Augustinian provostry at Nowogród Bobrzański, Hedwig always helped the poor, the widows and the orphans, founded several hospitals for the sick and the lepers, and donated all her fortune to the Church. She allowed no one to leave her uncomforted, and one time she spent ten weeks teaching the Our Father to a poor woman. Hedwig was canonized in 1267 by Pope Clement IV, a supporter of the Cistercian order and she is the patron saint of Silesia, of Andechs, and of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Görlitz. Her feast day is celebrated on the General Roman Calendar on 16 October. A 17th-century legend has it that Hedwig, while on a pilgrimage to Rome, stopped at Bad Zell in Austria, Hedwig glasses are named after Hedwig of Andechs. Hedwig and Henry I had seven children, Agnes, media related to Hedwig of Andechs at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Silesian Piasts
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The Silesian Piasts were the elder of four lines of the Polish Piast dynasty beginning with Władysław II the Exile, eldest son of Duke Bolesław III of Poland. By Bolesławs testament, Władysław was granted Silesia as his hereditary province, the history of the Silesian Piasts began with the feudal fragmentation of Poland in 1138 following the death of the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth. Władysław soon entered into conflicts with his brothers and the Polish nobility. When in 1146 he attempted to control of the whole of Poland, he was excomunicated by Archbishop Jakub ze Żnina of Gniezno. He was received by King Conrad III of Germany, his brother-in-law by Władysławs consort Agnes of Babenberg, Silesia and the Seniorate Province came under the control of second-born Bolesław IV the Curly, Duke of Masovia. In the same year King Conrad III attempted to power for Władysław. He died in 1159 without returning to Poland, the Duchy of Silesia remained within the Polish seniorate constitution, but Władysławs sons were obliged to pay a yearly tribute to the Holy Roman Emperor. Mieszko Tanglefoot the smaller Duchy of Racibórz around Racibórz and Cieszyn and their minor brother Konrad Spindleshanks received Żagań, Głogów and Krosno from the hands of Bolesław the Tall. In the same year, Poland abolished the seniorate and the Silesian duchies became independent entities, Henry I the Bearded actively took part in the inner-Polish conflicts and expanded his dominion with determination. Henry, before securing in 1229 the sovereignty in Kraków, had no less persevering efforts to bring Greater Poland also under his dominion. From the beginning of the century he had not ceased to intervene in the disputes which were carried on between the descendants of Mieszko the Old. At last in 1234, a half of that province was formally ceded to him. As a guardian of minor dukes, Henry moreover ruled over Opole and this Silesian prince not only intended to enlarge his possessions, he proposed to make them the nucleus of a restored Kingdom of Poland. He became duke of Kraków in 1232, which gave him the title of the Senior Duke of Poland, Henry expanded his realm also outside Poland ruling over Barnim, Teltow as well as parts of Lower Lusatia. Unfortunately, despite his efforts, he never gained the Polish crown, the royal crown, almost forgotten since the fall of Bolesław II, was destined by him for his eldest son, whom he associated in his rule towards the end of his life. This Henry II the Pious, who succeeded his father in 1238, was, in fact, pursuing the very able policy of Henry the Bearded, his son was moreover able to obtain the support of the clergy, with whom his father had had frequent disagreements. Following an old tradition of his dynasty, he placed himself under the protection of the Holy See, in 1241, he died as a Christian hero in the Battle of Legnica, in which he was attempting to arrest the Mongolian invasion. His death left the Silesian Piast dynasty deeply shaken, after Henrys death in 1241 his brother Bolesław II ruled on behalf of his underage brothers
19.
Henry I the Bearded
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Henry was the fourth son of Duke Bolesław I the Tall of Silesia, by his second wife Christina, probably a German. He was born in Głogów, Lower Silesia, Henrys three older brothers Boleslaw, Conrad and John died. His older half-brother Jarosław of Opole became a priest, possibly because of the scheming of Henrys mother Christina, Henry became Bolesławs sole heir in 1190. Through his marriage with Hedwig of Andechs, Henry was connected to the rulers of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Henrys father, Bolesław I, died 8 December 1201. Early in 1202 Henrys uncle, Duke Mieszko IV Tanglefoot of Upper Silesia, attacked and took the Duchy of Opole, Mieszko wanted more than Opole, but was opposed by Archbishop of Gniezno, Henry Kietlicz and the Bishop of Wrocław, Cyprian. They supported Henry because he paid them 1,000 pieces of silver, when the Holy Roman Empire was in the middle of the struggles between the Staufer and the Welfs, at first, Henry wasnt directly involved in this fight. After 1207, Henry betrothed his daughter Gertrude to the Bavarian Pfalzgraf Otto VII of Wittelsbach and his wife Agnes, of the ducal House of Andechs, were strong supporters of the Staufer. Henry remained neutral, and refused to part in the conflict between the Holy Roman Empire, the Staufer and the Welfs. Otto VII murdered the German Hohenstaufer King Philip of Swabia and was executed in 1209, in 1202 the Polish High Duke Mieszko III the Old died. He was from the Greater Polish branch of the royal Piast dynasty, two opposing groups emerged, 1) Mieszko IV Tanglefoot, and Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks of Greater Poland, and 2) Dukes Leszek the White of Sandomierz, Konrad I of Masovia, and Władysław Odonic. Władysław III Spindleshanks had assumed the throne at Kraków, but was deposed in 1206, Leszek became High Duke and Duke of Kraków. The loss of the Seniorate Province caused Władysław III to change his alliance and he proposed to Henry an exchange of territories, the Silesian Lubusz Land for the Greater Poland Kalisz region. Henry accepted the offer, but the exchange resulted in political confusion, Władysław Odonic had been expecting to inherit Lubusz and Greater Poland from his uncle Władysław III. Odonic counted on the support of the church, headed by Archbishop Henry Kietlicz of Gniezno, Władysław III had his two opponents, Odonic and the archbishop, exiled. Henry was now in a difficult situation and he owed a debt of gratitude to the archbishop, who helped him at the beginning of his reign, but he decided to support Władysław III. He gave the newly acquired Kalisz to Odonic, except for Poznań, in 1208, the relationship was mended during a meeting in Głogów. In 1210 Pope Innocent III excommunicated High Duke Leszek, Mieszko IV Tanglefoot quickly conquered Kraków and took the title of High Duke. The excommunication bull was issued at the request of an anonymous Duke of Silesia, the situation became quite confused and no one was sure who held the real power
20.
List of Polish monarchs
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This list concerns the historical monarchs of Poland, from the Middle Ages to 1795. For presidents and other heads of state of Poland during the 20th and 21st centuries, Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes or by kings. During the latter period, a tradition of election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe. The birth of Poland as an independent nation coincides with the ascension of Duke Mieszko I and he was succeeded by his son, Bolesław I the Brave, who greatly expanded the boundaries of the Polish state and ruled as the first king in 1025. The following centuries gave rise to the mighty Piast dynasty, consisting of kings such as Mieszko II Lambert, Przemysł II or Władysław I the Elbow-high and dukes like Bolesław III Wrymouth. The dynasty ceased to exist with the death of Casimir III the Great in 1370, in the same year, the Capetian House of Anjou became the ruling house with Louis I as king of both Poland and Hungary. During the reign of Casimir IV Jagiellon and Sigismund I the Old culture flourished and this era of progress, also known as the Polish Renaissance, continued until the Union of Lublin under Sigismund II Augustus, which unofficially marked the end of the Polish Golden Age. The meaningful rule of the Vasa dynasty initially expanded the Commonwealth, developing the arts and crafts, as well as trade and commerce. King Sigismund III Vasa, a talented but somewhat despotic ruler, involved the country in many wars and his son, Władysław IV Vasa, fiercely defended the Commonwealths borders and continued the policy of his father until death, unlike John II Casimir whose tragic rule forced his abdication. The election of John III Sobieski to the Polish throne was a great success and his brilliant military tactics led to the victory at Vienna in 1683 and partial recapture of land from the Ottoman Empire. However, the years that followed werent as successful, the long and ineffective rule of the Wettin dynasty placed the Commonwealth under the influence of Saxony, additional feud with rebelled nobility and most notably Stanisław I Leszczyński and France diminished the influence of Poland-Lithuania in the region. This led to the partitions that occurred under King Stanisław II Augustus, yet another enlightened, the last sovereign was Frederick Augustus I as Duke of Warsaw, who throughout his political career attempted at rehabilitating the Polish state. After Poland declared independence in 1918, the monarchy was abolished, uwagi o godłach napieczętnych Piastów Histmag. org June 14,2009 Duczmal M. Jagiellonowie. Dybkowska A. Żaryn J. Żaryn M. Polskie dzieje, od czasów najdawniejszych po współczesność, wyd. Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności, Kraków 2001, ISBN 83-85719-56-3 Grodziski S. Polska w czasach przełomu, Kraków 2001. ISBN 83-85719-45-8 Grodziski S. Porównawcza historia ustrojów państwowych, Kraków 1998, ISBN 83-7052-840-6 Grzybowski S. Dzieje Polski i Litwy, Kraków 2000. ISBN 83-85719-48-2 Morby J. E. Dynastie świata, przewodnik chronologiczny i genealogiczny, Kraków 1995, s. ISBN 83-7006-263-6 Wyrozumski J. Dzieje Polski piastowskiej, Kraków 1999, henryk Brodaty i jego czasy, wyd
21.
Otto I, Duke of Merania
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Otto I, a member of the House of Andechs, was Duke of Merania from 1204 until his death. He was also Count of Burgundy from 1208 to 1231, by his marriage to Countess Beatrice II and he was born about 1180 the eldest son of Duke Berthold of Merania and his wife Agnes of Rochlitz. On the death of his father in 1204, he succeeded him as Duke of Merania, while the titles in Istria. On 21 June 1208, Otto married Beatrice II, Countess of Burgundy of House Hohenstaufen, at the wedding ceremony in Bamberg, the Hohenstaufen king Philip of Swabia was murdered, whereafter Otto approached his Welf rival Otto IV. However, the position of the Andechs dynasty was significantly weakened, ottos brother Henry II was accused of having been involved in Philips assassination and his estates were seized by Duke Ludwig I of Bavaria. In 1213 Otto had joined the Babenberg duke Leopold VI of Austria, in 1222, he became embroiled in a dispute with Gerard I de Rougemont, the Archbishop of Besançon over the building of a castle where Otto I of Burgundy had vowed would never be built. When Otto II of Burgundy refused to destroy the castle or explain his actions at the court, he was excommunicated. He immediately turned to his brother Ekbert, Bishop of Bamberg for help in Bamberg, there on 20 October 1223, he issued five charters in which he made lavish donations for the sake of his soul. In 1228 he inherited the Marches of Istria and Carniola, which his brother Henry II had regained shortly before, on Beatrices death in 1231, he ceased to be Count and was succeeded by his son as Otto III. On his own death in 1234, he was succeeded by his son as Otto II. With his death, the House of Andechs became extinct in the male line
22.
Philip of Swabia
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Philip of Swabia was a prince of the House of Hohenstaufen and King of Germany from 1198 to 1208. In the long-time struggle for the German throne upon the death of Emperor Henry VI between the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties, he was the first German king to be assassinated. Philips great uncle Conrad III was the first scion of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty to be elected King of the Romans in 1138, the newborn was probably named after Fredericks valued ally and confidant Archbishop Philip of Cologne. In 1190 or 1191 Philip was elected Prince-bishop of Würzburg, though without being consecrated and his brother Henry had expanded the Hohenstaufen domains by marrying Queen Constance of Sicily in 1186, suspiciously eyed by the Roman Curia. In his retinue in Italy was the Minnesinger Bernger von Horheim, on 26 December 1194, Queen Constance finally gave birth to a son, the later Emperor Frederick II. To secure his succession, his father Henry had the two-year-old elected King of the Romans before he prepared for the Crusade of 1197, in early 1195, Philip was made Duke of Tuscany and received the disputed Matildine lands. His rule there earned him the enmity of Pope Celestine III, in 1196 his brother Conrad died and he succeeded him as Duke of Swabia. His marriage to Irene took place in 1197 near Augsburg, Philip enjoyed his brothers confidence to a very great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian of Henrys minor son Frederick II, in case of his fathers early death. In September 1197 he had set out to fetch Frederick from Apulia for his coronation as German king, while staying in Montefiascone, he heard of the emperors sudden death in Messina and returned at once to Germany. He appears to have desired to protect the interests of his nephew and to quell the disorder which arose on Henrys death, but was overtaken by events. The hostility to the kingship of a child was growing, nevertheless, he knew that he had to settle the conflict with Otto and his supporters. A first attempt to mediate by the Mainz archbishop Conrad of Wittelsbach in 1199 was rejected by the Welf, both sides strived for the coronation as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III. The pope himself acted tactically, trying to wrest the affirmation of the sovereignty of his Papal States, the pope began to work energetically in favour of Otto, who beforehand had solemnly renounced any intentions to affiliate the Sicilian kingdom with the Holy Roman Empire. The festival was rendered in a poem by Walther von der Vogelweide in order to spread the reputation of King Philip as a capable ruler. Again in Magdeburg Cathedral, Philip celebrated the elevation of Saint Cunigunde of Luxembourg on 9 September 1201, also in 1201, Philip was visited by his cousin Boniface of Montferrat, the leader of the Fourth Crusade. Although Bonifaces exact reasons for meeting with Philip are unknown, while at Philips court he also met Alexius Angelus, the two succeeding years were still more unfavourable to Philip. The Přemyslid ruler Ottokar I, though he had received the hereditary Bohemian regality, another former ally, Landgrave Hermann of Thuringia, drove him from northern Germany, thus compelling him to seek by abject concessions, but without success, reconciliation with Innocent. Philip was soon joined by Archbishop Adolph of Cologne, though against the will of the Cologne citizens, by Duke Henry of Brabant and even by Ottos brother Count Palatine Henry V
23.
Emeric, King of Hungary
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Emeric, also known as Henry or Imre, was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1196 and 1204. In 1184, his father, Béla III of Hungary, ordered that he be crowned king, Emeric ascended the throne after the death of his father. During the first four years of his reign, he fought his rebellious brother, Andrew, Emeric cooperated with the Holy See against the Bosnian Patarenes, whom the Catholic Church considered to be heretics. Taking advantage of a war, Emeric expanded his suzerainty over Serbia. He failed to prevent the Republic of Venice, which was assisted by crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and he also could not impede the rise of Bulgaria along the southern frontiers of his kingdom. Emeric was the first Hungarian monarch to use the Árpád stripes as his coat of arms. Before his death, Emeric had his son, Ladislaus III. Emeric was the eldest child of Béla III of Hungary and Bélas first wife and his tutor was an Italian priest, Bernard. Nicholas, Archbishop of Esztergom, crowned the eight-year-old Emeric king on 16 May 1182, Emeric was betrothed to a daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, but she died in 1184. Béla III appointed Emeric to administer Croatia and Dalmatia around 1195, Emeric succeeded his father, who died on 23 April 1196. Béla III had bequeathed estates and money to Emerics younger brother, Andrew, instead, Andrew turned against Emeric, demanding a separate duchy for himself in 1197. Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, intervened on behalf of Andrew, in early 1198, Emeric was forced to make Andrew Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage. Andrew continued to conspire against Emeric, although Pope Innocent III continued urging Andrew to launch a crusade, on 10 March 1199, Emeric forced Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, who was a supporter of Andrew, to give him documents that proved the conspiracy against him. In the summer of year, Emeric defeated Andrews army near Lake Balaton. A papal legate named Gregory arrived in Hungary to mediate a reconciliation between the two brothers, according to the brothers treaty, Emeric once again granted Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew in the summer of 1200. From around 1200, Emeric was deeply involved in the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula, on 11 October 1200, Pope Innocent urged him to take measures to liquidate the heretics in Bosnia. Upon Emerics request, the Pope refused to send a royal crown to Grand Prince Stephen of Serbia, Emeric invaded Serbia in 1201 or 1202, and helped Stephens brother Vukan seize the throne. As a token of his suzerainty over Serbia, Emeric became the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of King of Serbia in 1202
24.
Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Otto IV was one of two rival kings of Germany from 1198 on, sole king from 1208 on, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1209 until he was forced to abdicate in 1215. The only German king of the Welf dynasty, he incurred the wrath of Pope Innocent III and was excommunicated in 1210, Otto was the third son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Matilda of England. His exact birthplace is not given by any original source and he grew up in England in the care of his grandfather King Henry II. Otto was fluent in French as well as German and he became the foster son of his maternal uncle, Richard I of England. In 1190, after he left England to join the Third Crusade, the authenticity of this grant was doubted by the vassals of Yorkshire, who prevented Otto taking possession of his earldom. Still, he probably visited Yorkshire in 1191, and he continued to claim the revenues of the earldom after becoming king of Germany, neither did he succeed in getting the 25,000 silver marks willed to him by his uncle in 1199. In 1195, Richard began negotiations to marry Otto to Margaret, daughter, lothian, as Margarets dowry, would be handed over to Richard for safekeeping and the counties of Northumberland and Cumberland would be granted to Otto and turned over to the king of Scotland. The negotiations dragged on until August 1198, when the birth of a son to William rendered them unnecessary. Having failed in his efforts to secure Otto an English earldom or else a Scottish kingdom, in September 1196 Richard, as duke of Aquitaine, there is some disagreement over whether Otto received Poitou in exchange for or in addition to the earldom of York. Otto was in Poitou from September 1196 until mid-1197, when he joined Richard in Normandy to confer over the appointment of bishops to the vacant sees of Poitiers, Limoges and he then participated in the war against Philip II of France on the side of Richard. In October he returned to Poitou, the German historian Jens Ahlers, taking into account Ottos life prior to 1198, considers that he might have been the first foreign king of Germany. Those princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty also decided, on the initiative of Richard of England, Ottos elder brother, Henry, was on a crusade at the time, and so the choice fell to Otto. Otto, soon recognized throughout the northwest and the lower Rhine region, was elected king by his partisans in Cologne on June 9,1198. Otto took control of Aachen, the place of coronation, and was crowned by Adolf, Archbishop of Cologne and this was of great symbolic importance, since the Archbishop of Cologne alone could crown the King of the Romans. Nevertheless, the coronation was done with fake regalia, because the materials were in the hands of the Staufen. Ottos election pulled the empire into the conflict between England and France, Philip had allied himself with the French king, Philip II, while Otto was supported at first by Richard I, and after his death in 1199 by his brother John. The papacy meanwhile, under Innocent III, determined to prevent the unification of Sicily. Therefore, Innocent III favoured Otto, whose family had always opposed to the house of Hohenstaufen
25.
Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria
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Ivan Asen II in English sometimes known as John Asen II, ruled as Emperor of Bulgaria from 1218 to 1241, during the Second Bulgarian Empire. He was a son of Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria and Elena, Ivan Asen IIs father was one of the two founders of the Asen dynasty and the Second Bulgarian Empire. Under Ivan Asen IIs rule, the empire would become the dominant force in the Balkans for about a decade, after the death of his uncle Kaloyan in 1207, Ivan Asens cousin, Boril, usurped the throne and forced him to flee to the Rus principality of Galicia-Volhynia. With its support Ivan Asen returned to Bulgaria in 1218 to successfully overthrow his cousin, having established himself on the throne, Ivan Asen II set about recovering the losses sustained by Bulgaria during the reign of Boril. Ivan Asen II also made an alliance with Theodore Komnenos Doukas of Epirus to his south, although the latter had expanded his control over various Bulgarian-inhabited territories, the alliance was cemented with the marriage of Ivan Asen IIs daughter to Theodores brother Manuel. After the death of the Latin Emperor Robert of Courtenay in 1228, fearing Ivan Asen IIs intervention in the Latin Empire, Theodore diverted his army, including many western mercenaries, northwards into Bulgaria in 1230. According to tradition, Ivan Asen II had the text of the treaty carried like a standard on a spear. This victory allowed Ivan Asen II to sweep into Theodores lands and to conquer the Epirote possessions from the Black Sea and Adrianople in the east to the Adriatic and Durazzo in the west. Further south Epirus proper and the region of Thessalonica were left to Ivan Asen IIs son-in-law Manuel, who governed from Thessalonica with the title of despot. The success of Ivan Asen II was due as much to his defeat of Theodores army as to his humane treatment of the prisoners of war. This restraint made it possible to obtain the submission of most of Theodores fortresses. But this optimism was rather hasty, by 1231 the Latin regency had finalized negotiations with John of Brienne, the former king of Jerusalem, who was invited to step in as the guardian and co-emperor of Baldwin II at Constantinople. This action led to the breach of the alliance between Bulgaria and the Latin Empire and the creation of an alliance with the Empire of Nicaea. In 1234 a Bulgarian-aided coup détat in Serbia toppled Stefan Radoslav, a son-in-law of Theodore of Epirus, and replaced him with his brother Stefan Vladislav I, a son-in-law of Ivan Asen II. This has been seen as the extension of Bulgarian influence over Serbia, the two governments cooperated with each other, but Stefan Vladislav did not long survive his father-in-laws death, being overthrown by his younger brother Stefan Uroš I in 1242. In 1235 uncle of the Serbian king, the Archbishop of Serbia Saint Sava died in Tarnovo, the alliance between Bulgaria and Nicaea, directed against the Latin Empire, provoked reprisals by the papacy and the kingdom of Hungary. In 1232 the Hungarians seized the Belgrade area and attacked Sredec, in 1233, under the leadership of the future king Béla IV, the Hungarians invaded again, this time seizing Little or Western Wallachia and setting up the banate of Severin. It is unclear how long the Hungarians were able to hold on to their conquests, both the Belgrade region and the banate of Severin were reconquered by Hungary in 1246
26.
Louis IV of Thuringia
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Louis IV the Saint, a member of the Ludovingian dynasty, was Landgrave of Thuringia and Saxon Count palatine from 1217 until his death. He was the husband of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, Louis was born at Creuzburg Castle, the second son of Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia, from his marriage with Sophia, a daughter of the Wittelsbach duke Otto I of Bavaria. The young girl arrived in Thuringia in 1211 to be raised at the Ludovingian court, then a venue for poets, Louis elder brother died in 1216, therefore he himself, upon his fathers death on 25 April 1217, ascended the Thuringian throne at the age of sixteen. In 1218, on the Feast of St. Kilian, at age eighteen, at Wartburg Castle in 1220 at age twenty, Louis married 14-year-old Elizabeth of Hungary, with whom he had three children, Hermann II, Sophie, and Gertrude, later abbess at Altenberg. He set up his court at Wartburg Castle near Eisenach, when in 1221 Louis Wettin brother-in-law, Margrave Theodoric I of Meissen died, he acted as a guardian for Theodorics minor son Henry III. However, his attempts to occupy the Meissen and Lusatian lands were rejected by his sister Jutta. Like his father, Louis was in contact with the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II. In 1226, Louis was called to the Diet in Cremona and he embarked for the Sixth Crusade in 1227, partly inspired also by the tales of his uncle, who had been to the Levant with the Holy Roman Emperor. In August 1227 Louis traversed the mountains between Thuringia and Upper Franconia, through the duchies of Swabia and Bavaria, crossing the Tyrolian Alps and he fell ill of plague after reaching Brindisi and Otranto in the Kingdom of Sicily. He received extreme unction from the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the Bishop of Santa Croce and he died before reaching Otranto in 1227. A few days after his death, his daughter Gertrude was born, louiss remains were buried in Reinhardsbrunn Abbey in 1228. He was succeeded by his five-year-old son Hermann II, under the tutelage of his uncle Henry Raspe. After his death, Elizabeth left the court, made arrangements for the care of her children and she built the Franciscan hospital at Marburg and devoted herself to the care of the sick until her death at the age of 24 in 1231. She was officially proclaimed a saint only four years after her death, while Louis was never formally canonized, he became known among the German people as Louis the saint. He is known elsewhere as Blessed Louis of Thuringia, walter Heinemeyer, Ludwig IV the Saint, Landgrave of Thuringia and Count Palatine of Saxony. Volume 15, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin,1987, ISBN 3-428-00196-6, helga aq, Ludwig IV, the Holy, in, shape perception and memory medium German sculpture in the 14th century. A contribution to medieval monuments, epitaphs and curiosities in Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, North Hesse, North-Rhine Westphalia. Catalog of selected objects from the High Middle Ages to the early 15th century, tenea Verlag, Berlin 2006, S.538 f. with Fig.799 f
27.
Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeria
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Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeria was a member of the Árpád dynasty. He was Prince of Halych and he became the first anointed and crowned King of Galicia–Volhynia, during the second half of his life, he was Duke of Slavonia. Coloman was the son of King Andrew II of Hungary and his queen. In 1214, his father had a meeting with Grand Duke Leszek I of Poland and they agreed that Coloman would marry Leszeks daughter, Salomea, and their allied armies invaded and occupied the neighboring country and thus Coloman became Prince of Halych. Upon Colomans fathers request, Pope Innocent III authorized Archbishop John of Esztergom to anoint the young Coloman king, nevertheless, he was crowned king by the Archbishop John with the permission of Pope Innocent. In 1216, his father and father-in-law made a new agreement, their troops occupied Halych, the country was, in practise, probably governed by regents appointed by his father. On 14 August 1219, his troops were defeated by Prince Mstislav and Coloman, Coloman returned to Hungary, styled king until his death. In the first half of 1226, his father entrusted him with the government of Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia, provinces governed since 1220 by his elder brother, Béla. Coloman cooperated with his brother who had been endeavouring to take back the royal domains their father had granted to his followers, in his province, Coloman confiscated some possessions his father had granted to the Knights Templar. In 1231, Coloman granted privileges to Vukovar, Coloman, similarly to his brother, opposed his fathers third marriage with Beatrice dEste and following the death of King Andrew II they accused their young stepmother of adultery. Pope Gregory IX persuaded him to pursue the heretics in his provinces and in the adjacent territories, therefore he invaded and occupied Bosnia and Zachlumia and he supported the establishment of the Diocese of Bosnia and he granted Đakovo to its bishop. When he was informed that the Mongols invaded the kingdom, he joined to his brothers troops, however, their troops were defeated at the Battle of Mohi. Coloman suffered serious wounds and died of his injuries a few weeks after the battle, kristó, Gyula, Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon - 9-14. Század, Akadémiai Kiadó,1994, Budapest, ISBN 963-05-6722-9
28.
Emeric of Hungary
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Emeric, also known as Henry or Imre, was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1196 and 1204. In 1184, his father, Béla III of Hungary, ordered that he be crowned king, Emeric ascended the throne after the death of his father. During the first four years of his reign, he fought his rebellious brother, Andrew, Emeric cooperated with the Holy See against the Bosnian Patarenes, whom the Catholic Church considered to be heretics. Taking advantage of a war, Emeric expanded his suzerainty over Serbia. He failed to prevent the Republic of Venice, which was assisted by crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and he also could not impede the rise of Bulgaria along the southern frontiers of his kingdom. Emeric was the first Hungarian monarch to use the Árpád stripes as his coat of arms. Before his death, Emeric had his son, Ladislaus III. Emeric was the eldest child of Béla III of Hungary and Bélas first wife and his tutor was an Italian priest, Bernard. Nicholas, Archbishop of Esztergom, crowned the eight-year-old Emeric king on 16 May 1182, Emeric was betrothed to a daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, but she died in 1184. Béla III appointed Emeric to administer Croatia and Dalmatia around 1195, Emeric succeeded his father, who died on 23 April 1196. Béla III had bequeathed estates and money to Emerics younger brother, Andrew, instead, Andrew turned against Emeric, demanding a separate duchy for himself in 1197. Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, intervened on behalf of Andrew, in early 1198, Emeric was forced to make Andrew Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage. Andrew continued to conspire against Emeric, although Pope Innocent III continued urging Andrew to launch a crusade, on 10 March 1199, Emeric forced Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, who was a supporter of Andrew, to give him documents that proved the conspiracy against him. In the summer of year, Emeric defeated Andrews army near Lake Balaton. A papal legate named Gregory arrived in Hungary to mediate a reconciliation between the two brothers, according to the brothers treaty, Emeric once again granted Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew in the summer of 1200. From around 1200, Emeric was deeply involved in the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula, on 11 October 1200, Pope Innocent urged him to take measures to liquidate the heretics in Bosnia. Upon Emerics request, the Pope refused to send a royal crown to Grand Prince Stephen of Serbia, Emeric invaded Serbia in 1201 or 1202, and helped Stephens brother Vukan seize the throne. As a token of his suzerainty over Serbia, Emeric became the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of King of Serbia in 1202
29.
Ladislaus III of Hungary
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Ladislaus III was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1204 and 1205. He was the child of King Emeric. Ladislaus was crowned king upon the orders of his ill father, the dying king made his brother, Andrew, regent for the period of Ladislauss minority. However, Duke Andrew ignored the childs interests, as a result, Ladislauss mother, Constance of Aragon, fled to Austria, taking Ladislaus with her. Ladislaus was the known child of King Emeric and his wife. The exact date of Ladislauss birth is unknown, but it is likely that he was born around 1200, according to historians Gyula Kristó, after falling seriously ill, King Emeric ordered Ladislauss coronation in an attempt to secure a smooth succession for his infant son. John, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned Ladislaus on 26 August 1204, Emeric reconciled with his defiant younger brother, Andrew, whom he had imprisoned. He set Andrew free, and made him regent for the duration of Ladislauss minority, King Emeric fell ill with a type of incurable illness. Therefore, when he knew his final hour was approaching, he sent with all haste and had his brother released from custody, on 30 November 1204, King Emeric died, and Ladislaus succeeded him. Pope Innocent III sent a letter to Duke Andrew, warning him to respect the child kings interests, however, refusing to heed Innocents warning, Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited in the Pilis Abbey for Ladislaus. Considering her sons position to be insecure, Constance fled to Austria, although Duke Andrew made every effort to capture Queen Constance and King Ladislaus before they could escape, they were able to reach Vienna, Austria. Duke Leopold VI, who was King Emerics and Duke Andrews cousin, was willing to shelter to King Ladislaus. Ladislaus abruptly died on 7 May 1205 and his body was carried to Székesfehérvár, and buried in the Székesfehérvár Basilica. After reigned his son Ladislaus, who was crowned on August 26 and he reigned six months and five days
30.
Hungarian people
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
31.
Magnate
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Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes. In England, the class went through a change in the later Middle Ages. It had previously consisted of all tenants-in-chief of the crown, a group of more than a hundred families, the emergence of Parliament led to the establishment of a parliamentary peerage that received personal summons, rarely more than sixty families. A similar class in the Gaelic world were the Flatha, in the Middle Ages a bishop sometimes held territory as a magnate, collecting the revenue of the manors and the associated knights fees. In the Tudor period, after Henry VII defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field, Henry VII would make parliament attaint undesirable nobles and magnates, thereby stripping them of their wealth, protection from torture, and power. Henry VII also used the Court of the Star Chamber to have powerful nobles executed, Henry VIII continued this approach in his reign, he inherited a survivalistic mistrust of nobles from his father. Henry VIII ennobled very few men and the ones he did were all new men, novi homines, greatly indebted to him, the term was specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary, the Főrendiház or House of Magnates. In the Early and High Middle Ages the highest title was vojvoda, during the Serbian Empire the higher court members held titles such as despot, sevastokrator and kesar. During foreign rule, under the Ottoman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, Republic of Venice, and later in the Revolution, in Spain, since the late Middle Ages the highest class of nobility hold the appellation of Grandee of Spain. In Sweden, the wealthiest medieval lords were known as storman, great men, a similar description and meaning as the English term magnate. Aristocracy Szlachta, in Poland Boyar, in Eastern Europe Velikaš, in Serbia and Croatia Magnat This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
32.
Transylvania
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Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
33.
Leopold VI, Duke of Austria
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Leopold VI, known as Leopold the Glorious, was the Duke of Styria from 1194 and the Duke of Austria from 1198 to his death in 1230. He was a member of the House of Babenberg and he was also a member of the Chapter of the Cistercian Order. Like his predecessors, he attempted to develop the land by founding monasteries and his most important foundation is Lilienfeld in the Lower Austrian valley of the Traisen river, where he was buried after his death. Besides that, he supported the highly modern Mendicant Orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans. He is arguably one of the greatest of the Babenbergs, Leopold VI was the younger son of Duke Leopold V of Austria and his wife, Helena of Hungary. His service is known to be recorded under Henrys Second Italian Expedition, when his father died in 1195, it had surprised him, like many other Lords of Austria and Styria, when he had received the news that he would receive the Duchy of Styria. This act was in contravention of the found in the Georgenberg Pact. His older brother, Frederick I, was to take the Duchy of Austria, as Leopold was with Emperor Henry VI, at the court in Palermo, whether by word or deed, he had pleased the Emperor enough to be elevated to the rule of Styria. So much so, that by June 1194 he had now begun styling himself Duke of Styria, Leopold had spent 1195-6 acquainting himself with his new duchy and its people. It did not surprise him when his brother entrusted him with Austria on the eve of his Crusade. The honor of the Babenbergs had been damaged in the eyes of the Catholic Church because of the capture of Richard I of England, the money for him. Suddenly, Andrew II of Hungary had come to Leopold asking for an alliance against his brother, Andrew had recently lost his inheritance, the Principality of Halych and was refused by his brother on having any more titles. Leopold felt compelled to aid his cousin and insist Emeric grant Andrew land for his own, then the news of Emperor Henrys death on 28 September 1197 had reached Leopolds ears at this time. Leopold expected a Reichstag would be announced, but first he would deal with Emeric, so Leopold and Andrew rode on to Hungary at the head of their forces and defeated the Hungarian King at Mački in Slavonia in December 1197. Leopold finally mediated with King Emeric to grant Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage for Andrew in early 1198, finally, a Reichstag was announced in Mühlhausen in Thuringia on 8 March 1198. There in council with a great lords, Leopold refused to persuade Philip of Swabia to drop his advocacy of his nephew. And he had stood against the ruling to divide the Empire between Otto IV of Brunswick and Philip. Yet he still presented himself on the side of Philip, which earned his recognition and it was during this time that the Austrian and Styrian duchies were reunified under Leopold VI when Frederick died while returning from the German Crusade on 16 April 1198
34.
Pilis Mountains
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The Pilis Mountains is a mountainous region in the Transdanubian Mountains. Its highest peak is the Pilis with 756 meters and it is a popular vacation destination in Hungary. The Pilis Mountains used to be a hunting ground for Hungarian Kings. Favorite places include the villages and hills between Pilis Mountains and Visegrad Hills, especially Pilisszentkereszt, here, a road leads to Dobogó-ko, where one can admire an outstanding panoramic view on the Danube Bend. In the Pilis Mountains, there are three locations show exact similarity to the arrangements of the three stars of Orions. These are as follows, the Árpádvár, the Ram-hill, dobogókő is a climatic health place, hiking and ski resort, with one of the most beautiful panoramic views in Hungary. Some sites worth visiting are, Rám-szakadék Thirring-szikla Ferenczy-szikla Zsivány-szikla Vadálló-kövek Prédikálószék with its gorgeous view Pilis-tető, one of its caves is called Heart Hungarian, Szív. In 2013 it was under exploration
35.
Gothic art
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Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Southern and Central Europe, in the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century, primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco and illuminated manuscripts. The earliest Gothic art was monumental sculpture, on the walls of Cathedrals, Christian art was often typological in nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Increased literacy and a body of secular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. Gothic art emerged in Île-de-France, France, in the early 12th century at the Abbey Church of St Denis built by Abbot Suger, monastic orders, especially the Cistercians and the Carthusians, were important builders who disseminated the style and developed distinctive variants of it across Europe. Gothic art was often typological in nature, reflecting a belief that the events of the Old Testament pre-figured those of the New, Old and New Testament scenes were shown side by side in works like the Speculum Humanae Salvationis, and the decoration of churches. The Gothic period coincided with a resurgence in Marian devotion. Images of the Virgin Mary developed from the Byzantine hieratic types, through the Coronation of the Virgin, to human and initimate types. Artists like Giotto, Fra Angelico and Pietro Lorenzetti in Italy, and Early Netherlandish painting, brought realism, Western artists, and their patrons, became much more confident in innovative iconography, and much more originality is seen, although copied formulae were still used by most artists. Even in Last Judgements Christ was now usually shown exposing his chest to show the wounds of his Passion, the word Gothic for art was initially used as a synonym for Barbaric, and was therefore used pejoratively. Its critics saw this type of Medieval art as unrefined and too remote from the aesthetic proportions, Renaissance authors believed that the Sack of Rome by the Gothic tribes in 410 had triggered the demise of the Classical world and all the values they held dear. Gothic art was criticized by French authors such as Boileau, La Bruyère, Rousseau, before becoming a recognized form of art. Molière would famously comment on Gothic, The besotted taste of Gothic monuments, These odious monsters of ignorant centuries, in its beginning, Gothic art was initially called French work, thus attesting the priority of France in the creation of this style. Painting in a style that can be called Gothic did not appear until about 1200, or nearly 50 years after the origins of Gothic architecture and sculpture. Then figures become more animated in pose and facial expression, tend to be smaller in relation to the background of scenes, and are arranged more freely in the pictorial space, where there is room. This transition occurs first in England and France around 1200, in Germany around 1220, painting during the Gothic period was practiced in four primary media, frescos, panel paintings, manuscript illumination and stained glass. Frescoes continued to be used as the pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe as a continuation of early Christian
36.
Ferenc Erkel
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Ferenc Erkel was a Hungarian composer, conductor and pianist. He was the father of Hungarian grand opera, written mainly on historical themes and he also composed the music of Himnusz, the national anthem of Hungary, which was adopted in 1844. Erkel was born in Gyula to a Danube Swabian family, a son of Joseph Erkel who was a musician and his mother was the Hungarian Klára Ruttkay. The libretti of his first three operas were written by Béni Egressy, beside his operas, for which he is best known, he wrote pieces for piano and chorus, and a majestic Festival Overture. He acquainted Hector Berlioz with the tune of the Rákóczi March and he headed the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra. He was also the director and piano teacher of the Hungarian Academy of Music until 1886, the Hungarian State Opera House in Budapest was opened in 1884, of which he was the musical director. In 1839, he married Adél Adlers, four of his sons participated in the composing of his later operas, Gyula, Elek, László and Sándor. Erkel was an internationally acknowledged chess player as well, and a founder of Pesti Sakk-kör, a department of the Opera House was established in 1911 in Budapest which also performs operas, named Erkel Színház since 1953
37.
Constance of Aragon, Holy Roman Empress
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Constance of Aragon was an Aragonese infanta who was by marriage firstly Queen of Hungary, and secondly Queen of Germany and Sicily and Holy Roman Empress. She was regent of Sicily from 1212–1220 and she was the second child and eldest daughter of the nine children of Alfonso II of Aragon and Sancha of Castile. Her father died in 1196 and Constances fate was decided by the new King, Peter arranged her marriage with King Emeric of Hungary, and the nineteen-year-old Constance left Aragon for Hungary. The wedding took place in 1198, two years later, in 1200, the Queen gave birth to a son, called Ladislaus. When King Emeric was dying, he crowned his son Ladislaus co-ruler on 26 August 1204, the King wanted to secure his succession and had his brother Andrew promise to protect the child and help him govern the Kingdom of Hungary until reaching adulthood. Emeric died three months later, on 30 November, Ladislaus succeeded him as King while Andrew became his Regent. Andrew soon took over all regal authority while Ladislaus and Constance were little more than his prisoners, Constance managed to escape to Vienna with Ladislaus. The two found refuge in the court of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, but Ladislaus would soon die, the former Regent and now King Andrew II of Hungary took the body of his nephew and buried him in the Royal Crypt of Székesfehérvár. Duke Leopold sent Constance back to Aragon, Constance spent the next five years in the abbey with her mother, until her fate, again, was changed by her brother. Pedro II wanted to be on terms with Pope Innocent III, since he wanted an annulment of his marriage with Maria of Montpellier. The Pope solicited the hand of the Dowager Queen of Hungary for his pupil, the Aragonese King accepted the proposal, Constance left her mother and the abbey of Nuestra Senora and began her trip to Sicily. She never returned to Aragon or saw her mother again, Sancha died shortly after the departure of her daughter. Constance and Frederick were married in the Sicilian city of Messina on 15 August 1209, in the ceremony, she was crowned Queen of Sicily. By this time, Constance was thirty years old and her new husband only fourteen, two years later, in 1211, Constance gave birth to a son, called Henry, who later had a tragic end. On 9 December 1212, Frederick was crowned King of Germany in opposition to Otto IV, during the absence of her husband, Constance stayed in Sicily as regent of the Kingdom until 1220. At first Frederick controlled Southern Germany but Otto IV was effectively deposed on 5 July 1215 and this time Constance was crowned German Queen with her husband. Pope Honorius III crowned Frederick Holy Roman Emperor on 22 November 1220, Constance was crowned Holy Roman Empress while their son Henry became the new King of Germany. She died of malaria less than two years later in Catania and was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo, in a Roman sarcophagus with a beautiful oriental tiara
38.
Gisela of Hungary
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Blessed Gisela of Hungary was the first queen consort of Hungary by marriage to Saint Stephen of Hungary, and the sister of Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. She is also a Roman Catholic saint, Gisela was a daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and Gisela of Burgundy. Gisela was raised very devout, most likely with bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg as her mentor and governor and she married King Stephen I of Hungary in 996 as a part of Hungarys policy of opening up to the West. The couple had a son, Saint Emeric, who died on 2 September 1031, the wedding of Stephen and Gisela marked a turning point in Hungarys history. Queen Gisela played a role in spreading the Christian faith. When Edmund Ironside of England died, he was succeeded by Cnut, edmund’s infant sons were sent abroad and ended up under the protection of King Stephen of Hungary. One of the twins died young, but the other, Edward Atheling, was brought up as a protégé of Queen Gisela, and regarded in that foreign Court as the heir to the Anglo-Saxon throne. In 1046 Gisela, her attendants, and a number of many Bavarian settlers left Hungary to return to Bavaria and she lived in the nunnery of Niedernburg in Passau, where she died. Her canonisation was attempted in the 18th century but failed and she was declared Blessed in 1975. Her memorial days are May 7 and February 1, Gisela and her husband were not buried together. On May 4,1996, the remains of King Stephen’s right hand was preserved, both are now safely protected in glass and gold cases, and are displayed in the basilica in the western Hungarian town of Veszprém, where Gisela once lived. Her grave is a well-known, and regarded as a holy place, the cross was commissioned by Queen Gisela for the tomb of her mother, who died in 1006 and was buried in the Niedermünster in Regensburg. Blessed Gisela is depicted on a limestone panel by Hungarian artist Sandor Kiss on the wall of the Chapel of Our Lady – Queen of Hungary in St. Peters Basilica. Bd 17, Hefte zur Bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur
39.
Anastasia of Kiev
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Anastasia of Kiev was Queen of Hungary as the wife of King Andrew the White. She was the eldest daughter of Grand Prince Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev and Ingigerd of Sweden, and the older sister of Anne of Kiev, Queen consort of Henry I of France. Around 1039, Anastasia married to Duke Andrew of Hungary, who had settled down in Kiev after his father Vazul took part in an assassination attempt aimed at King Stephen I of Hungary. In 1046, her returned to Hungary and ascended the throne as King Andrew I after defeating King Peter I. Anastasia followed her husband to the kingdom and it was probably she who persuaded her husband to set up a lavra in Tihany for hermits who had come to Hungary from the Kievan Rus. The royal couple did not have a son until 1053, when Anastasia gave birth to Solomon. However, Solomons birth and later caused a bitter conflict between King Andrew I and his younger brother Duke Béla, who had been the heir to the throne until the childs birth. When Duke Béla rose in rebellion against King Andrew in 1060. King Andrew was defeated and died afterwards, and his brother was crowned King of Hungary on 6 December 1060. Anastasia sought the help of King Henry IV of Germany, whose sister, by the time the German troops entered to Hungary to give assistance to Solomon against his uncle, King Béla I had died and his sons, Géza, Ladislaus and Lampert had fled to Poland. The young Solomon was crowned on 27 September 1063, on the occasion of her sons coronation, Anastasia presented what was believed to be the sword of Attila the Hun to Duke Otto II of Bavaria who was the leader of the German troops. Between 1060 and 1073 King Solomon governed his kingdom in collaboration with his cousins, Dukes Géza, Ladislaus and Lampert who had returned to Hungary, however, in 1074 the three brothers rebelled against their cousin, and defeated him on 14 March 1074. King Solomon fled to the Western borders of Hungary where he was able to maintain his rule only over the counties of Moson, Anastasia had followed Solomon, but they began to argue with each other. So she moved to Admont Abbey where she lived as a nun until her death and she was buried in the Abbey. – A kezdetektől 1526-ig, főszerkesztő, Benda, Kálmán
