1.
Professional wrestling throws
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Professional wrestling throws are the application of professional wrestling techniques that involve lifting the opponent up and throwing or slamming them down. They are sometimes called power maneuvers, as they are meant to emphasize a wrestlers strength. Many of these moves are used as finishers by many wrestlers, many maneuvers are known by several different names. Professional wrestlers frequently give their new names that reflect their gimmick. Moves are listed under general categories whenever possible, an armbreaker is any move in which the wrestler slams the opponents arm against a part of the wrestlers body, usually a knee or shoulder. The wrestler stands beside their opponent to either side, crosses their arm against the opponents opposite hand in front of it. From this point, the wrestler places their leg in front of the opponents opposite leg, a wrestler dives from the ropes and lands on the opponents arm. The wrestler grabs one of the arms, jumps and connects both their knees against the opponents stretched arm. As the wrestler falls onto their back they forces the opponents arm down into both knees, thus damaging it, a move in which the wrestler uses their opponents momentum to the opponents disadvantage. The wrestler hooks the opponents arm and flips them over on to the mat, the wrestler may roll on to their side to give the move extra momentum. This move is performed when an opponent runs towards the wrestler facing them, despite its name, it actually comes from Mexican lucha libre, not Japanese puroresu. The wrestler grabs their opponents arm, then turns to face the other direction and it is essentially the same as the ippon seoi nage found in judo. An arm drag sees the wrestler being spun in front of the opponents body in a tilt-a-whirl. This arm drag sees the wrestler being held in a hold by the opponent. A move in which the wrestler goes behind an opponent, then puts their head under the opponents shoulder and they then lift their opponent up, and drops them tailbone-first on the wrestlers knee. Even though this move is a low blow, it is considered a legal move because the groin is not being targeted. Better known as a full nelson bomb, this sees the wrestling apply a full nelson hold to the opponent from behind. The wrestler then lifts the opponent into the air and falls into a seated position and it is applied frequently against a charging opponent
Professional wrestling throws
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Jay Lethal performs a standard backbreaker.
Professional wrestling throws
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Shannon Moore performing a back body drop on
John Morrison.
Professional wrestling throws
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Austin Aries performing a brainbuster to
Mark Haskins.
Professional wrestling throws
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CM Punk bulldogs
Alberto Del Rio through a table.
2.
Thai language
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Thai, also known as Siamese or Central Thai, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people and the vast majority of Thai Chinese. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family, over half of the words in Thai are borrowed from Pali, Sanskrit and Old Khmer. It is a tonal and analytic language, Thai also has a complex orthography and relational markers. Spoken Thai is mutually intelligible with Laotian, Thai is the official language of Thailand, natively spoken by over 20 million people. Standard Thai is based on the register of the classes of Bangkok. In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages, Isan, the language of the Isan region of Thailand, a collective term for the various Lao dialects spoken in Thailand that show some Siamese Thai influences, which is written with the Thai script. It is spoken by about 20 million people, Thais from both inside and outside the Isan region often simply call this variant Lao when speaking informally. Northern Thai, spoken by about 6 million in the independent kingdom of Lanna. Shares strong similarities with Lao to the point that in the past the Siamese Thais referred to it as Lao. Southern Thai, spoken by about 4.5 million Phu Thai, spoken by half a million around Nakhon Phanom Province. Phuan, spoken by 200,000 in central Thailand and Isan, Shan, spoken by about 100,000 in north-west Thailand along the border with the Shan States of Burma, and by 3.2 million in Burma. Lü, spoken by about 1,000,000 in northern Thailand, and 600,000 more in Sipsong Panna, Burma, nyaw language, spoken by 50,000 in Nakhon Phanom Province, Sakhon Nakhon Province, Udon Thani Province of Northeast Thailand. Song, spoken by about 30,000 in central and northern Thailand, Elegant or Formal Thai, official and written version, includes respectful terms of address, used in simplified form in newspapers. Rhetorical Thai, used for public speaking, religious Thai, used when discussing Buddhism or addressing monks. Royal Thai, influenced by Khmer, this is used when addressing members of the family or describing their activities. Most Thais can speak and understand all of these contexts, street and Elegant Thai are the basis of all conversations. Rhetorical, religious, and royal Thai are taught in schools as the national curriculum, many scholars believe that the Thai script is derived from the Khmer script, which is modeled after the Brahmic script from the Indic family. However, in appearance, Thai is closer to Thai Dam script, the language and its script are closely related to the Lao language and script
Thai language
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Thai
3.
Phra Nakhon District
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Phra Nakhon is one of the 50 districts of Bangkok, Thailand. It is the district of Bangkok, including Rattanakosin Island. Neighboring districts are, starting from the north, clockwise, Dusit, Pom Prap Sattru Phai, Samphanthawong, and across the Chao Phraya River Thonburi, Bangkok Yai, Bangkok Noi, and Bang Phlat. Phra Nakhon was also the name of Bangkok Province, until it was merged in 1972 with Thonburi to form the present day Bangkok metropolis. The district is bounded by the Chao Phraya River to the west, Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem in the north, the center of Bangkok, marked by the city pillar shrine, is in the district. Other significant landmarks in the district include Wat Pho, the Giant Swing, Wat Suthat, Wat Ratchanadda, also the well-known Khaosan Road is in the district. Another significant temple is Wat Bowonniwet, where several Thai kings were ordained as monks, of the original 14 forts protecting Bangkok only two survive. Fort Phra Sumen in the corner of the district. Since 2000 a small park named Santichaiphrakarn around Fort Phra Sumen was built, in 2005 the complete riverfront of the Phra Nakhon District, from King Rama I Bridge in the south to the Wasukri Pier, was submitted to the UNESCO for consideration as a future world heritage site. Another landmark is Sala Chalermkrung Royal Theatre on Charoen Krung Road and it is Bangkoks oldest cinema and was the first air conditioned theater in Thailand. Built at the order of King Prajadhipok and named by him and it is the only theater from the first golden age of Thai cinema still standing. No longer regularly showing movies, the theater has been renovated and is used for Thai dance performances. Another point of interest is the Pak Khlong Talat flower market, tha Phrachan pier is famous as a Thai amulets market. The area around Phahurat Road can be considered as Thailands Little India, the road was constructed during King Chulalongkorns reign over a century ago and Indian community started to form after that. Siri Guru Singh Sabha, Thailands first Sikh temple was built in 1933 near the road, the area is well known for Indian fabric shops and Indian cuisine. Phra Nakhon was once an amphoe named Amphoe Chana Songkhram, the administration was overhauled on 15 October 1915 when 25 new amphoes were created for the inner part of Bangkok. It became Khet Phra Nakhon in 1972, songkran, the traditional Thai New Year festival, is celebrated throughout the country from 13–15 April of each year. Khaosan Road in Phra Nakhon District is one place to celebrate the event where lots of people
Phra Nakhon District
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Arch celebrating King's 80th birthday, Ratchadamnoen Road
Phra Nakhon District
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The city pillar shrine (หลักเมือง, Lak Mueang) marks the center of Bangkok
Phra Nakhon District
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Thai architecture brightly lit in yellow at Lan Plabpla Maha Chedsada Bodin, 222nd anniversary of Bangkok
4.
Bangkok
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Bangkok is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres in the Chao Phraya River delta in Central Thailand, over 14 million people live within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, significantly dwarfing Thailands other urban centres in terms of importance. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam—later renamed Thailand—during the late 19th century, the city grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailands politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is a hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a regional centre for the arts, fashion. The city is known for its vibrant street life and cultural landmarks. The historic Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the scenes of Khaosan Road. Bangkok is among the top tourist destinations. It is named the most visited city in MasterCards Global Destination Cities Index, Bangkoks rapid growth amidst little urban planning and regulation has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure systems. The city has turned to public transport in an attempt to solve this major problem. Five rapid transit lines are now in operation, with more systems under construction or planned by the national government and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and became the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Empire in 1767, the newly declared King Taksin established his capital at the town, in 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern banks Rattanakosin Island, thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom. The City Pillar was erected on 21 April, which is regarded as the date of foundation of the present city, Bangkoks economy gradually expanded through busy international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siams modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late 19th century, Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932
Bangkok
–
Clockwise from top:
Wat Benchamabophit (Marble Temple),
Giant Swing,
Wat Arun,
Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall, view over
Lumpini Park area at night, and
Wat Phra Kaeo
Bangkok
–
Map of 17th-century Bangkok, from
Simon de la Loubère 's Du Royaume de Siam
Bangkok
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The city's ceremonial name (partially visible) is displayed in front of the Bangkok City Hall. On the building is the BMA seal bearing an image of Indra riding Erawan.
Bangkok
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The Bangkok city proper is highlighted in this satellite image of the lower Chao Phraya delta. Notice the built-up urban area along the Chao Phraya River, which extends northward and southward into Nonthaburi and Samut Prakan Provinces.
5.
Thailand
–
Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
Thailand
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The ruins of
Wat Chaiwatthanaram at
Ayutthaya.
Thailand
–
Flag
Thailand
–
Stupas,
Ayutthaya Historical Park.
Thailand
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Pottery discovered near
Ban Chiang in Udon Thani Province, the earliest dating to 2100 BCE.
6.
Wat Suthat
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Wat Suthat Thepphaararam is a Buddhist temple in Bangkok, Thailand. It is a temple of the first grade, one of ten such temples in Bangkok. Construction was begun by King Rama I in 2350 BE, further construction and decorations were carried out by King Rama II who helped carve the wooden doors, but the temple was not completed until the reign of King Rama III in 2390 BE. This temple contains the Buddha image Phra Sri Sakyamuni which have moved from Sukhothai province. At the lower terrace of the base, there are 28 Chinese pagodas which mean the 28 Buddhas born on this earth, list of Buddhist temples in Thailand A brief introduction of this temple is available at, - http, //www. mir. com. my/rb/photography/leofoo/Thai-amulets/Wat-Suthat/index. htm
Wat Suthat
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Wat Suthat Thepwararam Ratchaworamahawihan
Wat Suthat
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Phra Si Sakyamuni, Buddha-Statue in Wat Suthat
Wat Suthat
Wat Suthat
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Ordinations hall
7.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
Brahmin
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Group of Brahmanas, 1913
Brahmin
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Statue of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a
Kulin Brahmin
Brahmin
–
Adi Guru Shri Gauḍapādāchārya, the grand guru of
Shri Adi Shankaracharya and the first historical proponent of
Advaita Vedanta, also believed to be the founder of
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math.
Brahmin
–
Statue of
Sir K.Sheshadri Iyer in
Cubbon Park at
Bangalore
8.
Rama I
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Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok, born Thongduang and also known as Rama I, was the founder and the first monarch of the reigning House of Chakri of Siam. His full title in Thai is Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paramoruracha Mahachakkriborommanat Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok and he ascended the throne in 1782, after defeating a rebellion which had deposed King Taksin of Thonburi. He was also celebrated as the founder of Rattanakosin as the new capital of the reunited kingdom, during this time he emerged as Siams most powerful military leader. Thongduang was the first Somdet Chao Phraya, the highest rank the nobility could attain, in 1782, he took control of Siam and crowned himself as the monarch. The most famous event in his reign was the Burmese-Siamese War of 1785, like other high-ranking figures of old Siam, Rama Is name changed several times during his lifetime, depending on his respective position, and even posthumously the way he was referred to change. His name at birth was Thongduang, family names had not yet introduced in Siam at that time. When Thongduang served as deputy governor of Ratchaburi Province during the rule of King Ekkathat of Ayutthaya, finally Taksin created him the title of Somdet Chaophraya Maha Kasatsuek, a noble title as high as no Siamese official had born before him, making him quasi-royalty. When he ascended to the throne in 1782, he took the name Ramathibodi and his full title was much longer, intended to demonstrate his universal claim to power like of earlier Siamese kings. After his death, the referred to him simply as Phaendin Ton. Continuing this system consequently, his grandson Rama III would have been the last reign and he demanded to refer to his two predecessors using the names of these Buddha statues. The one dedicated to the first Chakri king was named Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok and this is how this king is still referred to in Thai history books. His descendant Vajiravudh who had studied in England, realised that most Siamese kings names were difficult to reproduce and he therefore disposed to use for all kings of the Chakri dynasty the name Rama together with the respective ordinal number. So this king is Rama I in Western literature, in 1982,200 years after his accession, the Thai cabinet decided to award him the epithet Maharat. 1782–1809, Phra Bat Somdet Phra Borommarachathirat Ramathibodi Sisin Borommaha Chakkraphat Rachathibodin etc and his father was Thongdi, a Mon noble serving the royal court who was Phra Akson Sunthonsat. Phra Akson Sunthonsat was also a descendant of Kosa Pan, the leader of King Narais embassy to the French court, Thongduang at a young age entered the Royal Palace as one of the royal pages of King Uthumphon, where he met his childhood friend Taksin. In 1757, aged 21, he became a monk temporarily, in 1760, he married Nak, daughter of a town patron in Samut Sakorn. He was later appointed the Luang Yokkrabat of Ratchaburi Province by King Ekkathat in 1758, on the eve of the fall of Ayutthaya, Phraya Wachiraprakan had foreseen that the fall of the city was certain. Wachiraprakan decided to break the siege of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese army, Phraya Ratchaburi also joined this venture
Rama I
–
Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok the Great พระพุทธยอดฟ้าจุฬาโลก
Rama I
–
Mural of the epic Ramakien, written by the King, the Thai version of the
Ramayana, on the walls of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha,
Grand Palace, Bangkok.
Rama I
–
Statue of Rama I at the Phra Phutthayotfa Memorial Bridge, Bangkok (1932)
Rama I
–
The
Temple of the Emerald Buddha, one of the king's many construction projects.
9.
Buddha Loetla Nabhalai
–
Phra Phutthaloetla Naphalai or Rama II was the second monarch of Siam under the House of Chakri, ruling from 1809 to 1824. In 1809, Itsarasunthon succeeded his father Rama I, the founder of Chakri dynasty and his reign was largely peaceful, devoid of major conflicts. His reign was known as the Golden Age of Rattanakosin Literature as Loetlanaphalai was patron to a number of poets in his court, the most notable poet in his employ was the illustrious Sunthorn Phu, the author of Phra Aphai Mani. Chim was born in 1767 during the in Amphoe Amphawa, Samut Songkram, Chim was a son of Luang Yokkrabat of Ratchaburi and Nak of Samut Sakorn, as his father and mother was then known. They would later become King Rama I and Queen Amarindra, respectively, in 1767, Ayutthaya fell to Burmese invaders. His father, Phraya Ratchaburi, joined Phraya Wachira Prakarns forces to recapture the city, under King Taksin, Chims father rose rapidly to high rank as a military leader and was assigned with the campaigns to subjugate Laos and Cambodia. In 1782, his father crowned himself King of Siam and Chim himself was raised to the title of Prince Itsarasunthon of Siam, Loetlanaphalai, with his concubine Chao Chom Manda Riam, fathered Prince Tub in 1787. Prince Itsarasunthon then had an affair with his own cousin. In 1801, Rama I then found out that Princess Bunrod had been pregnant for four months, Itsarasunthon, however begged his father to forgive him and the princess was reinstated and became his consort through the negotiation by Concubine Waen. Unfortunately, the baby died just after its birth, with Princess Bunrod, Loetlanaphalai also fathered Prince Mongkut and Prince Chutamani. As the eldest surviving son of Rama I, Prince Itsarasunthon succeeded to throne when Buddha Yotfa Chulaloke died in 1809. No royal naming system was established at the time Rama II was crowned and he was later named by his son Nangklao as Loetlanaphalai and by the Rama convention, called Rama II. His consort, Princess Bunrod, was raised to Queen Sri Suriyendra, as soon as Loetlanaphalai ascended the throne, Prince Kshatranichit, the surviving son of Taksin, rebelled as pretender to the throne. Loetlanaphalais son, Prince Tub effectively crushed the rebellion, proving himself to be competent, Loetlanaphalai sent his brother Maha Senanurak the Front Palace to recapture Thalang, which had been razed to the ground. This Thalang campaign was the last invasion by the Burmese into Siamese territory and it was said that during Rama IIs reign, if one could write a refined piece of poetry, then one would be able to become a royal favorite, as Loetlanaphalai himself was a poet. The reign was a renaissance after the massive wars that plague the First Reign, particularly in the fields of arts. Poets employed by Rama II included Sunthorn Phu the drunken writer and his sons, Prince Jessadabodindra and Prince Poramanuchit, were encouraged to excel in poetry. Prince Poramanuchit later became a Sangharaj and was known for his religious works
Buddha Loetla Nabhalai
–
Phra Phutthaloetla Naphalai พระพุทธเลิศหล้านภาลัย
Buddha Loetla Nabhalai
–
Privy seal of King Loetlanaphalai, "a
garuda hold the
nāgas " (
Wat Arun, Bangkok)
10.
Bhumibol Adulyadej
–
Bhumibol Adulyadej, conferred with the title King Bhumibol the Great in 1987, was the ninth monarch of Thailand from the Chakri dynasty as Rama IX. Having reigned since 9 June 1946, he was, at the time of his death, the worlds longest-serving head of state, during his reign, he was served by a total of 30 prime ministers beginning with Pridi Banomyong and ending with Prayut Chan-o-cha. Although Bhumibol did invite public criticism in a 2005 speech, the lèse majesté laws have not been revoked by the Thai parliament, in May 2014, Bhumibols wealth was once again listed as US$30 billion. After 2006, Bhumibol suffered declining health and spent extended periods at Siriraj Hospital and he was generally highly revered by the people in Thailand – many even saw him as close to divine. Notable political activists and Thai citizens who criticized the king or the institution of monarchy were often forced into exile or to suffer frequent imprisonments. His successor Vajiralongkorn does not share the popularity of his father, leading to concerns that the Thai monarchy will lose prestige and influence under the latters reign. Bhumibols U. S. birth certificate reads simply Baby Songkla, as the parents had to consult his uncle, King Rama VII, then head of the House of Chakri, for an auspicious name. The king chose a name of Sanskrit origin, Bhumibol Adulyadej, a compound of Bhūmi, meaning Land, Bala, meaning Strength or Power, Atulya, meaning Incomparable, and Tej, meaning Power. Thus, Bhūmibala Atulyateja, or Bhumibol Adulyadej as it is transliterated in Thai, literally means Strength of the Land, Bhumibol was born at Cambridge Hospital in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the United States, on 5 December 1927. He was the youngest son of Prince Mahidol Adulyadej, the Prince of Songkla and his father was enrolled in the public health program at Harvard University, which is why Bhumibol was the only monarch to be born in the US. Bhumibol had a sister, Princess Galyani Vadhana, and an older brother. Bhumibol came to Thailand in 1928, after his father obtained a certificate from Harvard and his father died of kidney failure in September 1929, when Bhumibol was less than two years old. He briefly attended Mater Dei school in Bangkok, but in 1933 his mother took her family to Switzerland, in 1934 Bhumibol was given his first camera, which ignited his lifelong enthusiasm for photography. When Bhumibols childless uncle Prajadhipok abdicated in 1935, his nine-year-old brother Ananda became the new King Rama VIII, however, the family remained in Switzerland and the affairs of the head of state were conducted by a regency council. They returned to Thailand for only two months in 1938, in 1942, Bhumibol became a jazz enthusiast, and started to play the saxophone, a passion that he kept throughout his life. Bhumibol ascended the throne following the death by gunshot wound of his brother, King Ananda Mahidol, on 9 June 1946, while a first government statement stated that Ananda had accidentally shot himself, an investigation committee ruled this was virtually impossible. Two palace aides were convicted of regicide and executed. Bhumibol succeeded his brother, but returned to Switzerland before the end of the 100-day mourning period, despite his interest in science and technology, he changed his major and enrolled in law and political science to prepare for his duties as head of state
Bhumibol Adulyadej
–
Bhumibol Adulyadej ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช
Bhumibol Adulyadej
Bhumibol Adulyadej
–
Bhumibol (centre) with his
mother and siblings
Ananda Mahidol (left) and
Galyani Vadhana (right)
Bhumibol Adulyadej
–
Bhumibol and
Sirikit after their wedding.
11.
Bangkok National Museum
–
The Bangkok National Museum is the main branch museum of the National Museums in Thailand and also the largest museum in Southeast Asia. It features exhibits of Thai art and history, the museum is located in 4 Na Phra That, Bangkok 10200, Thailand, occupying the former palace of the vice king, set between Thammasat University, and the National Theater, facing Sanam Luang. The museum was established and opened in 1874 by King Rama V to exhibit relics from the rule of King Rama IVs rule, today the galleries contain exhibits covering Thai History back to Neolithic times. The collection includes The King Ram Khamhaeng Inscription, which was inscribed on UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 in recognition of its world significance, Bangkok National Museum was originally established by King Rama V around the private collection of antiquities of his father King Rama IV. The National Museum is the first public museum of Thailand, the historic background of the Bangkok National museum goes back to the year 1859, in the reign of King Rama IV. The King has set his private inside the Grand Palace to collect the objects, artifacts which were a tribute of him. The opening ceremony of Concordia Museum was on 19 September 1874, in 1887, King Rama V ordered to move the museum from Concordia to the front palace, and called it Wang Na Museum or front palace museum. In 1926, it was named the Bangkok Museum and subsequently developed into the Bangkok National Museum, the National Museum Bangkok currently houses three permanent exhibition galleries. The Thai History Gallery located in the front of the Siwamokhaphiman Hall, at the first part of the hall display The King Ram Khamhaeng Inscription, which was inscribed on UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003. Also the auditorium room at the left of the hall’s gate showing the document in the topic Where are Thai come from. Furthermore, the display the exhibitions about Thai history since the prehistory period until the Bangkok period including the historical facts. The Archaeological and Art History Collections which are provided in two parts The Prehistory Gallery, located in the back of the Siwamokhaphiman Hall, originally used as an Audience Hall, it now houses the Thai History Gallery. Inside the chapel, the paintings depict scenes from the life of the Buddha. The Red House - This teak house was one of the private living quarters of Princess Sri Sudarak. It was moved from the old palace in Thonburi to the Grand Palace for Queen Sri Suriyen, today the Red House is furnished in the early Bangkok period style which can show Thai people’s lifestyle in the past with some of the objects which once belonged to Queen Sri Suriyen. The Bangkok National Museum is generally open from Wednesday to Sunday from 9,00 a. m. to 4,00 p. m. except on national holidays, the National Museum Volunteers offer foreign language tours of the museum. All tours begin at 9,30 a. m. on Wednesdays and Thursdays only, tours are held in English, German, French and Japanese. All scheduled guided tours are free, but the entrance fee for non-Thai people is 200 Baht
Bangkok National Museum
–
Bangkok National Museum
Bangkok National Museum
–
The 8th century bronze torso statue of Boddhisattva
Padmapani,
Srivijayan art,
Chaiya,
Surat Thani, Southern Thailand, demonstrate the Central Java (
Sailendran) art influence.
Bangkok National Museum
–
Museums
12.
World Heritage
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage
–
Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage
–
Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage
–
Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
13.
Tamil language
–
Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
Tamil language
–
Silver coin of king
Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (c. AD 160). Obv: Bust of king; Rev: Ujjain/Sātavāhana symbol, crescented six-arch chaitya hill and river with
Tamil Brahmi script
Tamil language
–
Tamil
Tamil language
–
Agastya, Chairman of first Tamil
Sangam,
Madurai,
Pandiya Kingdom
Tamil language
–
Mangulam Tamil Brahmi inscription
14.
Shaivite
–
Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
Shaivite
–
The Development of the Saiva Traditions. Source: Gavinf Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152.
Shaivite
–
1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river
Tungabhadra,
Hampi, India
Shaivite
–
Shaivism Groupings. Source: Gavin Flood (2006), The Tantric Body, p.59.
Shaivite
–
History
15.
Manikkavacakar
–
Manikkavacakar or MaanikkaVaasagar was a 9th-century Tamil poet who wrote Tiruvasakam, a book of Shaiva hymns. He was one of the authors of Saivite Tirumurai, his work forms one volume of the Tirumurai. A minister to the Pandya king Varagunavarman II, he lived in Madurai and his work is a poetic expression of the joy of God-experience, the anguish of being separated from God. Although he is a prominent saint in Southern India, he is not counted among the sixty-three nayanars, Manikkavacakar is said to have born in Vadhavoor, seven miles from Madurai on the banks of river Vaigai. He belonged to the Pandithar saivite temple priest guild and his father was a temple priest. The group wore a top tilted knot to denote servitorship to Lord Siva like sambandar, a mural and statuette of Manikkavacakar with head knot is seen in Tirupperunturai near Pudukkottai. A poetic and elaborate hagiography of Manikkavacakar and his works was written in the 16th century and is called Tiruvilayadal puranam, the same is not available now in its original form. Another called Vadhavoorar puranam and yet another Sanskrit work of the 12th century CE on the saint is now missing. On his way he met an ascetic devotee of Siva, who in fact was Siva himself, Manikkavacakar received enlightenment, realised that material things are transitory and built the temple of Shiva in Tirupperunturai with the money. King Varaguna also was preached with knowledge of reality and blessed with mukthi after Lord Shiva made him realize his small worldly mistake, varaguana maharaja immediately gave up his throne and attained muthi at the feet of Lord Shiva. Manikkavacakars birth name is unclear, but he was known as Vadhavoorar after his birthplace, Manikkavacakar means man with words as precious as Manikam. According to Ramana Maharshi, it is said that when Manikkavacakar died, thereafter Manikkavacakar moved from one place to other, singing and composing devotional songs. The tiruchazhal hymn after singing which the communal Buddhists were exposed is also engraved in one of the prakarams, the work tiruchitrambalakkovaiyar was sung entirely in thillai chidambaram. The Tiruvembavai, a collection of twenty hymns in which he has imagined himself as a following the Paavai Nonbu. The twenty songs of Tiruvembavai and ten songs of Tiruppalliezhuchi on the Tirupperunturai Lord are sung all over Tamil Nadu in the month of Margazhi. Manikkavacakar is believed to have won intellectual arguments with Buddhists of Ceylon at Chidambaram and his festival is celebrated in the Tamil month of Aani. Manikkavacakars hagiography is found in the Thiruvilaiyadar Puranam, sculptures illustrating his life are found in the Minakshi-Sundaresvara temple at Madurai. Manikkavacakar is said to have built the temple of Siva in Tirupperunturai and he is said to have lived at Chidambaram Tamil Nadu
Manikkavacakar
–
MaanickaVaasagar
16.
Vaishnavite
–
Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
Vaishnavite
–
Vaishnavite Brahmin students at a theological seminary in
Tanjore. Source: The National Geographic Magazine, Nov 1909
Vaishnavite
–
Krishna murti (left) with Radha
17.
Monarchy of Thailand
–
The monarchy of Thailand refers to the constitutional monarchy and monarch of the Kingdom of Thailand. The King of Thailand is the head of state and head of the ruling Royal House of Chakri, the institution was transformed into a constitutional monarchy in 1932 after the bloodless Siamese Revolution of 1932. The King of Thailands titles include Head of State, Head of the Royal Thai Armed Forces, Adherent of Buddhism, the current concept of Thai kingship evolved through 800 years of absolute rule. The first king of a unified Thailand was the founder of the Kingdom of Sukhothai, King Sri Indraditya, the idea of this early kingship is said to be based on two concepts derived from Hinduism and Theravada Buddhist beliefs. The first concept is based on the Vedic-Hindu caste of Kshatriya, or warrior-ruler, the second is based on the Theravada Buddhist concept of Dhammaraja, Buddhism having been introduced to Thailand around the 6th century CE. The idea of the Dhammaraja, is that the king should rule his people in accordance with Dharma and these ideas were briefly replaced in 1279, when King Ramkhamhaeng came to the throne. Ramkhamhaeng departed from tradition and created instead a concept of paternal rule and this idea is reinforced in the title and name of the king, as he is still known today, Pho Khun Ramkhamhaeng meaning Father Ruler Ramkhamhaeng. By the end of the kingdom, the two old concepts returned as symbolized by the change in the style of the kings, Pho was changed to Phaya or Lord. The Kingdom of Sukhothai was supplanted by the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, during the Ayutthayan period, the idea of kingship changed. Due to ancient Khmer tradition in the region, the Hindu concept of kingship was applied to the status of the leader, Brahmins took charge in the royal coronation. The king was treated as a reincarnation of Hindu gods, Ayutthaya historical documents show the official titles of the kings in great variation, Indra, Shiva and Vishnu, or Rama. Seemingly, Rama was the most popular, as in Ramathibodhi, however, Buddhist influence was also evident, as many times the kings title and unofficial name Dhammaraja, an abbreviation of the Buddhist Dharmaraja. The two former concepts were re-established, with a third, older concept taking hold and this concept was called Devaraja, which was an idea borrowed by the Khmer Empire from the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Java, especially the idea of a scholar class based on Hindu Brahmins. The king, portrayed by state interests as a figure, then became—through a rigid cultural implementation—an object of worship. From then on the monarchy was largely removed from the people, living in palaces designed after Mount Meru, the kings turned themselves into a Chakravartin, where the king became an absolute and universal lord of his realm. Kings demanded that the universe be envisioned as resolving around them, for four centuries these kings ruled Ayutthaya, presiding over some of the greatest period of cultural, economic, and military growth in Thai History. Whereas feudalism developed in the European Middle Ages, Ayutthayan King Trailokanat instituted Sakdina and this comported with the names of two kingdoms further north, Lanna Million Fields and Sip Song Phan Na Twelve Thousand Fields. Rachasap is required by court etiquette as an honorific register consisting of a special vocabulary used exclusively for addressing the king, the king was chief administrator, chief legislator, and chief judge, with all laws, orders, verdict and punishments theoretically originating from his person
Monarchy of Thailand
–
King of Thailand
Monarchy of Thailand
–
Thailand
Monarchy of Thailand
–
King
Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke Rama I (Kings of Thailand) founder of the
Chakri Dynasty.
Monarchy of Thailand
–
King Prajadhipok signing the
Constitution of Siam on 10 December 1932.
18.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
Hindu
–
A Hindu wedding ritual in India.
Hindu
–
Hindu culture in Bali,
Indonesia. The Krishna-Arjuna sculpture inspired by the
Bhagavad Gita in
Denpasar (top), and Hindu dancers in traditional dress.
Hindu
Hindu
–
Hindus at
Har Ki Pauri,
Haridwar near river
Ganges in
Uttarakhand state of India.
19.
Shiva
–
ShiVa3D is a 3D game engine with a graphical editor designed to create applications and video games for desktop PCs, the web, game consoles and mobile devices. Games made with ShiVa can be exported to over 20 target platforms, numerous applications have been created using ShiVa, including the Prince of Persia 2 remake for Mobiles and Babel Rising published by Ubisoft. With ShiVa 2.0, the version of the Editor is currently under heavy development. ShiVa Editor 1. x runs exclusively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1, ShiVa 1. x games are being built by the ShiVa Authoring Tool, a free companion product to the Editor, which transforms game packages into native applications. Since not all platforms have SDKs for Windows, the Authoring Tool is available for Mac OS X as well as Windows, ShiVa Editor 2. x runs natively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1 x86/x8664, Mac OS X x8664 and Linux x8664. ShiVa is proprietary software and licensed under the ShiVa EULA. Several license packages are available, ShiVa Web Edition is free to download, exports are watermarked except for the ShiVa Web Player browser plugin, Adobe Flash and HTML5/WebGL. ShiVa Basic Edition was built for indie developers and small development studios, beta versions may be downloaded and tested. C++ Plugins can be designed and tested, but not exported
Shiva
20.
Torii
–
A torii is a traditional Japanese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the profane to the sacred. The presence of a torii at the entrance is usually the simplest way to identify Shinto shrines, and they are however a common sight at Japanese Buddhist temples too, where they stand at the entrance of the temples own shrine, called chinjusha and are usually very small. Their first appearance in Japan can be pinpointed to at least the mid-Heian period because they are mentioned in a text written in 922. The oldest existing stone torii was built in the 12th century, the oldest wooden torii is a ryōbu torii at Kubō Hachiman Shrine in Yamanashi prefecture built in 1535. Torii were traditionally made from wood or stone, but today they can be made of reinforced concrete, copper. They are usually either unpainted or painted vermilion with a black upper lintel, Inari shrines typically have many torii because those who have been successful in business often donate in gratitude a torii to Inari, kami of fertility and industry. Fushimi Inari-taisha in Kyoto has thousands of torii, each bearing the donors name. The function of a torii is to mark the entrance to a sacred space, for this reason, the road leading to a Shinto shrine is almost always straddled by one or more torii, which are therefore the easiest way to distinguish a shrine from a Buddhist temple. If the sandō passes under multiple torii, the outer of them is called ichi no torii, the following ones, closer to the shrine, are usually called, in order, ni no torii and san no torii. Other torii can be found farther into the shrine to represent increasing levels of holiness as one nears the inner sanctuary, Also, because of the strong relationship between Shinto shrines and the Japanese Imperial family, a torii stands also in front of the tombs of each Emperor. Whether torii existed in Japan before Buddhism or, to the contrary, arrived with it is, however, in the past torii must have been used also at the entrance of Buddhist temples. Even today, as prominent a temple as Osakas Shitennō-ji, founded in 593 by Shōtoku Taishi, many Buddhist temples include one or more Shinto shrines dedicated to their tutelary kami, and in that case a torii marks the shrines entrance. Benzaiten is a syncretic goddess derived from the Indian divinity Sarasvati which unites elements of both Shinto and Buddhism, for this reason halls dedicated to her can be found at both temples and shrines, and in either case in front of the hall stands a torii. The goddess herself is sometimes portrayed with a torii on her head, finally, until the Meiji period torii were routinely adorned with plaques carrying Buddhist sutras. The association between Japanese Buddhism and the torii is therefore old and profound, yamabushi, Japanese mountain ascetic hermits with a long tradition as mighty warriors endowed with supernatural powers, sometimes use as their symbol a torii. The torii is also used as a symbol of Japan in non-religious contexts. For example, it is the symbol of the Marine Corps Security Force Regiment, the origins of the torii are unknown and there are several different theories on the subject, none of which has gained universal acceptance. They may, for example, have originated in India from the gates in the monastery of Sanchi in central India
Torii
–
The famous torii at
Itsukushima Shrine, a Ryōbu-style torii.
Torii
–
A torii at the entrance of
Shitennō-ji, a Buddhist temple in
Osaka
Torii
–
Buddhist goddess
Benzaiten, a torii visible on her head
Torii
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
22.
OpenStreetMap
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OpenStreetMap is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. OSM is considered a prominent example of volunteered geographic information, created by Steve Coast in the UK in 2004, it was inspired by the success of Wikipedia and the predominance of proprietary map data in the UK and elsewhere. Since then, it has grown to over 2 million registered users, who can collect data using manual survey, GPS devices, aerial photography and these crowdsourced data are then made available under the Open Database Licence. The site is supported by the OpenStreetMap Foundation, an organisation registered in England. Rather than the map itself, the data generated by the OpenStreetMap project are considered its primary output, OpenStreetMap data have been favourably compared with proprietary datasources, though data quality varies worldwide. Steve Coast founded the project in 2004, initially focusing on mapping the United Kingdom, in the UK and elsewhere, government-run and tax-funded projects like the Ordnance Survey created massive datasets but failed to freely and widely distribute them. In April 2006, the OpenStreetMap Foundation was established to encourage the growth, development and distribution of free data and provide geospatial data for anybody to use. In December 2006, Yahoo. confirmed that OpenStreetMap could use its aerial photography as a backdrop for map production, sponsors of the event included Google, Yahoo. and Multimap. In October 2007, OpenStreetMap completed the import of a US Census TIGER road dataset, in December 2007, Oxford University became the first major organisation to use OpenStreetMap data on their main website. In March, two announced that they have received venture capital funding of €2.4 million for CloudMade. In November 2010, Bing changed their licence to use of their satellite imagery for making maps. In 2012, the launch of pricing for Google Maps led several prominent websites to switch from their service to OpenStreetMap and other competitors. Map data is collected from scratch by volunteers performing systematic ground surveys using tools such as a handheld GPS unit, the data is then entered into the OpenStreetMap database. Mapathon competition events are held by OpenStreetMap team and by non-profit organisations. The availability of photography and other data from commercial and government sources has added important sources of data for manual editing. Special processes are in place to handle automated imports and avoid legal and technical problems, editing of maps can be done using the default web browser editor called iD, an HTML5 application using D3. js and written by MapBox. The earlier Flash-based application Potlatch is retained for intermediate-level users, JOSM and Merkaartor are more powerful desktop editing applications that are better suited for advanced users. The GNOME Maps application developed for the GNOME desktop environment, which runs on many Linux operating systems, the project has a geographically diverse user-base, due to emphasis of local knowledge and ground truth in the process of data collection
OpenStreetMap
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Steve Coast (2009)
OpenStreetMap
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OpenStreetMap
OpenStreetMap
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Editing with
JOSM after a ground survey
OpenStreetMap
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Surveying routes with a GPS receiver
23.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
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Geographic data related to Giant Swing at OpenStreetMap
Geographic data related to 
