1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
PASOK
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It was founded on 3 September 1974 by Andreas Papandreou as a democratic socialist and left-wing Venizelist party. As a result of the 1981 legislative election, PASOK became Greeces first left-of-centre party to win a majority in the Hellenic Parliament, formerly one of the two major parties in Greek politics, it has lost much of its popular support as a result of the Greek debt crisis. When the crisis started PASOK was the party with George Papandreou as Prime Minister. The party was a part of two coalition governments from 2011 to 2015 during which unprecedented austerity measures were taken in response to the crisis. The first members of the party were the organizers of the collapse of the military junta of 1967–1974. Its founder was Andreas Papandreou, son of the late Greek liberal leader and its founding mottos were National Independence, Popular Sovereignty, Social Emancipation, Democratic Process. Papandreou, a powerful orator and charismatic leader, explicitly rejected the ideological heritage of his father. At the November 1977 elections, however, PASOK eclipsed the EK-ND, doubled its share of the vote and won 92 seats, becoming the main opposition party. At the October 1981 national elections the PASOK won a victory with 48% of the vote and capturing 173 seats. He proved to be an excellent negotiator when it came to securing benefits, for example, in 1985 he openly threatened Jacques Delors to veto the entry of Spain and Portugal in the Community in order to secure more monetary aid for Greece. In 1986, the PASOK government amended the Greek constitution to remove most powers from the President and give wider authority to the Prime Minister, civil marriages, not consecrated by religious ceremony, were recognized as equally valid with religious weddings. At the June 1985 elections, received 46% of the vote and won 161 seats and it continued to be popular for much of its second term, especially in March 1987 when Andreas Papandreou successfully handled a crisis in the Aegean with Turkey. By late 1988 however, both the popularity and Papandreous health had declined. PASOK lost the June 1989 elections with 40% of the vote while the opposing New Democracy received 44. 3%, PASOK had changed the electoral law before the elections, making it harder for the leading party to form a majority government, so the legislature was deadlocked. Another election in November produced a similar result. After a brief period of a coalition government, in which PASOK participated. Its representation in the Parliament shrunk to 121 MPs in 1990, in opposition, PASOK underwent a leadership crisis when Andreas Papandreou was prosecuted over his supposed involvement in the Bank of Crete scandal. He was eventually acquitted and, in a reversal of fortunes
3.
Legal education
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Legal education is the education of individuals in the principles, practices, and theory of law. Legal education can take the form of a variety of programs, including, Primary degrees in law, advanced academic degrees in law, such as masters and doctoral degrees. Practice or training courses, which prospective lawyers are required to pass in some countries before they may enter practice, applied or specialised law accreditation, which are less formal than degree programs but which provide specialised certification in particular areas. Continuing legal education, which do not lead to a qualification, early Western legal education emerged in Republican Rome. Initially those desiring to be advocates would train in schools of rhetoric, around the third century BC Tiberius Coruncanius began teaching law as a separate discipline. His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests, after Coruncanius death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts. It is possible that Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students to attend consultations with citizens in which he provided legal advice and these consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested. Canon and ecclesiastical law were studied in universities in medieval Europe, however, institutions providing education in the domestic law of each country emerged later in the eighteen century. In England, legal education emerged in the thirteenth century through apprenticeships. The Inns of Court controlled admission to practice and also provided legal training. English universities had taught Roman and canon law for some time, in many countries, including most of those in the Commonwealth of Nations, the principal law degree is an undergraduate degree, usually known as a Bachelor of Laws. Graduates of such a program are eligible to become lawyers by passing the countrys equivalent of a bar exam, in these countries, graduate law programs are advanced degrees which allow for more in-depth study or specialisation. In the United States, the law degree is a graduate degree known as the Juris Doctor. Students may pursue such a degree only after completing an undergraduate degree, the undergraduate degree can be in any field, though most American lawyers hold bachelors degrees in the humanities and social sciences. American law schools are usually an autonomous entity within a larger university, Primary degrees in law are offered by law schools, known in some countries as faculties of law. Law schools may have varying degrees of autonomy within a university or, in some countries. Higher degrees allow for advanced academic study. These include the Masters of Law by coursework or research, practitioners may undertake a Masters of Law by coursework to obtain greater specialisation in an area in which they practice
4.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
5.
Greeks
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The Greeks or Hellenes are an ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Albania, Turkey, Sicily, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world, many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization. The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, most ethnic Greeks live nowadays within the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor, other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church, the Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic. They are part of a group of ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an archetypal diaspora people. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age, the Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and, by the 15th century BC, had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor. Around 1200 BC, the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus, the Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible. The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as an era of heroes, closeness of the gods. The Homeric Epics were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past, as part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity. The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC, the works of Homer and Hesiod were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology. The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period, the classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC. It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras, the Peloponnesian War, the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states Athens and Sparta and their allies, left both greatly weakened. Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia, two thousand years later, there are still communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan, like the Kalash, who claim to be descended from Greek settlers. The Hellenistic civilization was the period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexanders death. This Hellenistic age, so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non-Greek cultures and this age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi, Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors. An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian peoples and this led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation
6.
Citizenship of the United States
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Citizenship in the United States is a status that entails specific rights, duties and benefits. State citizenship may affect tax decisions and eligibility for some state-provided benefits such as higher education, in Article One of the Constitution, the power to establish a uniform rule of naturalization is granted explicitly to Congress. A citizen of another country naturalized as a U. S. citizen may retain their previous citizenship, a U. S. citizen retains U. S. citizenship when becoming the citizen of another country, should that countrys laws allow it. Citizenship can be renounced by American citizens who hold another citizenship via a formal procedure at a U. S. Embassy. United States citizens have the right to reside and work in the United States, certain non-citizens, such as permanent residents, have similar rights, however, non-citizens, unlike citizens, may have the right taken away. For example, they may be deported if convicted of a serious crime, freedom to enter and leave the United States. United States citizens have the right to enter and leave the United States freely, certain non-citizens, such as permanent residents, have similar rights. Unlike permanent residents, U. S. citizens do not have an obligation to maintain residence in the U. S. – they can leave for any length of time, voting for federal office in all fifty states and the District of Columbia is restricted to citizens only. States are not required to extend the franchise to all citizens, for example, several states bar citizen felons from voting, even after they have completed any custodial sentence. The United States Constitution bars states from restricting citizens from voting on grounds of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, failure to pay any tax, or age. Historically, many states and local jurisdictions have allowed non-citizens to vote, however, citizens are not compelled to vote. Freedom to stand for public office, most states have similar requirements, for example California requires that legislators have been citizens for three years, and the Governor have been a citizen for five years, upon taking office. Constitution requires that one be a natural born Citizen and a U. S. resident for fourteen years in order to be President of the United States, the Constitution also stipulates that otherwise eligible citizens must meet certain age requirements for these offices. Jury duty is imposed upon citizens. Johns Hopkins University political scientist Benjamin Ginsberg writes, The professional military has limited the need for citizen soldiers, in the United States today, everyone except those whose income is derived from tax-exempt revenue is required to file a federal income tax return. American citizens are subject to income tax on worldwide income regardless of their country of residence. Consular protection outside the United States, while traveling abroad, if a person is arrested or detained by foreign authorities, the person can request to speak to somebody from the U. S. Embassy or Consulate. Consular officials can provide resources for Americans incarcerated abroad, such as a list of attorneys who speak English
7.
Hellenic Parliament
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The Hellenic Parliament is the parliament of Greece, located in the Old Royal Palace, overlooking Syntagma Square in Athens. The Parliament is the democratic institution that represents the citizens through an elected body of Members of Parliament. It is a legislature of 300 members, elected for a four-year term. During 1844–63 and 1927–35 the parliament was bicameral with a house, the Senate, and a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies. Several important Greek statesmen have served as Speakers of the Hellenic Parliament, in October 1862 a rising wave of discontent led the people and the military to rebel again against King Otto and oust him along with the Wittelsbach dynasty. The revolt marked the end of monarchy and the beginning of a crowned democracy with George Christian Wilhelm of the Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderburg-Glücksburg dynasty as monarch. The Constitution of 1864 was the product of the 2nd Athens National Assembly, included 110 articles and was influenced by the Constitutions of Belgium, in addition, it established the principles of direct, universal and secret ballot which would take place simultaneously in the entirety of the country. The Assembly opted for a single-chamber Parliament for a four-year term, the new Constitution would also allow Parliament to establish fact-finding, investigation committees. In 1911, a revision of the resulted in stronger human rights, the reinforcement of the Rule of Law. Furthermore, the Constitution facilitated expropriation so as for land to be allocated to poor farmers, finally, it was the first time that the Constitution made provision for mandatory and free education for all, while the process of Constitutional revision was simplified. The Constitution of 1927 guaranteed further protection of individual rights while it consolidated certain social rights. However, its most significant feature was that it made provision for a head of state that the Parliament and it also recognized the status of political parties as organic elements of the polity and established their proportional representation in the composition of parliamentary committees. Another important feature was the establishment of the parliamentary system. It was the first time the Greek Constitution included a clause according to which it was imperative that the Cabinet enjoy the trust of the Parliament, following World War II, the development of parliamentary institutions resumed in 1948 and in the beginning of the 1950s. The Constitution of 1952 consisted of 114 articles and to an extent was strongly attached to the Constitutions of 1864 and 1911. After seven years of dictatorship, on 8 December 1974. By a majority of 69. 18%, the Greeks decided against a constitutional monarchy, greeces current Constitution has been revised three times, with the first one taking place in 1986, when the responsibilities of the President of the Republic were significantly curtailed. In 2001 a very extensive revision took place as a total of 79 articles were amended, the Greek Parliament currently has 300 members
8.
New Democracy (Greece)
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The New Democracy, also referred to as ND by its initials, is a liberal-conservative political party in Greece. In modern Greek politics, New Democracy has been the main political party. The party was founded in 1974 by Konstantinos Karamanlis and in the year it formed the first cabinet of the Third Hellenic Republic. New Democracy is a member of the European Peoples Party, the Centrist Democrat International, New Democracy was founded on 4 October 1974 by Konstantinos Karamanlis, in the beginning of the metapolitefsi era following the fall of the Greek military junta. He intended New Democracy to be a modern and progressive political party than the right-wing parties that ruled Greece before the 1967 Greek coup détat. The next major issue for the New Democracy cabinet was the creation of the Constitution of Greece, in the 1977 election, New Democracy won again a large parliamentary majority of 171 seats, albeit with a reduced percentage of popular vote. Under Karamanlis, Greece redefined its relations with NATO and tried to resolve the Cyprus dispute following the Turkish invasion of the island and it was the first conference of any Greek political party whose delegates were elected by the members. Meanwhile, Karamanlis relinquished the premiership in 1980 and was elected as President of Greece by the parliament, georgios Rallis was elected as the new leader of New Democracy and succeeded Karamanlis in premiership. 87% share of the vote and 115 seats. In the same day, on 18 October 1981, New Democracy was also defeated in the first Greek election to the European Parliament, in the subsequent elections of November 1989, New Democracy took one more comfortable win, increasing its share to 46. Eventually, in the 1990 election Mitsotakis New Democracy defeated once again Papandreous PASOK with a lead of 8. 28%, in foreign policy, the priorities were the restoration of confidence among Greeces economic and political partners, NATO and the United States. In the 1993 elections, New Democracy suffered a defeat with 39. 30% of the vote, something that led to Mitsotakis resignation. In the early 1996 legislative election, New Democracy was defeated again by Costas Simitis PASOK registering 38. 12%, however, in the spring of 1997 a new conference took place, in order to elect a new president among others. Kostas Karamanlis, nephew of the founder, was elected the sixth president of New Democracy. The regions that consistently support New Democracy include the Peloponnese, Central Macedonia, on the other hand, the party is weak in Crete, the Aegean Islands, Attica and West Greece. On 16 September 2007, Kostas Karamanlis won re-election with a majority in Parliament. You have spoken loud and clear and chosen the course the country will take in the few years. On 2 September 2009 Karamanlis announced his intention to call an election, the parliament was dissolved on 9 September, and the 2009 legislative election was held on 4 October. New Democracys share of the vote dropped to 33. 47% and they won only 91 of 300 seats
9.
Syriza
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The Coalition of the Radical Left, mostly known by the syllabic abbreviation Syriza, is a left-wing political party in Greece, founded in 2004 as a coalition of left-wing and radical left parties. The party colors are red, green, and purple, the current leader and prime minister of Syriza is Alexis Tsipras. Review the role of the European Union and redetermine Greeces position on it, the Space also provided the common ground from which several of the member parties and organizations launched the Greek Social Forum, part of the larger European Social Forum. The defining moment for the birth of Syriza came with the election of 2004. Most of the participants of the Space sought to develop a platform that could lead to an electoral alliance. This led to the formation of the Coalition of the Radical Left. In the election, the coalition gathered 241,539 votes, all six were members of Synaspismós, the largest of the coalition parties. This led to tension within the coalition. After the 2004 election, the parties accused Synaspismós of not honoring an agreement to have one of its members of parliament resign so that Yannis Banias of the AKOA could take his seat. Tension built up and resulted in the split of the Internationalist Workers Left, the frame of the crisis within SYRIZA was the reluctance of Synaspismós to adopt and maintain the political agreement for a clear denial of centre-left politics. The crisis ended in December 2004 with the 4th convention of Synaspismós, the coalition ticket in the municipality of Athens was headed by Alexis Tsipras, proposed by Alavanos who declared Synaspismóss opening to the new generation. On 16 September 2007, Syriza gained 5. 0% of the vote in the 2007 Greek legislative election, opinion polls had already indicated that the Coalition was expected to make significant gains in the election, with predictions ranging from 4% to 5% of the electorate. Prior to the election, on 22 June, the parties had agreed on a common declaration. The Coalition of 2007 has also expanded from its composition in 2004. On 20 June 2007, the Communist Organization of Greece announced its participation into the Coalition, on 21 August the environmentalist Ecological Intervention also joined, and on 22 August 2007, the Democratic Social Movement also announced its participation in the Coalition. On 2 September, the Areios Pagos refused to include the title of DIKKI in the Syriza electoral alliance and this was criticised by Syriza and DIKKI as inappropriate interference by the courts in party political activity. On 27 November 2007, Alavanos announced that, for private reasons, the 5th party congress of Synaspismós elected Alexis Tsipras, a municipal councillor for the municipality of Athens, as party president on 10 February 2008. Alavanos retained the leadership of Syriza, however, as Tsipras was not at that time a member of parliament
10.
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
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The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, usually referred to simply as the University of Athens, is a public university in Athens, Greece. Today it is the biggest university in Europe, with more than 104,000 registered students, the University of Athens was founded on May 3,1837 by King Otto of Greece and was named in his honour Othonian University. It was the first university in the liberated Greek state and in the area of the Southeast Europe as well. It was also the academic institution after the Ionian Academy. This fledging university consisted of four faculties, Theology, Law, Medicine, during its first year of operation, the institution was staffed by 33 professors, while courses were attended by 52 students and 75 non-matriculated auditors. It was first housed in the residence of architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert, on the slope of the Acropolis, in Plaka. In November 1841 the university relocated on the Central Building of the University of Athens and he followed a neoclassical approach, combining the monuments magnificence with a human scale simplicity and gave the building its H-shape. Construction began in 1839 in a location to the north of the Acropolis and its front wing, also known as the Propylaea, was completed in 1842–1843. The rest of the construction, that was supervised at first by Greek architect Lysandros Kaftantzoglou. The building is part of what is called the Athenian Neoclassical Trilogy. The Othonian University was renamed to National University in 1862, following events that forced King Otto to leave the country and it was later renamed to National and Kapodistrian University of Athens to honour Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first head of state of the independent modern Greek state. In 1919, a department of chemistry was added, and in 1922 the School of Pharmacy was renamed a Department, a further change came about when the School of Dentistry was added to the faculty of medicine. Between 1895 and 1911, an average of 1,000 new students matriculated each year and this resulted in the decision to introduce entrance examinations for all the faculties, beginning for the academic year 1927–28. Since 1954 the number of students admitted each year has been fixed by the Ministry of Education and Religion, from 1911 until 1932 the university was separated into the Kapodistrian University and the National University. In 1932, the two legal entities were merged into the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. During the 1960s construction work began on the University Campus in the suburb of Ilissia, in a statement, the University Senate said that any educational, research and administrative operation of the University of Athens is objectively impossible. The emblem of the University of Athens is the pagan goddess Athena, the University of Athens is divided into schools, faculties and departments as follows. The naming is nοt consistent in English for historical reasons, but in Greek the largest divisions are generally named σχολές and are divided in τμήματα, there the faculties of Science, Theology and Philosophy are situated
11.
Civil service
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A civil servant or public servant is a person so employed in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the service varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants whereas county or city employees are not, many consider the study of service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in non-departmental public bodies may also be classed as servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms. Collectively a states civil servants form its service or public service. An international civil servant or international staff member is an employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation but are governed by internal staff regulations, All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO. Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission of the United Nations and its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. The origin of the modern civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the states bureaucracy and this system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit, after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system. This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty, which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations, the first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui. The examination tested the candidates memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms, the system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package. The Chinese system was admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. In the 18th century, in response to changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase, by the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. The origins of the British civil service are better known, during the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806, in that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College, near London to train and examine administrators of the Companys territories in India
12.
Athens
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Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. In modern times, Athens is a cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime. In 2015, Athens was ranked the worlds 29th richest city by purchasing power, Athens is recognised as a global city because of its location and its importance in shipping, finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, culture, education and tourism. It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe, with a financial sector. The municipality of Athens had a population of 664,046 within its limits. The urban area of Athens extends beyond its administrative city limits. According to Eurostat in 2011, the Functional urban areas of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union, Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a number of Ottoman monuments. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery, Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics. In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι a plural, in earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη. It was possibly rendered in the later on, like those of Θῆβαι and Μυκῆναι. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα, an etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements, in an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. Different etymologies, now rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος or ἄνθος meaning flower, ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- to denote Athens as having fertile soil. In classical literature, the city was referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindars ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι. In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, today the caption η πρωτεύουσα, the capital, has become somewhat common
