1.
Skeena River
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The Skeena River is the second-longest river entirely within British Columbia, Canada. The river and its basin sustain a variety of fish, wildlife, and vegetation. The Tsimshian migrated to the Lower Skeena River, and the Gitxsan occupy territory of the Upper Skeena, during the Omineca Gold Rush, steamboat services ran from the sea to Hazelton, which was the jumping-off point for the trails to the goldfields. The Hudsons Bay Company established a trading post on the Skeena at what became called Port Simpson, British Columbia. Other tribes live elsewhere in BC, and descendants of one group in Metlatkala, the Skeena originates south of the Spatsizi Plateau Wilderness Provincial Park in north western British Columbia, forming a divide with the Klappan River, a tributary of the Stikine River. It flows for 570 km before it empties into Chatham Sound, Telegraph Passage and Ogden Channel, east of the Dixon Entrance, the Skeena drains 54,400 km2 of land with a mean annual discharge of 1,760 cubic metres per second. The Skeena River originates at the end of Spatsizi Plateau. The abandoned track of BC Rails Dease Lake Extension runs along the river in its upper course and it flows south-east, between the shallow peaks of the Skeena Mountains, through the McEvoy and Jackson flats. It continues in this direction until it passes the Slamgeesh Range, then westwards to Fourth Cabin. After Kuldo it takes a turn, then flows south again below Cutoff Mountain. It continues through rolling hills to the community of Kispiox and then Hazelton, where it receives the waters of Morice-Bulkley River, the Yellowhead Highway and a Canadian National Railway track follow the course of the Skeena on this section. It then flows south-west through the city of Terrace, where the river widens, the British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, through BC Parks, has designated a number of Ecological Reserves along the course of the river. The Skeena is well known for its fishing, most notably salmon. The Skeena is also important to the commercial fishing industry. For example, numbering 5 million spawning salmon a year, the Skeena is second only to the Fraser River in Canada in its capacity to produce sockeye salmon. However, in the last 40 years there has been a decrease in some of the fish species, the following types of Pacific salmon can be found in the Skeena, Chinook salmon, sometimes known as king, Tyee, spring, Quinnat, tule, or blackmouth salmon. Chum salmon, sometimes known as dog or calico salmon, coho salmon, sometimes known as silver salmon. Pink salmon, sometimes known as humpback salmon, sockeye salmon, sometimes known as red salmon or blueback salmon
2.
Hazelton, British Columbia
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Hazelton is a village located at the junction of the Bulkley and Skeena Rivers in northern British Columbia, Canada. It was founded in 1866 and has a population of 305, the Hazelton area comprises two municipalities, three unincorporated settlements, four First Nations’ villages, three of which are of the Gitxsan people - - and one of the Wetsuweten people -. The Hazeltons are home to the Gitxsan and Wetsuweten First Nations, Hazelton is one of the oldest settlements in Northern British Columbia, its European settlement dates back to 1866 when the Collins Overland telegraph went through. Hazelton was the gateway and staging area for the Omineca Gold Rush of 1869-73. Besides the hunt for riches, there was one important reason to visit, it had the only proper hospital for hundreds of miles in any direction. One of its other, less appreciated, distinctions was in having dozens of roaming, foraging and howling sled dogs, as everyone had their own team. Transportation options got better in 1891 when the Hudsons Bay Company’s sternwheeler Caledonia arrived from Port Essington, being the head of navigation on the Skeena, Hazelton was to play host to more than a dozen sternwheelers throughout the next twenty-two years. Two Mile was a community two miles out of Hazelton, during the gold rush and rail construction, it was home to a roadhouse and a prosperous red-light district. Everyone was certain there was a fortune to be made and Hazelton was widely advertised as the Spokane of Canada, what made Hazelton even more attractive was her mines, the Silver Standard and the Rocher de Boule. In 1911 two rival town-sites, Robert Kelly’s New Hazelton and the Grand Trunk Pacific’s South Hazelton both came into existence and competed to sell the most lots, thus, the original Hazelton was called Old and together they became known as the Three Hazeltons. Where the railway station would be built was an issue for years until both South and New Hazelton received one. The first car, a Flanders 20, arrived in Hazelton on the evening of October 4,1911 and it did not arrive by rail, which wouldnt be completed from Prince Rupert until 1912, nor did it come in by sternwheeler. It was brought in overland from Seattle, none of the people in town believed that story, as it was nearly impossible to walk into Hazelton overland in 1911, much less drive. The next day went to go see the car where it was parked in front of the Hazelton Hotel and questioned the owner, PE Sands. At a banquet held in his honor later that evening, Sands revealed his secret and he had brought along a mechanic and they had often had to disassemble the car and load it unto mules. Clearly theyd had enough of doing that by the time they reached Hazelton and they packed the car up on a sternwheeler and went to Skeena Crossing where the car was loaded on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway for the trip to Prince Rupert. There the car was loaded on a steamer for the trip back to Seattle. Note, This automobile is now on display at the Kittitas County Historical Museum in Ellensburg, in November 1913, the Union Bank at New Hazelton was robbed by gunmen
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
5.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
6.
Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
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The term Pacific Northwest is largely used in the American context. Prior to the contact with Westerners, warfare between nations, and the enslaving of captives was also a common to many of the groups. At one point the region had the highest population density of a region inhabited by Aboriginal peoples in Canada, the Pacific Northwest Coast at one time had the most densely populated areas of indigenous people ever recorded in Canada. The land and waters provided rich natural resources through cedar and salmon, within the Pacific Northwest, many different nations developed, each with their own distinct history, culture, and society. Some cultures in this region were similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of salmon to their cultures. Prior to contact, and for a time after colonization, some of these groups regularly conducted war against each other through raids. Through warfare they gathered captives for slavery, the Tlingit are one of the furthest north indigenous nations in the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their autonym is Lingít, meaning Human being, the Russian name for them, Koloshi, was derived from an Aleut term for the labret, and the related German name, Koulischen, may be encountered in older historical literature. The Tlingit are a matrilineal society and they developed a complex hunter-gatherer culture in the temperate rainforest of the Alaska Panhandle and adjoining inland areas of present-day British Columbia and Yukon. The Tsetsaut were an Athabaskan people whose territory was at the head of the Portland Canal, decimated by raiding and disease, their survivors were absorbed into the Nisgaa. The latter people now hold their territories as they are now extinct. The Haida people are known as skilled artisans of wood, metal. They have also shown much perseverance and resolve in the area of forest conservation, the vast forests of cedar and spruce where the Haida make their home are on pre-glacial land, which is believed to be almost 14,000 years old. Haida communities located in Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, and Haida Gwaii also share a border with other indigenous peoples, such as the Tlingit. The Haida were also famous for their raiding and slaving, reaching as far as Mexico. There are about 10,000 Tsimshian, of which about 1,300 live in Alaska, succession in Tsimshian society is matrilineal, and ones place in society was determined by ones clan or phratry. Four main Tsimshian clans form the basic phratry, the Laxsgiik and Ganhada form one half. Gispwudwada and Laxgibuu form the other half, prior to European contact, marriage in Tsimshian society could not take place within a half-group, for example between a Wolf and a Killer Whale
7.
Tsimshianic languages
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The Tsimshianic languages are a family of languages spoken in northwestern British Columbia and in Southeast Alaska on Annette Island and Ketchikan. About 2,170 people of the ethnic Tsimshian /ˈsɪmʃiən/ population in Canada still speak a Tsimshian language, Tsimshianic languages are considered by most linguists to be an isolate group of languages, with four main languages or lects, Coast Tsimshian, Southern Tsimshian, Nisg̱a’a, and Gitksan. The Tsimshianic languages were included by Edward Sapir in his Penutian hypothesis, Southern Tsimshian is spoken on an island quite far south of the Skeena River in the village of Klemtu. Southern Tsimshian is severely endangered, nearing extinction, Nisga’a is spoken along the Nass River. Gitksan is spoken along the Upper Skeena River around Hazelton and other areas, Nisga’a and Gitksan are very closely related and are usually considered dialects of the same language by linguists. However, speakers from both groups consider themselves separate from each other and from the Tsimshian and thus consider Nisga’a. Coast and Southern Tsimshian are also regarded as dialects of the same language. As of 2013, Tsimshian courses are available at the University of Alaska Southeast, consonantal inventory of Proto-Tsimshian, Tsimshian Boas, Franz. Handbook of American Indian Languages Bulletin No, the Languages of Native North America. Tsimshianic and Penutian, Problems, Methods, Results, and Implications, international Journal of American Linguistics 63. 52-244
8.
British Columbia Coast
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The British Columbia Coast or BC Coast is Canadas western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The usage is synonymous with the term West Coast of Canada, the aerial distance from Victoria on the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Stewart, British Columbia on the Alaska border at the head of the Portland Canal is 965 kilometres in length. The dominant landforms of the BC Coast are the Insular Mountains, comprising most of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii, and the Coast Mountains, which extend beyond into Alaska and the Yukon. The British Columbia Coast is mostly part of the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the system used by Environment Canada, established by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, the area is defined as the Pacific Maritime Ecozone. The great fjords of the British Columbia Coast rival those of Norway in length and depth but have even higher mountain scenery with a more alpine flavour. Many of the islands offshore are much larger than those along the Norwegian coast, many large enough to have major fjords of their own, as well as their own mountain ranges. The waterway route through these islands between Vancouver and Prince Rupert, and between Seattle, Washington, and Alaska, is known as the Inside Passage. It has played a role in U. S. -Canada relations more than once, the islands of Howe Sound are classed among the southern Gulf Islands, but they adjoin the mainland rather than Vancouver Island and are usually considered separately. The natural fecundity of the environment—rich in seafood, game and greenery—combined with the ease of travel is seen in all cases to have generated a dynamic and gifted civilization. The fishery of the Pacific Northwest Coast is legendary, especially for its salmon runs. Salmon runs have diminished since pre-Contact years and the advent of commercial canning and, ultimately. Other commercial fisheries include halibut, herring and herring roe, sea urchin and other specialty sushis, hake, haddock, cod, crab, scheduled Passenger Services operating on the British Columbia Coast are dominated by BC Ferries and the Alaska Marine Highway. Dozens of smaller ferries ply lesser routes between the Gulf Islands and the mainland or Vancouver Island as well as on lakes in the Interior where no bridges exist. Other runs connect Horseshoe Bay to the Sunshine Coast and Bowen Island, from there, a ferry operates to Comox. The Alaska Marine Highway operates regular ferry sailings from Bellingham, Washington to Ketchikan, Wrangell, Sitka, Juneau, Skagway, Haines, the Alaska Marine Highway also operates a vessel from Prince Rupert to Ketchikan and other Southeast ports. Other scheduled passenger services are run by various shipping and water-taxi companies. Non-scheduled passenger services include all major lines and various small luxury craft sharters, as well as shuttles to. Yellow Point Lodge, Nanaimo Painters Lodge, Desolation Sound Nations of Southeast Alaska and Georgia Strait-Puget Sound are included as they are part of the same cultural and historical ecumene
9.
Nisga'a
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The Nisga’a /ˈnɪsɡɑː/, often formerly spelled Nishga and spelled in the Nisga’a language as Nisg̱a’a, are an Indigenous people of Canada in British Columbia. They reside in the Nass River valley of northwestern British Columbia, the name is a reduced form of, which is a loan from Tongass Tlingit, where it means people of the Nass River. The official languages of Nisg̱a’a are the Nisg̱a’a language and English, Nisga’a society is organized into four tribes, G̱anada Gisḵ’aast Lax̱gibuu Lax̱sgiik Each tribe is further sub-divided into house groups – extended families with same origins. Some houses are grouped together into clans – grouping of Houses with same ancestors, example, Lax̱gibuu Tribe Gitwilnaak’il Clan House of Duuḵ House of K’eex̱kw House of Gwingyoo The Nisga’a harvested beach food all year round. This would include razor clams, mussels, oysters, limpets, scallops, abalone, fish, seaweed, the people believed that eating too much beach food would make a person sick. They also harvested salmon, cod, char, pike, trout, in addition, men rowed out in oceangoing canoes to hunt seals, whales, fish and sea otters. They often traded blubber with other tribes, as well as fish oil and they hunted mountain goat, marmot, game birds and more in the forests. The women cooked and processed the meat and fish, roasting or boiling the former and they ate fish and sea mammals in frozen, boiled, dried or roasted form. The heads of a type of cod, often gathered half eaten by sharks, were boiled into a soup that helped prevent colds, the Nisga′a also traded dried fish, seal oil, fish oil, blubber and cedar were traded with inland tribes. Houses of the Nisga’a were shaped as rectangles, made of cedar planks with cedar shake roofs. They were oriented with the doors facing the water, the doors were usually decorated with the family crest. Inside, the floor was dug down to hold the hearth, beds and boxes of possessions were placed around the walls. Around three to four extended families lived in one house, masks and blankets decorated the walls. Men wore nothing in the summer, normally the best time to hunt, women wore skirts made of softened cedar bark and went topless. During the colder season, men wore cedar bark skirts, a cape of cedar bark, and a basket hat outside in the rain, women wore a basket hat and cedar blankets indoors and outdoors. Both sexes made and wore shell and bone necklaces and they rubbed seal blubber into their hair, and men kept their hair long or in a top knot. During warfare, men wore red cedar armour, a cedar helmet and they wielded spears, clubs, harpoons, bows and slings. Approximately 2,500 live in the Nass Valley, another 3,500 Nisga’a live elsewhere in Canada, predominantly within the three urban societies noted in the section below
10.
Tsimshian
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The Tsimshian are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their communities are mostly in coastal British Columbia and far southern Alaska, around Terrace and Prince Rupert in British Columbia, the Tsimshian people consist of approximately 10,000 members of seven First Nations. The Tsimshian are one of the largest First Nations peoples in northwest British Columbia, some Tsimshian migrated to Annette Island, Alaska, where their descendants in the Metlakatla Indian Community number about 1450. Similar to numerous Native American peoples, the Tsimshian have a kinship system, with a societal structure based on a clan system. Descent and property are figured through the maternal line, early anthropologists and linguists had classified the Gitksan and Nishga as Tsimshian because of apparent linguistic affinities. The three were all referred to as Coast Tsimshian, even though some communities were not coastal and these three groups, however, identify as separate nations. Tsimshian translates to Inside the Skeena River, at one time the Tsimshian lived on the upper reaches of the Skeena River near present-day Hazelton, British Columbia. The majority of Tsimshian still live in the lower Skeena River watershed near Kitimat, there are distinct groups of Tsimshian native peoples, the Nishga, the Gitksan, the Coast Tsimshian, and the Southern Tsimshian. The southern Tsimshian language had more prestige than the others and was used ceremonially by the Nishga. Kitkatla is still considered to be the most conservative of the Tsimshian villages, over time, these groups developed a new dialect of their ancestral language and came to regard themselves as a distinct population, the Tsimshian-proper. They continued to share the rights and customs of those who are known as the Gitxsan, in late prehistoric times, the Coastal Tsimshian gradually moved their winter villages out to the islands of Venn. They returned to their villages along the lower Skeena River when the salmon returned. Archaeological evidence shows 5,000 years of inhabitation in the Prince Rupert region. Kitkatla was probably the first Tsimshian village contacted by Europeans when Captain Charles Duncan, when the Hudsons Bay Company moved their fort to modern-day Port Simpson in 1834, nine Tsimshian villages moved to the surrounding area. Many of the Tsimshian peoples in Canada still live in these regions, throughout the second half of the 19th century, epidemics of infectious disease contracted from Europeans ravaged their communities, as the First Nations had no acquired immunity to these diseases. In 1862 a smallpox epidemic killed many of the Tsimshian people, altogether, one in four Tsimshian died in a series of at least three large-scale outbreaks. In 1835, the population of the Tsimshian peoples was estimated at 8,500. By 1885, the population had dropped to 4,500,817 of whom moved to Alaska two years later
11.
Wet'suwet'en
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This page is for the people. For the language they speak, see Babine-Witsuwiten language, Wetsuweten are a First Nations people who live on the Bulkley River and around Broman Lake and Francois Lake in the northwestern Central Interior of British Columbia. The name they call themselves, Wetsuweten, means ″People of the Wa Dzun Kwuh River or Bulkley River″, the Wetsuweten are a branch of the Dakelh or Carrier people, and in combination with the Babine people have been referred to as the Western Carrier. They speak Witsuwiten, a dialect of the Babine-Witsuwiten language which and their oral history, called kungax, recounts that their ancestral village, Dizkle or Dzilke, once stood upstream from the Bulkley Canyon. This cluster of houses on both sides of the river was said to be abandoned because of an omen of impending disaster. The exact location of the village has not yet been discovered, the neighbouring Gitxsan people of the Hazelton area have a similar tale, though the village in their version is named Dimlahamid. The Office of the Hereditary Chiefs is the political body of the Wetsuweten and is involved in the negotiating process for an eventual treaty with the British Columbia government. In the past, they were co-complainants in the Delgamuukw v. British Columbia case, like most of the First Nations peoples of BC they have never signed a formal treaty and are in the process of negotiating a treaty now. In point of fact the is not glottalized, older spellings include Hotsoten and Hwotsoten. Whutsowhuten is the Carrier name in the Carrier Linguistic Committee writing system in use for that language. In the feast hall they work as four clans with the Tsayu and Laksamshu working together
12.
Athapaskan
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Athabaskan or Athabascan is a large family of indigenous languages of North America, located in western North America in three groups of contiguous languages, Northern, Pacific Coast and Southern. Kari and Potter 2010,10 place the territory of the 53 Athabaskan languages at 1,563,000 mi2 or 4,022,000 km2. Chipewyan is spoken over the largest area of any North American native language and they are applying these terms to the entire language family. For example, following a motion by attendees in 2012, the annual Athabaskan Languages Conference changed its name to the Dené Languages Conference, the word Athabaskan is an anglicized version of a Cree language name for Lake Athabasca in Canada. Cree is one of the Algonquian languages, the name was assigned by Albert Gallatin in his 1836 classification of the languages of North America. The four spellings—“Athabaskan”, “Athabascan”, “Athapaskan”, and “Athapascan”—are in approximately equal use, particular communities may prefer one spelling over another. For example, the Tanana Chiefs Conference and Alaska Native Language Center prefer the spelling “Athabascan”, Ethnologue uses “Athapaskan” in naming the language family and individual languages. Several Athabaskan languages are languages in the Northwest Territories, including Chipewyan, Dogrib or Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì, Gwich’in. The seven or more Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages are spoken in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, the seven Southern Athabaskan languages are isolated by considerable distance from both the Pacific Coast languages and the Northern languages. Reflecting an ancient migration of peoples, they are spoken by Native Americans in the American Southwest and this group comprises the six Southern Athabaskan languages and Navajo. As a crude approximation, the differences between Athabaskan languages may be compared to differences between Indo-European languages, thus, Koyukon and Dena’ina are about as different as French and Spanish, while Koyukon and Gwich’in are as different as English and Italian. The following list gives the Athabaskan languages organized by their location in various North American states and provinces. Speakers of several languages, such as Navajo and Gwich’in, span the boundaries between different states and provinces and these languages are repeated by location in this list. For alternative names for the languages, see the classifications given later in this article, Tlingit is distantly related to the Athabaskan–Eyak group to form the Na-Dene family, also known as Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit. With Jeff Leers 2010 advances, the reconstructions of Na-Dene consonants, because both Tlingit and Eyak are fairly remote from the Athabaskan languages in terms of their sound systems, comparison is usually done between them and the reconstructed Proto-Athabaskan language. This resembles both Tlingit and Eyak much more than most of the languages in the Athabaskan family. Although Ethnologue still gives the Athabaskan family as a relative of Haida in their definition of the Na-Dene family, the Alaska Native Language Center, for example, takes the position that recent improved data on Haida have served to conclusively disprove the Haida-inclusion hypothesis. Haida has been determined to be unrelated to Athabaskan languages, a symposium in Alaska in February 2008 included papers on the Yeniseian and Na-Dené families
13.
Terrace, British Columbia
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Terrace is a city on the Skeena River in British Columbia, Canada. The Kitselas people, a tribe of the Tsimshian Nation, have lived in the Terrace area for thousands of years. The community population fell between 2001 and 2006 from 12,109 with a population of 19,980 to 11,320. But the 2011 census showed that the community population had risen to 11,486, the community is the regional retail and service hub for the northwestern portion of British Columbia. The Regional District of Kitimat-Stikines administrative offices are also in Terrace, the community sits on the Canadian National Railway and the Yellowhead Highway. Air services are provided at Northwest Regional Airport, with connections to Calgary, Prince George, Smithers, the Terrace railway station is served by Via Rails Jasper – Prince Rupert train. Health care in Terrace is administered by Northern Health and provided in part by Mills Memorial Hospital, indigenous peoples have inhabited Northwest British Columbia for generations. The region is one of the oldest continuously occupied regions of the world and, the flat mountain ranges surrounding Terrace are traditionally called Ganeeks Laxha, which in the Tsimshian language means the Stairway to Heaven. Kitselas and Kitsumkalum are two Tsimshian communities in the Terrace area that continue to access traditional tribal and clan-based territories in northwest British Columbia. The Skeena River was initially known as the Kshian River, meaning where the mist comes out — ksi, to come out from, yeen, clouds. The Tsimshian Nations traditional economy was based on hunting, fishing and social gatherings, for consumption or trade. For the aboriginal people, the Skeena River was used for transportation, communication, war, trade, as a source of food, in 1866 the steamer Mumford made it as far as Kitsumkalum with supplies for the Collins Overland Telegraph line. It took an average of three days to travel from Port Essington to Hazelton and it was not until 1891 that the Hudsons Bay Company sternwheeler Caledonia successfully negotiated the Kitselas Canyon and reached Hazelton. A number of steamers were built around the turn of the century, in part due to the growing fishing industry. In honour of its heritage, Terrace celebrates a festival called Riverboat Days each summer. Ontarian George Little arrived in the Skeena River valley in March 1905, the riverboats operated on the Skeena for only 22 years, the last boat, the Inlander, finished up in September 1912, when the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway took over its function. George Little donated 47 acres to the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, Little established a sawmill to accommodate the demand for railway ties. In 1955, Little rode the first CNR train to Kitimat, the Old Skeena Bridge officially opened July 1925, halting the use of the Ferry Island ferry service to Thornhill Creek
14.
Smithers, British Columbia
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Smithers is a town located in northwestern British Columbia, Canada, approximately halfway between Prince George and Prince Rupert. Smithers is located in the Regional District of Bulkley-Nechako, with a population of 5,404, Smithers is a service area for most of the Bulkley Valley. The Bulkley Valley in which Smithers is situated was inhabited by the Wetsuweten. The new community was named after the chairman of the board of directors. In 1921, Smithers became the first incorporated village in British Columbia, in 1967, Smithers was incorporated as a town. Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park,10 kilometres from Smithers was created in 1967, the town was surveyed in 1913 and a street grid pattern was established that is still very much evident today. Historically, intensive development has been oriented towards Main Street as the commercial focus with residential development radiating outward from the commercial core. This pattern has been sustained by the preservation of the old courthouse, the ongoing restoration of the CN railway station as a community resource centre is a further measure to improve the town. The Smithers railway station is served by Via Rails Jasper – Prince Rupert train, Smithers and the Bulkley Valley have often been described by non-residents as being distinct from the rest of Northern British Columbia. Many factors contribute to the composition of society in Smithers, including the arts, environmental protection, Smithers has adopted an alpine theme, which is drawn from the geography of the area. A town bylaw requires businesses in the area centred on Main Street to construct their buildings in an alpine style. A fibreglass statue of a man blowing a horn, commonly referred to as The Alpenman or Alpine Al, is located at the entrance to the main street and has become the town symbol. Similarly, the Smithers chamber of commerce displays an Alpine Al costume at community events, residents of Smithers are called Smithereens which remains a more popularly accepted demonym than the sometimes used Smitherite. Smithereens have a strong environmental ethic. Smithers and the Bulkley Valley are home to musicians, including Juno-Award-winning Alexis Puentes. The biggest assembly of musical talent happens during the annual Mid-Summer Music Festival in late June, over the years, the Mid-Summer Music Festival has seen some famous acts like Spirit of the West and the Barenaked Ladies and has drawn audiences and participants from all across North America. Numerous organizations including the Bulkley Valley Community Arts Council operate to keep music, the latest census, taken in 2011, recorded 5,404 residents living in 2,190 households and 1,440 families. Of those over 15 years of age in 2011,45. 2% were married, with 87% of Smithers residents being Canadian-born, and 88% with an English-only mother tongue, the town has few visible minorities
15.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
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'Ksan
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Ksan is a historical village and living museum of the Gitxsan Aboriginal people in the Skeena Country of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is near Hazelton at the confluence of the Skeena and Bulkley Rivers, Ksan was founded before Hazelton was in 1866, and was populated by the Gitxsan Aboriginal people. Hagwilgyet Kitwanga Fort National Historic Site Old Hazelton, British Columbia Xa, ytem Ksan
17.
Supreme Court of Canada
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The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada, the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, the creation of the court was provided for by the British North America Act,1867, renamed in 1982 the Constitution Act,1867. The first bills for the creation of a supreme court, introduced in the Parliament of Canada in 1869. It was not until 8 April 1875 that a bill was passed providing for the creation of a Supreme Court of Canada. Prior to 1949, however, the Supreme Court did not constitute the court of last resort, as well, some cases could bypass the court and go directly to the Judicial Committee from the provincial courts of appeal. The Supreme Court of Canada formally became the Court of last resort for criminal appeals in 1933, the last decisions of the Judicial Committee on cases from Canada were made in the mid-1950s, as a result of their being heard in a court of first instance prior to 1949. The increase in the importance of the court was mirrored by the numbers of its members, the court was established first with six judges, and these were augmented by an additional member in 1927. It was in 1949 that the bench reached its current composition, prior to 1949, most of the appointees to the Supreme Court of Canada owed their position to political patronage. Each judge had strong ties to the party in power at the time of their appointment, in 1973, the appointment of a constitutional law professor, Bora Laskin, as chief justice represented a major turning point for the court. Increasingly in this period, appointees either came from backgrounds or were well-respected practitioners with several years experience in appellate courts. Laskins federalist and liberal views were shared by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, the evolution from the Dickson court through to the Lamer court witnessed a continuing vigour in the protection of civil liberties. Lamers criminal law background proved an influence on the number of cases heard by the court during his time as chief justice. Nonetheless, the Lamer court was more conservative with charter rights, the appointment of Beverly McLachlin as chief justice in 2000 has resulted in a more centrist and unified court. Dissenting and concurring opinions are fewer than during the Dickson and Lamer Courts, with the 2005 appointments of Justices Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella, the court became the worlds most gender-balanced national high court, four of its nine members being female. Justice Marie Deschamps retirement on 7 August 2012 caused the number to fall to three, the appointment of Suzanne Côté on 1 December 2014 restored the number of female justices to four. At the next level are the provinces and territories superior courts, judgments from the superior courts may be appealed to a still higher level, the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. Several federal courts also exist, the Tax Court of Canada, the Federal Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or general jurisdiction, the federal courts jurisdiction is limited by statute. In all there are over 1,000 federally appointed judges at various levels across Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada rests at the apex of the judicial pyramid
18.
Delgamuukw
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Delgamuukw v British Columbia 3 S. C. R. … There is no doubt that it is a constitutional issue. … Is that all you have to say on the constitutional question, aside from that, the Court expressly and explicitly refused to decide anything of precedent value regarding the Aboriginal constitutional interest. The proceedings were started in 1984 by the Gitksan and the Wetsuweten Nations and they bypassed the slow Federal Land Claims process in which the British Columbia provincial government would not participate. The Gitksan and Witsuwiten used their oral histories as principal evidence in the case, the Crown of British Columbia insisted that all First Nations land rights in British Columbia were extinguished by the colonial government before it became part of Canada in 1871. In order to bear an impact on the proceedings it must be supported by forms of evidence recognized by the court, the Supreme Court made no decision on the land dispute, insisting that another trial was necessary. Specifically, the Court held, I reject the submission with respect to the substitution of aboriginal title, the content of common law aboriginal title, for example, has not been authoritatively determined by this Court. This defect in the pleadings prevents this Court from considering the merits of this appeal, the legal significance of those passages is that the Aboriginal Interest within the meaning of section 109 of the Constitution Act,1867, was not involved in the appeal. It confirms that Aboriginal sovereignty, i. e and it is widely held that The ruling also made important statements about the legitimacy of Indigenous oral history ruling that oral histories were just as important as written testimony. It has been claimed that the case was framed by the lawyers who filed the case. The Delgamuukw court case has important implications for the history of Canada, in this case the court gave greater weight to oral history than to written evidence. Of oral histories the court said they are tangential to the purpose of the fact-finding process at trial -- the determination of the historical truth. In A Fair Country, John Ralston Saul writes about the significance of the courts recognition of oral evidence as carrying as much or greater weight as written evidence. The Queen, and Attorney General of Canada v. Culhane, Dara The Pleasure of the Crown, Anthropology, Law, daly, Richard Our Box Was Full, An Ethnography for the Delgamuukw Plaintiffs. Page xviii Fisher, Robin Judging History, Reflections on the Reasons for Judgment in Delgamuukw vs. B. C. Gisday Wa and Delgam Uukw The Spirit in the Land, The Opening Statement of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en Hereditary Chiefs in the Supreme Court of British Columbia, glavin, Terry A Death Feast in Dimlahamid. Eagle Down Is Our Law, Witsuwit’en Law, Feasts, Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press. Hang on to words, Johnny Davids Delgamuukw evidence. Toronto, University of Toronto Press pages 13–14 Monet, Don, and Ardythe Wilson Colonialism on Trial, Indigenous Land Rights, Delgamuukw, the Supreme Court of Canada decision on Aboriginal title Vancouver, Greystone Books
19.
Kispiox
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Kispiox is a Gitxsan village of approximately 550 in the Kispiox Valley, at the confluence of the Kispiox and Skeena Rivers in British Columbia. Located 13 km north of Hazelton, the community is situated within the Kispiox Indian Reserve and is managed by the Kispiox Band Council. Kispiox is perhaps most known to outsiders for its totem poles, additionally, the Kispiox River has, in fact been host to two world-record steelhead catches, a 33 pounder and a 36 pounder. Ideally, Kispiox has remained a favoite tourist attraction for both its historical village, traditional artifacts and its superb fishing, the original, and traditional name of Kispiox Village is Anspayaxw, loosely translated from the Gitxsan language, this means The Hiding Place. Alvin Weget Elder, Hereditary Chief Gitluudahlxw Walter Harris, O. C, artist and Gitxsan Hereditary Chief Delgamuukw Earl Muldoe, Gitxsan Hereditary Chief Gitxsan Chiefs Office Skeena River Totem Poles Paintings of Kispiox Kispiox Valley Homepage Kispiox Band Reserves
20.
Gitsegukla
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Gitsegukla is a Gitxsan community of about 500 at the confluence of the Kitseguecla and Skeena Rivers, approximately 40 km southwest of Hazelton, British Columbia. The community is on Gitsegukla Indian Reserve No.1, the original village was located below the present day graveyard near the Skeena River. A forest fire destroyed it in 1872, and the community relocated slightly upriver, following the building of a church, the village divided along religious lines. Methodists moved to the community of Carnaby, and followers of the Salvation Army to Andimaul. Gitsegukla has been impacted by flooding of the Skeena River, in 1914, a large flood washed away many of the houses of the second village. And in 1936, another flood washed away the second village. In the Gitxsan language, Gitsegukla roughly translates to people living under the precipice or more specifically under the Segukla or sharp-pointed mountain
21.
Kitwanga
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Kitwanga /ˈkɪtwəŋɡə/ or Gitwangak or Gitwangax is located where the Kitwanga River runs into the Skeena River in British Columbia. A long-standing village before contact, the village is within Gitwangak Indian Reserve No.1, there is recreational salmon fishing. The community is governed by a local band office. As of the current census the population of Kitwanga is approximately 480 and is primarily a town made up of patriarchal families like the Ranahans fallers Faulkners Daniels. The totem poles of Gitwangak village are a National Historic Site of Canada, the Gitxsan Nation is made up of, Kitwanga Kispiox Glen Vowell Old Hazelton Gitsegukla, also spelled Kitseguecla or Kitsegukla Cedarvale. Ksan North of Kitwanga stands Meziadin Junction, Stewart, and Dease Lake, west of Kitwanga is Terrace, Kitimat, and Prince Rupert. And East of Kitwanga is New Hazelton, Moricetown, Smithers, Telkwa, and Prince George
Canada
British Columbia