1.
Prime Minister of Italy
–
The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
2.
Francesco Cossiga
–
Francesco Cossiga, OMRI was an Italian politician of the Christian Democracy party. He was the 42nd Prime Minister of Italy from 1979 to 1980 and he was also a professor of constitutional law at the University of Sassari. Cossiga was born in Sassari in northern Sardinia and he started his political career during World War II. His name is now pronounced, but it was originally pronounced, with the stress on the first syllable, meaning Corsica in Sardinian. He was the cousin of Enrico Berlinguer and he was a minister several times for the Democrazia Cristiana party, notably during his stay at Viminale where he re-structured the Italian police, civil protection and secret services. He was in office at the time of the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro by Red Brigades, and resigned as Minister of the Interior when Moro was found dead in 1978. According to Italian journalist Enrico Deaglio, Cossiga, to justify his lack of action, accused the leaders of CGIL, Cossiga was also minister of internal affairs when Fascist terrorists bombed Bologna station in 1980. Francesco Cossiga first assumed the explosion to have been caused by an accident, Cossiga was elected President of the Italian Senate 12 July 1983, a position he held until 24 June 1985, when he became the President of Italy. Following his resignation as president of the Senate in 1985, Cossiga was elected as President of Italy and this was the first time an Italian presidential candidate had won on the first ballot. It was not until his last two years as President that Cossiga began to some unusual opinions regarding the Italian political system. He opined that the Italian parties, especially the DC and Italian Communist Party, had to take account the deep changes brought about by the fall of the Berlin Wall. Cossiga suffered from bipolar disorder and depression in the last years of his life, tension developed between Cossiga and Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti. Cossiga acknowledged his involvement in the establishment of the organization, the Democratic Party of the Left started the procedure of impeachment. Although he threatened to prevent the impeachment procedure by dissolving Parliament, Cossiga resigned two months before the end of his term, on 25 April 1992. In February 1998, Cossiga created the Unione Democratica per la Repubblica, the UDR was a crucial component of the majority that supported the DAlema government in October 1998, after the fall of the Prodi government which lost a vote of confidence. Cossiga declared that his support for DAlema was intended to end the exclusion of the former Communist Party leaders from the premiership in Italy. In 1999 UDR was dissolved and Cossiga returned to his activities as a senator, on 27 November 2006, he resigned from his position as a lifetime senator. His resignation was, however, rejected on 31 January 2007 by a vote of the Senate, Cossiga died on 17 August 2010 from respiratory problems
3.
Giuliano Amato
–
Giuliano Amato OMRI is an Italian politician who twice served as Prime Minister of Italy, first from 1992 to 1993 and again from 2000 to 2001. Later, he was Vice President of the Convention on the Future of Europe that drafted the European Constitution and he is commonly nicknamed dottor Sottile. From 2006 to 2008, he was the Minister of the Interior in Romano Prodis government, on 12 September 2013, President Giorgio Napolitano appointed him to the Constitutional Court of Italy, where he has served since then. Born in Turin into a Sicilian family, Amato grew up in Tuscany, after teaching at the Universities of Modena, Perugia and Florence, he worked as professor of Italian and Comparative Constitutional Law at the University of Rome La Sapienza from 1975 to 1997. Amato began his career in 1958, when he joined the Italian Socialist Party. He was a Member of Parliament from 1983 to 1993 and he was Undersecretary of State to the Prime Ministers office from 1983 to 1987, Deputy Prime Minister from 1987 to 1988, and Minister for the Treasury from 1987 to 1989. From June 1992 to April 1993, Amato served as Prime Minister, during those ten months, a series of corruption scandals rocked Italy and swept away almost an entire class of political leaders. Amato himself was never implicated, notwithstanding how close he was to Bettino Craxi, fearing that the new system would have effectively blocked investigations on political corruption, Italians took to the streets in massive, spontaneous rallies. President Oscar Luigi Scalfaro refused to sign the decree, deeming it blatantly unconstitutional, while his justice minister Giovanni Conso took the blame, it has been disputed whether Amato was a victim of circumstances or whether he really wanted to save the corruption-ridden system. However, this promise was short-lived, Amato has regularly come under criticism for having such a solemn commitment. Amato was nearly nominated for the Presidency of the Republic and was a contender to replace Michel Camdessus as head of the International Monetary Fund. Amato served as Prime Minister again from April 2000 to May 2001 and he promoted economic competitiveness as well as social protection. In addition to reforms, he pushed ahead with political and institutional reforms, trying to deal with a weak executive. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, Amato was a Member of the Senate representing the constituency of Grosseto in Tuscany from 2001 to 2006. In 2006, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Olive Tree list, since 2010, he also leads advanced seminar classes at the Master in International Public Affairs of the LUISS School of Government. Amato is married to Ms Diana Amato, a professor of Family Law at the University of Rome and they have two children, Elisa and Lorenzo, and five grandchildren, Giulia, Marco, Simone, Elena and Irene. Giuliano Amato serves as an Honorary Co-Chair for the World Justice Project, the World Justice Project works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity. In 2012 Giuliano Amato was appointed as President of the SantAnna School of Advanced Studies, as alumnus of SantAnna School of Advanced Studies, he guarded close contact with the university, previously heading SantAnna Alumni Association
4.
Amintore Fanfani
–
Amintore Fanfani was an Italian politician and the Prime Minister of Italy for five separate runs. Fanfani and the liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti still hold the record as the only statesmen to have served as Prime Minister of Italy in five non-consecutive periods of office. Fanfani was one of the dominant figures of the Italian Christian Democrats for over three decades and he is considered one of the most important and influential politicians in Italian history. Fanfani was born in Pieve Santo Stefano, in the province of Arezzo, Tuscany, to a large and he graduated in economics and business in 1932 at the Università Cattolica in Milan. He was the author of a number of important works on economic history dealing with religion and his thesis was published in Italian and then in English as Catholicism, Capitalism and Protestantism in 1935. He joined the National Fascist Party supporting the corporatist ideas of the regime promoting collaboration between the classes, which he defended in many articles, some day, he once wrote, the European continent will be organized into a vast supranational area guided by Italy and Germany. Those areas will take authoritarian governments and synchronize their constitutions with Fascist principles and he also wrote for the official magazine of racism in Fascist Italy, The Defence of the Race. Fanfani also became a professor at the School of Fascist Mysticism in Milan and this work brought him to the forefront among US Catholics, especially was much appreciated by John F. Kennedy. During the years he spent in Milan, he knew Giuseppe Dossetti and they formed a group known as the little professors who lived ascetically in monastery cells and walked barefoot. After the surrender of Italy with the Allied armed forces on 8 September 1943, until the Liberation in April 1945, Fanfani fled to Switzerland dodging military service, and organized university courses for Italian refugees. Upon his return to Italy, he was elected vice-secretary of the newly founded Christian Democratic Party and he was as one of the youngest party leaders and a protégé of Alcide De Gasperi, the undisputed leader of the party for the following decade. There is a gulf between the Catholic and the capitalist conception of life. Private economic initiative, in his view, was only if harnessed to the common good. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and was a member of the Commission that drafted the text of the new Republican Constitution, the first article of the new constitution reflected Fanfanis philosophy. He proposed an article, which read, Italy is a republic founded on labor. In 1948 he was elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies, under De Gasperi, Fanfani took on a succession of ministries. He was Minister of Labour from 1947–1948 and again from 1948–1950, Minister of Agriculture from 1951–1953, as Minister of Labour, he developed the Fanfani house program for government-built workers homes and put 200,000 of Italys many unemployed to work on a reforestation program. As Minister of Agriculture, he set in motion much of the Christian Democrats land reform program, on 28 February 1949 Fanfani launched a seven-year plan for popular housing to increase the stock of economic housing by means of construction or purchase of economic accommodation
5.
Ciriaco De Mita
–
Ciriaco Luigi De Mita is an Italian politician. He served as the 47th Prime Minister of Italy from 1988 to 1989, De Mita was born in Nusco in the Avellinese hinterland. As a young man De Mita joined Christian Democracy and entered politics and he rose through the ranks of the party, becoming a member of its council in 1956, a member of Parliament in 1963 and a member of the Italian cabinet in 1973. During the next decade he served as Minister of Industry and then as Minister of Foreign Trade, De Mita became chairman of the party in 1982 at a time when its power was declining. He was re-elected in 1986 with 60% support from the party, the Christian Democrats did well in the elections of 1987. De Mita waited a year to become Prime Minister, and then served as Prime Minister for a year, at the beginning of that service, on 16 April 1988, in Forlì, Red Brigades killed Senator Roberto Ruffilli, an advisor of De Mita. De Mita returned in Parliament, after a lag of two years, in 1996 and he then joined the Italian Peoples Party and later Democracy is Freedom - The Daisy, party of which he is regional coordinator for Campania. He headed the Olive Trees list in his region in 2006, offended by the decision, he left the party in retaliation, and joined the Union of the Centre. After the 2008 elections, De Mita was not elected at the Italian Senate, De Mita won a seat in the European Parliament in the June 2009 European election, at age 81, he was the oldest candidate to win a seat in that election. On 25 May 2014 De Mita was elected as mayor of Nusco, his native town
6.
Vincenzo Visco
–
Vincenzo Alfonso Visco is an Italian politician and economist who has served as a government minister. He gained an MSc in Economics at the University of York in 1969 and was awarded an degree in 2004. He served as Finance Minister for a few days in 1993 and then again from 1996 to 2000 and he returned to government in 2006 as Vice-Minister of Economy, a role in which he courted controversy. He was accused of using his influence to benefit Unipol in a bank takeover. He also hit the headlines in this role when he described the debt as a disaster
7.
Bettino Craxi
–
Benedetto Bettino Craxi was an Italian politician, leader of the Italian Socialist Party from 1976 to 1993 and Prime Minister of Italy from 1983 to 1987. He was the first member of the PSI to hold the office and he led the third-longest government in the Italian Republic, and he is considered one of the most powerful and prominent politicians of the so-called First Republic. Craxi was involved in investigations conducted by Mani Pulite judges in Milan, eventually being convicted for corruption, Craxis govermment and party were also supported by future Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, a media magnate and personal friend of Craxi. Bettino Craxi maintained strong links with many leaders of the European left, including Felipe González, Bettino Craxi was born in Milan on 24 February 1934. His father, Vittorio Craxi, was a Sicilian lawyer and anti-fascist who was persecuted by the regime of Benito Mussolini, his mother, Maria Ferrari, was a housewife from SantAngelo Lodigiano. After the war Vittorio Craxi assumed the role of vice-prefect in Milan and then the prefect in Como, a few months later Bettino returned to the college, first in Como and then in Cantù, arriving in a step by start the seminary. Vittorio Craxi stood in the 1948 general election for the Popular Democratic Front, Bettino campaigned for his father and later joined the Italian Socialist Party at the age of 17. Craxi was precocious and ascended to many levels of office at an early age. In November 1956 he was elected councilor in SantAngelo Lodigiano from. In 1961 he was excluded from the Central Committee of the Socialist Party by the new Secretary Francesco De Martino, in 1963 he was appointed leader of the Milan Provincial Secretariat of the PSI and in 1965 Craxi became a member of the National Leadership. Meanwhile in November 1964, he was re-elected city councilor in Milan, continuing his public commitment as assessor for Charity, in 1968 general election Craxi was elected for the first time at the Chamber of Deputies with 23,788 votes, in the constituency of Milan–Pavia. Nel 1970 after the end of the PSU alliance, Craxi became Vice Secretary of the PSI, in 1976 the Secretary Francesco De Martino wrote an article in the Socialist newspaper Avanti. Instead for the PSI those elections were a crushing defeat, the votes went down under the threshold of 10%, De Martino, pointing to a new alliance with the Communists, was forced to resign and opened a serious crisis within the party. Bettino Craxi was appointed to the vacant position of National Secretary of the party, ironically, the old guard saw him as short-lived leader, allowing each faction time to regroup. However, he was able to power and implement his policies. He outlined for a line of alternation between the DC and the left-wing, represented by his party, due to the relations between the PCI and the Soviet Union. Firing automatic weapons, the terrorists killed Moros bodyguards and kidnapped him, in 1978 Craxi decided to change the party logo of the party. He chose a red carnation to represent the new course of the party, the party shrank the size of the old hammer and sickle in the lower part of the symbol
8.
Beniamino Andreatta
–
Beniamino Nino Andreatta was an Italian economist and politician. He was a member of the center right Christian Democrat and one of the founders of the center right Italian Peoples Party in 1994, at the Liceo Classico Giovanni Prati di Trento was a school friend of Giorgio Grigolli, then President of the Autonomous Province of Trento. In 1961, after his marriage to his wife Giana, he went to India on behalf of MIT, the following year he became a full professor. During his academic career he taught at the Catholic University of Milan as a volunteer assistant, in Bologna founded the Institute of Economics and the Faculty of Political Sciences. Among his students and collaborators many brilliant economists, including Romano Prodi that from 1963 became his assistant and he had a long association with Bruno Kessler, president of the Province of Trento from 1960 to 1974, on the theme of autonomy. In 1972 he was among the founders, with Paul Sylos Labini, of the University of Calabria in Rende, the proximity to Aldo Moro favored his political rise within the Christian Democrats, and from 1976 to 1992 was a member of Parliament for the Christian Democrats. He was Treasury Secretary from October 1980 to December 1982 in the government of Arnaldo Forlani, in July 1982 a quarrel with the socialist Minister of Finance Rino Formica brought down the Spadolini government. He did not participate in the governments of Bettino Craxi and Giulio Andreotti. His stay at the Treasury coincided with some of the most critical years in the history of contemporary Italy, with the onset of the scandal of the IOR of Roberto Calvi and Paul Marcinkus, Andreatta imposed the dissolution of the Banco Ambrosiano, ignoring political and media pressures. Andreatta himself held a speech in Parliament publicly reporting responsibilities of the Vatican bank. In the eighties, he was chairman of the Senate Budget Committee. He was vice president of the European Peoples Party from 1984 to 1987 and he was one of the main proponents and supporters of the birth of the Olive Tree coalition. He launched Operazione Alba and proposed ideas to build and organize a European defense forces, after the fall of the Prodi government in 1998, he founded Charter 14 June, an association which aimed to broaden the basis of democratic consensus and to reduce the power of parties. During the election campaign for the European elections of 1999, he supported an alliance between the PPI and the Democrats, on December 15,1999, during a parliamentary session for the vote of the budget, he had a serious heart attack and ended up in a coma. Andreatta suffered from cerebral hypoxia for twenty minutes, reporting permanent damage, on 1 January 2000 he was transferred on board a military transport from St. James to St. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital of Bologna. Andreatta until his death never regained consciousness, dying after more than seven years on 26 March 2007 in the intensive care unit of the Policlinico S. Orsola Bologna. The daughter Eleonora, nicknamed Tinny, is an executive of Rai and. Questioni di politica e di economia, Il Mulino, Bologna 2002
9.
Giulio Andreotti
–
Andreotti is widely considered the most powerful and prominent politician of the so-called First Republic. In foreign policy, he guided Italys European Union integration, admirers of Andreotti saw him as having mediated political and social contradictions, enabling the transformation of a substantially rural country into the fifth-biggest economy in the world. Critics said he had nothing against a system of patronage that had led to pervasive corruption. At the height of his prestige as a statesman, Andreotti was subjected to damaging criminal prosecutions, charged with colluding with Cosa Nostra, courts found he had broken the links by the 1980s, and ruled the case out of time. The most sensational allegation came from prosecutors in Perugia, who charged him with ordering the murder of a journalist and he was found guilty at a trial, which led to complaints that the justice system had gone mad. Definitively acquitted by the court, Andreotti remarked, Apart from the Punic Wars, for which I was too young. Andreotti served as the 41st Prime Minister of Italy from 1972 to 1973, from 1976 to 1979 and he also served as Minister of the Interior, Defence Minister and Foreign Minister and was a Senator for life from 1991 until his death in 2013. He was also a journalist and author, Andreotti was sometimes called Divo Giulio. During the 16th term of the Senate in 2008–13, he opted to join the parliamentary group UDC – independence, Giulio Andreotti, the youngest of three children, was born on 14 January 1919 in Rome. His father was a school teacher from Segni, a small town in Lazio. Andreotti attended the Liceo Torquato Tasso in Rome and graduated in Law at the University of Rome and he showed some ferocity as a youth, once stubbing out a lit taper in the eye of another altar boy who was ridiculing him. His mother was described as not very affectionate, and an aunt is said to have advised him to remember that few things in life are important, as an adult he was described as having a somewhat unusual demeanor for an Italian politician, being mild-mannered and unassuming. Andreotti did not use his influence to advance his children to prominence, see all, tolerate much, and correct one thing at a time, was a quote that emphasised what has been called his art of the possible view of politics. Andreotti was known for his discretion and retentive memory, and also a sense of humour, Andreotti did not shine at his school and started work in a tax office while studying law at the University of Rome. In this period he became a member of the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students and its members included many of the future leaders of the Italian Christian Democracy. In 1938 while researching the papal navy in the Vatican library, he met Alcide De Gasperi, De Gasperi asked Andreotti if he had nothing better to do with his time, inspiring him to become politically active. Speaking of De Gasperi, Andreotti said, He taught us to search for compromise, in July 1939, while Aldo Moro was president of FUCI, Andreotti became director of its magazine Azione Fucina. In 1942, when Moro was enrolled in the Italian Army, Andreotti succeeded him as president of FUCI, during his early years Andreotti suffered violent migraines that forced him to sporadically make use of psychoactive drugs and opiates
10.
Asti
–
Asti listen is a city and comune of about 75,000 inhabitants located in the Piedmont region of northwestern Italy, about 55 kilometres east of Turin in the plain of the Tanaro River. It is the capital of the province of Asti and it is deemed to be the capital of Monferrato. People have lived in and around what is now Asti since the Neolithic period, before their defeat in 174 BC by the Romans, tribes of Ligures, the Statielli, dominated the area and the toponym probably derives from Ast which means hill in the ancient Celtic language. In 124 BC the Romans built a castrum, or fortified camp, in 89 BC the city received the status of colonia, and in 49 BC that of municipium. Asti become an important city of the Augustan Regio IX, favoured by its position on the Tanaro river and on the Via Fulvia. Other roads connected the city to the passes for what are today Switzerland. The city was crucial during the stages of the barbarian invasions which stormed Italy during the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In early 402 AD the Visigoths had invaded northern Italy and were advancing on Mediolanum which was the capital at that time. Honorius, the emperor and a resident in that city. However, just after his convoy had left Milan and crossed the River Po his escape route through the Alps was cut off by the Gothic cavalry and this forced him to take emergency refuge in the city of Hasta until more Roman troops could be assembled in Italy. The Goths placed Hasta under siege until March when General Stilicho, bringing reinforcements from the Rhine, fought, in the second half of the 6th century it was chosen as seat for one of the 36 Duchies in which the Lombards divided Italy. The territory of Asti comprised an area, stretching out to Albenga. This remained when northern Italy was conquered by the Franks in 774, in the late Carolingian age Asti was ruled directly by his bishops, who were the main landlords of the area. Most important are Audax and Bruningus, who moved the seat to the Castel Vecchio. The bishopric of Asti remained a powerful entity well into the 11th century, in the second half of the century, Bishop Otto tried to resist the aims of the powerful countess Adelaide of Susa, who damaged the city several times. During Ottos reign, a commune and the magistrates are mentioned for the first time. Asti was one of the first free communes of Italy, after a short siege, Asti was stormed and burnt. Subsequently, Asti adhered to the Lombard League against the German emperor, despite this, after the Peace of Constance, the city gained further privileges
11.
Piedmont
–
Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
12.
Kingdom of Italy
–
The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
13.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
14.
Italians
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
15.
Christian Democracy (Italy)
–
Christian Democracy was a Christian democratic political party in Italy. The DC was founded in 1943 as the successor of the Italian Peoples Party, which had the same symbol. The party was nicknamed the White Whale, from 1946 until 1994 the DC was the largest party in Parliament, governing in successive coalitions. It originally supported governments based on political positions, before moving to centre-left coalitions. The party was succeeded by a string of parties, including the Italian Peoples Party, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats. Former Christian Democrats are also spread among other parties, including the centre-right Forza Italia and the New Centre-Right, the DC was a founding member of the European Peoples Party in 1976. The party was founded as the revival of the Italian Peoples Party, a party created in 1919 by Luigi Sturzo. In December 1945 Christian Democrat Alcide De Gasperi was appointed Prime Minister of Italy, in the 1946 general election the DC won 35. 2% of the vote. In May 1947 De Gasperi broke decisively with his Communist and Socialist coalition partners under pressure from U. S. President Harry Truman. This opened the way for a centrist coalition that included the Italian Workers Socialist Party, a centrist break-away from the PSI, as well as its allies, the PLI. In the 1948 general election the DC went on to win a victory, with the support of the Catholic Church and the United States. Under De Gasperi, major reforms were carried out in the poorer rural regions in the early postwar years, with farms appropriated from the large landowners. De Gasperi served as Prime Minister until 1953 and would die a year later. No Christian Democrat would match his longevity in office and, despite the fact that DCs share of vote was always between 38 and 43% from 1953 to 1979, the party was more and more fractious, as a result, Prime Ministers changed more frequently. From 1954 the DC was led by progressive Christian Democrats, such as Amintore Fanfani, Aldo Moro and Benigno Zaccagnini, supported by the influential left-wing factions. In 1963 the party, under Prime Minister Aldo Moro, formed a coalition with the PSI, which returned to ministerial roles after 16 years, the PSDI, similar Organic Centre-left governments became usual through the 1960s and the 1970s. From 1976 to 1979 the DC governed with the support of the PCI. Moro, who was the party leader and who had inspired the Compromise, was abducted and murdered by the Red Brigades
16.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
17.
European Parliament
–
The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community
18.
La Stampa
–
La Stampa is an Italian daily newspaper published in Turin, Italy. It is distributed in Italy and other European nations and it is one of the oldest newspapers in Italy. The paper was founded by Vittorio Bersezio, a journalist and novelist, in 1895, the newspaper was bought by Alfredo Frassati, who gave it its current name and a national perspective. For criticising the 1924 murder of the socialist Giacomo Matteotti, he was forced to resign, the financier Riccardo Gualino also took a share. The paper is now owned by Fiat S. p. A, the former contributors of La Stampa include Italian novelist Alberto Moravia. La Stampa, based in Turin, was published in broadsheet format until November 2006 when the paper began to be published in the berliner format and it launched a website in 1999. La Stampa also launched a project, called Vatican Insider, run by the newspaper and has among its staff several Vatican affairs analysts. Since 26 May 2006 it has published a magazine, Specchio+. From 26 January 1996 to 7 April 2006, it was called Specchio, which was published as a weekly supplement, in September 2012 La Stampa moved to its new headquarters in Turin, leaving its historical editorial building. Mario Calabresi is the editor-in-chief of the daily, on 9 April 2013 an explosive device was sent by an anarchist group, the Federazione Anarchica Informale/Fronte Rivoluzionario, to the offices of La Stampa. The 1988 circulation of La Stampa was 560,000 copies, in 1997 the paper had a circulation of 376,493 copies. Its circulation was 399,000 copies in 2000 and 409,000 copies in 2001, the circulation of the paper was 330,000 copies in 2003 and 345,060 copies in 2004. Its 2007 circulation was 314,000 copies and it was 256,203 copies in 2012. and Harold A. Fisher. The worlds great dailies, profiles of fifty newspapers pp 280-85 Official website Radio Nostalgia, the La Stampa-owned local radio station
19.
Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
–
The Chamber of Deputies is a house of the bicameral Parliament of Italy. The two houses form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Pursuant to article 56 of the Italian Constitution, the Chamber of Deputies has 630 seats, of which 618 are elected from Italian constituencies, Deputies are styled The Honourable and meet at Palazzo Montecitorio. Previously, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of the Kingdom of Italy had been briefly at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Under the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, from 1939 to 1943, the Chamber is composed of all members meeting in session at the Montecitorio. The assembly also has the right to meetings of the Government. If required, the Government is obligated to attend the session, conversely, the Government has the right to be heard every time it requires. The term of office of the House is five years,61.2 of the Constitution, states that representatives whose term has expired shall continue to exercise their functions until the first meeting of the new Chamber. An extension of the term, provided for by art,60.2, can be enacted only in case of war. Election of members to the Chamber of Deputies is by voluntary, universal, terms last for a total of five years, unless an early dissolution of the Chamber is called by the President of the Republic, at which point a snap election is held. Unlike the Senate, which members to be 40 years of age. The current system for elections to the Chamber of Deputies has been in operation since 2015, the territory of Italy is divided into 100 constituencies electing between 3 and 9 deputies depending on their size. For each constituency, the parties designate a list of candidates, head of list candidates can run in up to 10 constituencies, if two preference votes are expressed, they must be of a different sex, otherwise, the second preference is discarded. Only parties passing a 3% minimum threshold in the first round are assigned seats, if the party receiving the plurality of the votes passes a 40% threshold, it is attributed a minimum of 340 seats. The remaining 277 seats are allocated to the other parties using the largest remainder method. This provision was however rendered null and void by a Constitutional Courts judgment in January 2017, the President of the Chamber of Deputies performs the role of speaker of the house and is elected during the first session after the election. During this time the prerogatives of speaker are assumed by the vicepresident of Chamber of Deputies of the legislature who was elected first. If two were elected simultaneously, the oldest deputy serves as president of Chamber of Deputies, the President of Chamber of Deputies has also the role of President during the Parliament joint sessions, when the upper and lower houses have to vote together
20.
Province of Cuneo
–
Cuneo or Coni is a province in the southwest of the Piedmont region of Italy. To the west it borders on the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, to the north it borders on the province of Turin. To the east it borders on the province of Asti, to the south it borders on the Ligurian provinces of Savona and Imperia. It is also known as the Provincia Granda, the big province, because it is the third largest province in Italy, briga Marittima and Tenda were part of this province before cession to France in 1947. Its capital is the city of Cuneo, communes of the province of Cuneo Piemonte Bole, David. Innovative policies for Alpine towns, Alpine space small local urban centres innovative pack, losing Paradise, The Water Crisis in the Mediterranean. Earth Repair, A Transatlantic History of Environmental Restoration, the Aging Population and the Competitiveness of Cities, Benefits to the Urban Economy
21.
Member of the European Parliament
–
A Member of the European Parliament is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the European Parliament. When the European Parliament was first established, MEPs were directly appointed by the governments of states from among those already sitting in their own national parliaments. Since 1979, however, MEPs have been elected by universal suffrage. Each member state establishes its own method for electing MEPs – and in some states this has changed over time –, in some member states the MEPs are elected to represent a single national constituency, in others they are elected from sub-national regions. For a list of current MEPs, see Members of the European Parliament 2014–2019, from 1 January 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU, there were 785 MEPs, but their number was reduced to 736 at the elections in 2009. With effect from the elections held in May 2014 the number has risen again and now stands at 751, with member state having at least six. Elections are held every five years, on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the nature of the voting system. Any election threshold on the level must not exceed five percent. As the number of MEPs granted to each state has arisen from treaty negotiations. No change in this configuration can occur without the consent of all national governments. The most recent elections to the European Parliament were the European elections of 2014 and they were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 500 million citizens were eligible to vote. The European Parliament has a turnover of members compared to some national parliaments. For instance, after the 2004 elections, the majority of elected members had not been members in the parliamentary session. Only one has served continuously since the first elections in 1979, MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality political groups, except the 15 non-attached members known as non-inscrits. The two largest groups are the European Peoples Party and the Socialists & Democrats and these two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats together. No single group has held a majority in Parliament. Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were more cohesive than their US counterparts
22.
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour
–
Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri, generally known as Count Cavour was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. Cavour put forth several economic reforms in his region of Piedmont in his earlier years. After a large rail system expansion program, Cavour became prime minister in 1852, English historian Denis Mack Smith says Cavour was the most successful parliamentarian in Italian history but he was not especially liberal. Cavour was often dictatorial, ignored his ministerial colleagues and parliament and he also practiced transformism and other undesirable policies which were carried over into post-Risorgimento Italy. Camillo Benso was born in Turin during Napoleonic rule, into a family that had gained an amount of land during the French occupation. His godparents were Napoleons sister Pauline, and her husband, Prince Camille Borghese, Camillo and his older brother Gustavo were initially educated at home. He was sent to the Turin Military Academy when he was ten years old. In July 1824 he was named a page to Charles Albert, Cavour frequently ran afoul of the authorities in the academy, as he was too headstrong to deal with the rigid military discipline. He was once forced to live three days on bread and water because he had been caught with books that the academy had banned and he was found to be apt at the mathematical disciplines, and was therefore enlisted in the Engineer Corps in the Piedmontese-Sardinian army in 1827. While in the army, he studied the English language as well as the works of Jeremy Bentham and Benjamin Constant, developing liberal tendencies which made him suspect to police forces at the time. He resigned his commission in the army in November 1831, both because of boredom with life and because of his dislike of the reactionary policies of King Charles Albert. He administered the estate at Grinzane, some forty kilometers outside the capital. Cavour then lived time in Switzerland, with his Protestant relatives in Geneva and he grew acquainted with Calvinist teachings, and for a short while he converted from a form of unorthodox Catholicism, only to go back later. A Reformed pastor, Alexandre Vinet, impressed upon Cavour the need for the separation of church and state and he then traveled to Paris where he was impressed by parliamentary debates, especially those of François Guizot and Adolphe Thiers, confirming his devotion to a political career. He next went to London, where he was much more disappointed by British politics, and toured the country, visiting Oxford, Liverpool, Birmingham, Chester, Nottingham, a quick tour through the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland eventually landed him back in Turin. Cavour believed that progress had to precede political change. He was a supporter of transportation by steam engine, sponsoring the building of many railroads. Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in attempts to solve problems in his area
23.
Bettino Ricasoli
–
Bettino Ricasoli, 2nd Baron Ricasoli was an Italian statesman. Left an orphan at eighteen, with a heavily encumbered, he was by special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age. Interrupting his studies, he withdrew to Brolio, and by careful management disencumbered the family possessions, in 1847 he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, elected Italian deputy in 1861, he succeeded Cavour in the premiership. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, in order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian régime. The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He died at his Castello di Brolio on 23 October 1880, the barone created the modern recipe of Chianti wine, the family named firm still produces wine at Brolio. His private life and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, in spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian Risorgimento
24.
Urbano Rattazzi
–
Urbano Pio Francesco Rattazzi was an Italian statesman, and along with the Count of Cavour, one of the Italys founding fathers. He studied law at Turin, and in 1838 began his practice, in 1848, Rattazzi was sent to the Sardinian chamber of deputies in Turin as representative of his native town. He allied himself with the Liberal party, i. e. Democrats, by his debating powers, he contributed to the defeat of the Balbo ministry, and in August received the portfolio of Public Instruction, though he left office after a few days. In December, in the Gioberti cabinet, he became Minister of the Interior, the defeat at Novara compelled Rattazzis resignation in March 1849. He left the Democrats for the Moderate Liberals, and formed the group of the center-left and this party formed a coalition with the center-right headed by Cavour. Rattazzi gave up a Parliament presidency in 1853 to become Minister of Justice and this precipitated a bitter struggle with the Clerical party. During a momentary reaction of public opinion he resigned office in 1858, in consequence of the negotiations for the cession of Nice and Savoy to France, which cession he opposed, he again retired in January 1860. However, in consequence of his policy of repression towards Garibaldi at Aspromonte and he was again Prime Minister in 1867, from April to October. Popular reaction to his hostility to Garibaldi again drove him from office and he died at Frosinone on 5 June 1873. His wife, Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte, whom he married in 1863, was a noted French novelist, together they had one daughter, Romana Rattazzi
25.
Luigi Carlo Farini
–
Luigi Carlo Farini was an Italian physician, statesman and historian. Farini was born at Russi, in what is now the province of Ravenna, after completing a brilliant university course at Bologna, which he interrupted to take part in the revolution of 1831, he practised as a physician at Russi and at Ravenna. He acquired a reputation, but in 1843 his political opinions brought him under the suspicion of the police. Pius, wishing to counteract the effect of policy, sent Farini to Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. Elected member of parliament for Faenza, he was appointed secretary to the ministry of the interior in the Mamiani cabinet. He also wrote his historical work, Lo Stato Romano dal 1815 al 1850. In 1851 he was appointed minister of instruction in the DAzeglio cabinet. Cavour died in 1861, and the year, Farini succeeded Rattazzi as premier. Over-exertion, however, brought on softening of the brain, which compelled him to office on 24 March 1863. He was buried at Turin, but in 1878 his remains were removed to his village of Russi. His son Domenico Farini had also a political career and was three times President of the Chamber of Deputies and President of the Senate. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. La diplomazia e la quistione Italiana, lettera By Luigi Carlo Farini Lo stato Romano dallanno 1815 allanno 1850 By Luigi Carlo Farini Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, Vol. IV
26.
Marco Minghetti
–
Marco Minghetti was an Italian economist and statesman. Minghetti was born at Bologna, then part of the Papal States and he signed the petition to the Papal conclave,1846, urging the election of a liberal pope, and was appointed member of the state council summoned to prepare the constitution for the Papal States. With Antonio Montanan and Rodolfo Audinot he founded at Bologna a paper, returning to Rome in September 1848, he refused to form a cabinet after the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, and spent the next eight years in study and travel. In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of the Romagna after the rejection of pontifical rule by those provinces, the convention excited violent opposition at Turin, in consequence of which Minghetti was obliged to resign office. He took little part in life until 1869, when he accepted the portfolio of agriculture in the Menabrea Cabinet. In 1873 he overthrew the Lanza-Sella Cabinet and regained the premiership, Minghetti, however, drew from it no personal advantage, and died at Rome on 10 December 1886 without having returned to power. His writings include, Della economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
27.
Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora
–
Alfonso Ferrero, Cavaliere La Marmora was an Italian general and statesman. His older brothers include soldier and naturalist Alberto della Marmora and Alessandro La Marmora, born in Turin, he entered the Sardinian army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On 5 August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert of Sardinia from a mob in Milan. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war. He took part in the war of 1859 against Austria, in April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with Prussia against Austria-Hungary, and, on the outbreak of the Third Italian War of Independence in June, took command of an army corps. He is largely credited of the hesitant conduct of the first phases of the Italian invasion and he died in Florence on 5 January 1878. La Marmoras writings include Un episodio di risorgimento italiano and Il segreto di stato nel governo costituzionale
28.
Luigi Federico Menabrea
–
Luigi Federico Menabrea, later made Count Menabrea and Marquis of Valdora, was an Italian general, statesman and mathematician who served as the Prime Minister of Italy from 1867 to 1869. Menabrea was born at Chambéry, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia and he was educated at the University of Turin, where he qualified as an engineer and became a doctor of mathematics. As an officer of engineers he replaced Cavour in 1831 at the fortress of Bard and he then became professor of mechanics and construction at the military academy and at the university of Turin. King Charles Albert sent him in 1848 on diplomatic missions to secure the adhesion of Modena and he entered the Piedmontese parliament, and was attached successively to the Ministries of War and Foreign Affairs. He belonged to the centre, and until the events of 1859 he believed in the possibility of a compromise between the Vatican and the state. He was major-general and commander-in-chief of the engineers in the Lombard campaign of 1859 and he superintended the siege works against Peschiera, was present at Palestro and Solferino, and repaired the fortifications of some of the northern fortresses. In 1860 he became lieutenant-general and conducted the siege of Gaeta and he was appointed senator and received the title of count. Entering the Ricasoli cabinet of 1861 as minister for the navy, he held the portfolio of public works until 1864 in the succeeding Farini and Minghetti cabinets. After the war of 1866, he was chosen as Italian plenipotentiary for the negotiation of the Treaty of Prague, on the eve of the assembly of the Oecumenical Council at Rome Menabrea reserved to the Italian government its right in respect of any measures directed against Italian institutions. He withdrew from seminary students in 1860 the exemption from military service which they had hitherto enjoyed, after a series of changes in the cabinet, and many crises, Menabrea resigned in December 1869 on the election of a new chamber in which he did not command a majority. He was made marquis of Valdora in 1875, ten years later he withdrew from public life, and died at Saint Capin on 24 May 1896. Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage, Esq. with notes by trans, ada Lovelace, in Scientific Memoirs, Vol 3 OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Luigi Federico Menabrea, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
29.
Giovanni Lanza
–
Domenico Giovanni Giuseppe Maria Lanza was an Italian politician and the eighth Prime Minister from 1869 to 1873. Lanza was born in the Piedmontese city of Casale Monferrato. He studied and wrote on agriculture developments in both the practical and social aspects. ”Lanza was also a member of the Subalpine Agricultural Association of Turin and became its secretary. ”He attached himself to the party of Cavour and devoted his attention chiefly to questions of economy. He became minister of instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour. Lanza followed Cavour into his retirement in July 1859 after the Treaty of Villafranca. He was minister of the interior in the La Marmora cabinet and he maintained a resolute opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza was a second time elected, in 1869, chairman of the House. Lanza formed a new cabinet in which he was minister of the interior. With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize Italian budget and his cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and the installation of an Italian government in Rome after the defeat of the Papal States in late 1870. Works by or about Giovanni Lanza at Internet Archive
30.
Agostino Depretis
–
Agostino Depretis was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy for several times between 1876 and 1887, Depretis was born at Bressana Bottarone, near Stradella, now in the province of Pavia. From early manhood he was a disciple of Giuseppe Mazzini and affiliated with the La Giovine Italia and he took an active part in the Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he joined the Left and founded the journal Il Diritto, but held no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859. In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of Cavour with that of Giuseppe Garibaldi, though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi, during the dictatorial government, he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works in Urbano Rattazzis cabinet, in 1862, but he also refused to give to admiral Persano detailed orders about the expedition in the Adriatic Sea against the fleet led by Wilhelm von Tegetthoff. Upon the death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left and he prepared the advent of his party to power and was called upon to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Prior to this, Depretis was a journalist-politician who had allied himself in parliament with the Left. When he came into power it was as the leader of the Left, in November 1879 he entered the Cairoli cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to the premiership, retaining that office until his death. A few weeks before his death he repented of his transformist policy and he argued that a wider suffrage would give citizens a moral dignity and sense of responsibility. Discorsi parlamentari di Agostino Depretis Vol
31.
Benedetto Cairoli
–
Benedetto Cairoli was an Italian statesman. Cairoli was born at Pavia, Lombardy and he commanded a volunteer company under Garibaldi in 1859 and 1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi and severely at Palermo in the latter year. The prestige personally acquired by Benedetto Cairoli was augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell during the wars of the Risorgimento and his refusal of all compensation or distinction further endeared him to the Italian people. After his marriage with the countess Elena Sizeo of Trent, he permitted the Irredentist agitation to carry the country to the verge of a war with Austria. On 3 July 1879 Cairoli returned to power, and in the following November formed with Depretis a coalition ministry, in which he retained the premiership and the foreign office. Confidence in French assurances, and belief that Britain would never permit the extension of French influence in North Africa, in view of popular indignation he resigned in order to avoid making inopportune declarations to the chamber. Thenceforward he practically disappeared from political life, in 1887 he received the knighthood of the Annunziata, the highest Italian decoration, and on 8 August 1889 died while a guest of King Umberto in the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples
32.
Francesco Crispi
–
Francesco Crispi was an Italian patriot and statesman. Crispi served as Italys Prime Minister for six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister and ally, due to his authoritarian policies and style, Crispi is often regarded as a strongman and seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Crispi’s paternal family originally from the small agricultural community of Palazzo Adriano. It had been founded in later fifteenth century by Orthodox Albanians and his grandfather was an Arbëreshë Orthodox priest, the parish priests were married men, and Arbëreshë was the family language down to the lifetime of the young Crispi. Crispi himself was born in Ribera, Sicily, to Tommaso Crispi, belonging to a family of Arbëreshë descent, he spoke Italian as his third or fourth language. His uncle Giuseppe wrote the first monograph on the Albanian language, at the age of 5 years old he was sent to a family in Villafranca, where he could receive an education. In 1829, at 11 years old, he attended a seminary in Palermo, the rector of the institute was Giuseppe Crispi, his uncle. Crispi attended the seminary until 1834 or 1835, when his father, after becoming mayor of Ribera, encountered difficulties in health. In the same period Crispi became a friend of the poet and doctor Vincenzo Navarro. In 1835 he studied law and literature at the University of Palermo receiving a law degree in 1837, in the year he fell in love with Rosina DAngelo. Despite his fathers ban, Crispi married Rosina in 1837, when she was already pregnant, in May Crispi became father of his first daughter, Giuseppa, who was named after his grandmother. Anyway it was a marriage, in fact Rosina died on 29 July 1839, the day after giving birth to her second son, Tommaso. Between 1838 and 1839, Crispi founded his own newspaper, LOreteo and this experience brought him into contact with a number of political figures including the Neapolitan liberal activist and poet, Carlo Poerio. In 1845 Crispi took up a judgeship in Naples, where he distinguished himself for his liberal, the revolution started on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the numerous revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of Sicily starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule, the uprising was substantially organized from, and centered in, Palermo. The popular nature of the revolt is evident in the fact that posters, the timing was deliberately planned, by Crispi and the other revolutionaries, to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II. Vincenzo Fardella was elected president of Sicilian Parliament, the idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of Italy
33.
Giovanni Giolitti
–
Giovanni Giolitti was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921 and he is the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Benito Mussolini. He was a prominent leader of the Historical Left and the Liberal Union, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party, they were, instead, a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies. Besides putting in place several tariffs, subsidies and government projects, Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone, Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the Giolittian System, although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth. However his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate debate amongst writers. His father Giovenale Giolitti had been working in the avvocatura dei poveri and he died in 1843, a year after Giovanni was born. The family moved in the home of his mother Enrichetta Plochiù in Turin and his mother taught him to read and write, his education in the gymnasium San Francesco da Paola of Turin was marked by poor discipline and little commitment to study. He did not like mathematics and the study of Latin and Greek grammar, preferring the history and reading the novels of Walter Scott, at sixteen he entered the University of Turin and, after three years, he earned a law degree in 1860. His uncle was a member of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia and a friend of Michelangelo Castelli. However Giolitti did not appear interested in the Risorgimento and differently to many of his fellow students. Subsequently, he pursued a career in administration in the Ministry of Grace and Justice. In 1869 he moved to the Ministry of Finance, becoming an official and working along with important members of the ruling Right, like Quintino Sella. In the same year he married Rosa Sobrero, the granddaughter of Ascanio Sobrero, a famous chemist, who discovered nitroglycerine. In 1877 Giolitti was appointed to the Court of Audit and in 1882 to the Council of State At the 1882 Italian general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Historical Left. This election was a victory for the ruling Left of Agostino Depretis. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Agostino Magliani, following Depretis’s death on 29 July 1887 Francesco Crispi, a notable politician and patriot, became the leader of the Left group and was also appointed Prime Minister by King Umberto I. On 9 March 1889 Giolitti was selected by Crispi as new Minister of Treasury, but in October 1890, Giolitti resigned from his office due to contrasts with Crispis colonial policy. Menelik informed the press and the scandal erupted
34.
Luigi Pelloux
–
Luigi Gerolamo Pelloux was an Italian general and politician, born of parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was annexed to France. He was the Prime Minister of Italy from 29 June 1898 to 24 June 1900, Pelloux was born in La Roche-sur-Foron, Savoy, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880 became General Secretary and he was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for Livorno, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party of the Left. After a succession of military commands he received the appointment of Chief of the General Staff in 1896. He was Minister of War in the Rudinì and Giolitti cabinets of 1891–1893, in July 1896 he resumed the portfolio of War in the Rudinì cabinet, and was appointed Senator. He resigned office in May 1899 over his Chinese policy, but was entrusted with the formation of a government. His new cabinet was essentially military and conservative, the most decisively conservative since 1876 and he took stern measures against the revolutionary elements in Italy. The Radicals and Socialist start an obstructionist campaign against the new coercive law using the filibuster, points of order, endless speeches, the growing opposition succeeded in forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, and to resign office after the general election in June. In the autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin army corps, Pelloux died at Bordighera in 1924. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pelloux. Modern Italy,1871 to the present, Harlow, Pearson Education, ISBN 1-4058-2352-6 Seton-Watson, Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870-1925, New York, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-416-18940-7
35.
Giuseppe Saracco
–
Giuseppe Saracco was an Italian politician, financier and Knight of the Annunziata. Giuseppe Saracco was born at Bistagno, after qualifying as an advocate, he entered the Piedmontese parliament in 1849. He was a supporter of Cavour, after Cavour died in 1861, Saracco joined the party of Rattazzi and became under-secretary of state for public works in the Rattazzi cabinet of 1862. In 1864 Sella appointed Saracco as secretary-general of finance, and after being created senator in 1865, in 1879 he succeeded in postponing the total abolition of the grist tax, and was throughout a fierce opponent of Maglianis loose financial administration. After February 1901 Saracco resumed his functions as president of the senate, Saracco received the supreme honour of the knighthood of the Annunziata from King Umberto in 1898. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Saracco
36.
Giuseppe Zanardelli
–
Giuseppe Zanardelli was an Italian jurisconsult, nationalist and political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Italy from February 15,1901 to November 3,1903 and he was a distinguished jurist and eloquent orator. Throughout his long career he was among the most ardent advocates of freedom of conscience and divorce. Giuseppe Zanardelli was born in Brescia and he was a combatant in the volunteer corps during the First Italian War of Independence of 1848 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia, within the era of Italian unification. After the lost battle of Novara he went to Pisa to study law, for a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian articles to the press. In 1859 he was forced to flee to Switzerland and he moved to Lugano, but returned in time to organize the insurrection of Brescia in the Second Italian War of Independence and welcomed Giuseppe Garibaldi in the city. Enlisted in the Cacciatori delle Alpi, he remained in the area until the armistice of Villafranca, with the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont he was elected to Parliament in Turin. In 1876 he became Minister of Public Works in the first government of Agostino Depretis, overthrown with Cairoli in December 1878, he returned to power as Minister of Justice in 1881 the Depretis government, and succeeded in completing the commercial code. He also was the architect of the reform in 1892 which lowered the voting age from 25 to 21. During this period he began the reform of the magistracy and promulgated a new penal code, the code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. After the fall of the government of Giovanni Giolitti in 1893, Zanardelli made a strenuous and he was rewarded by being enabled to form an administration with the support of the Extreme Left upon the fall of the government of Giuseppe Saracco in February 1901. Giolitti became Minister of the Interior in the administration of Zanardelli, Zanardelli was unable to achieve much during his last term of office, as his health was greatly impaired. His Divorce Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be withdrawn on account of the opposition of the country. He retired from the administration on October 21,1903, tired and ill, he died in Maderno on December 26,1903. On September 15,1902, Giuseppe Zanardelli stayed at the Imperial Hotel Tramontano, owned by the Commendator Guglielmo Baron Tramontano of Sorrento, the hunchbacks tailor, Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882–1922, Greenwood. Italy, a guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York. Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870–1925, New York, Taylor & Francis, della vita del professore Camillo Guerini
37.
Tommaso Tittoni
–
Tommaso Tittoni was an Italian diplomat, politician and Knight of the Annunziata. He was Italys Foreign Minister from 1903 until 1909, except for a five-month period and he also was interim Prime Minister for about a month in March 1905. Tommaso Tittoni was born in Rome, Tittoni was educated first at Naples, and subsequently at Oxford and Liège. Tittoni became an alderman of Rome, before becoming a deputy in the Chamber of Deputies for Civitavecchia in 1886 and he resigned his seat in 1897, having been appointed prefect of Perugia. Three years later he went to Naples in a similar capacity, when Giovanni Giolitti became premier for the second time in 1903, Tittoni became his Foreign Minister. He aimed at improving relations with Austria, and also tried to bring about a reconciliation with France and it was in fact under his auspices that French President Émile Loubet visited Rome. On the resignation of Giolitti in March 1905, Tittoni became interim Premier for a few days and remained in Alessandro Fortiss cabinet as Foreign Minister. A few months later he was appointed ambassador in London, but in May, on the fall of Sidney Sonninos ministry and he continued the policy of improving relations with Austria-Hungary, which did not contribute to his popularity. He remained in office until the fall of Giolitti in December 1909, as Foreign Minister, Tittoni prudently advanced Italian claims on Tripolitania, at the time part of the Ottoman Empire, without resorting to outright treaths of annexation. The Tittoni family had interests in the area, in 1907, the Banco di Roma founded a branch in Tripoli and built significant interests in banking, shipping and agriculture. The banks vice-president was Romolo Tittoni, the brother of Tommaso Tittoni, the bank also financed the important newspaper Corriere dItalia that would campaign for the Italo-Turkish War in 1911. Italy and the Russian Empire concluded another agreement with Austro-Hungarian Empire a few days later disregarding this agreement, in April 1910, he was appointed ambassador in Paris. But he was not at his ease in the French capital, on the fall of the Orlando Cabinet in June 1919, the new Premier, Francesco Saverio Nitti, chose Tittoni as Foreign Minister and first delegate at the Paris Peace Conference. Nitti and Tittoni played down Italys territorial claims, which disappointed interventionist like Gabriele DAnnunzio, greece pledged to support the Italian claims over Vlorë and the establishment of an Italian protectorate over Albania. The severe strain of the work told on his health forced Tittoni to resign in November 1919 and he remained president of the Senate until January 1929. After the March on Rome, Tittoni supported Mussolinis government and later became the first president of Royal Academy of Italy, on 8 April 1923 he had received the supreme honour of the knighthood of the Annunziata by King Victor Emmanuel. He died from an attack in Rome on 7 February 1931. Brill, ISBN 978-9004090255 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Tittoni, Tommaso, modern Italy,1871 to the present, Harlow, Pearson Education, ISBN 1-4058-2352-6 Sarti, Roland
38.
Alessandro Fortis
–
Alessandro Fortis was an Italian politician who served as the 18th Prime Minister of Italy from 1905 to 1906. He was Italys first Jewish Prime Minister, Fortis was born in Forlì, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, and became a lawyer. A republican follower of Giuseppe Mazzini he joined Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1866 and fought with him first in Trentino then at Mentana, after being elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1880, Fortis initially worked under Francesco Crispi as Under Secretary of the Interior. He served as Agriculture Minister from 1898 to 1899 in the first government of Luigi Pelloux and he resigned in 1899 and subsequently joined the liberal opposition of Giovanni Giolitti, whose liberal reformism was closest to Fortis’s own political views that had moderated over time. Fortis argued that a view of the state which abstains from everything, which reduces its actions and its responsibilities. Is, it seems to me, doomed to die out, the moderate liberals opposed the repressive measures of Pelloux restricting political activity and free speech, and aimed to uphold constitutional liberties. Fortis supported the governments of Giuseppe Zanardelli and Giolitti, railroad workers became public employees, which deprived them of the right to strike. In September 1905, Fortis visited Calabria and Sicily to examine firsthand the extent of the damage of the 1905 Calabria earthquake, subsequently he introduced a special law to aid these southern regions. This measure was the first real acknowledgment by the Italian state of the fundamental problems underlying southern underdevelopment, Fortis resigned, was reappointed and formed a new government, which did not gain the confidence of the Chamber of Deputies, after which Fortis definitively resigned in February 1906. Fortis died on 4 December 1909 in Rome, making Liberalism Work, The Italian Experience, 1860-1914, Westport, Praeger Publishers, ISBN 0-275-98062-6 Braber, Ben. This cannot happen here, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 978-90-4851-997-2 De Grand, the hunchbacks tailor, Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922, Greenwood. Italy, a guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York
.svg)
