1.
Fossombrone
–
Fossombrone is a town and comune in the province of Pesaro e Urbino, Marche, central Italy. The ancient Roman colony of Forum Sempronii took its name from Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, near the Furlo Pass, during the Gothic War, was fought in 552 the Battle of Taginae, in which Totila was overcome by the Byzantine general, Narses. Fossombrone was included in the Donation of Pepin, but remained subject to the Duchy of Spoleto until 1198, the Malatesta sold it to the famous Federico III da Montefeltro, under whom the city flourished. Also positive for the city was the reign of the della Rovere dukes, in 1631 it returned to the Papal States, and was annexed to Italy in 1860. The city and its environs abound in antiquities, especially inscriptions, Fossombrone Cathedral, built in neoclassical style in 1776–1784. The façade with the coat of arms of the House of Malatesta, the interior houses a canvas by Federico Zuccari. San Filippo, deconsecrated church with frescoes and paintings, now used for cultural events, san Francesco, located in piazza Dante built in the 18th century at the site of a church of Santa Francesca Romana. The façade has a sandstone relief by Domenico Rosselli, depicting the Madonna and child with Sts Francis. It was damaged in World War II, notable are the Renaissance court and the Cardinals chapel. Santi Giovanni Battista e Floriano Corte Bassa, a 16th-century residence of the Dukes of Urbino, the Corte Bassa is instead from the 13th century, and was later renewed under Federico da Montefeltro with a notable Renaissance façade and pavement. The duke Guidobaldo I stayed here frequently, and also died here and it has a Renaissance façade with a portico and a fresco of the Crucifixion attributed to Bartolomeo di Gentile. FC Fossombrone, a club whose strip is produced by Dirk Bikkembergs. Entraigues-sur-la-Sorgue, France This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
Fossombrone
–
Fossombrone
2.
Pesaro
–
Pesaro is a town and comune in the Italian region of the Marche, capital of the Pesaro e Urbino province, on the Adriatic. According to the 2011 census, its population was 95,011, making it the second most populous city in the Marche, Pesaro is known as City of Bicycle, thanks to its big net of bicycle paths. The city received this award by Legambiente, the most important ecologist society in Italy, in 2015 and it is also known as City of Music thanks to the bond with Gioacchino Rossini, the famous composer born in Pesaro. For this reason, in 2015, the Italian Government officially candidate Pesaro as Creative City in the group of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO, fishery, furniture industry and tourism are the main strengths of the local economy. The city was founded as Pisaurum by the Romans in 184 BC as colony in the territory of the Picentes, a settlement of the Picentes tribe has been found at Novilara. The northern Picentes were invaded in the 4th century BC by the Gallic Senones, earlier by the Etruscans, within it the Gauls at least were still distinct, as the Romans separated them out and expelled them from the country. Under the Roman administration Pesaro, a hub across the Via Flaminia, became an important center of trading, after the fall of the Western Empire, Pesaro was occupied by the Ostrogoths, and destroyed by Vitigis in the course of the Gothic War. Hastily rebuilt five years later after the Byzantine reconquest, it formed the so-called Pentapolis, after the Lombard and Frankish conquests of that city, Pesaro became part of the Papal States. During the Renaissance it was ruled successively by the houses of Malatesta, Sforza, in 1475, a legendary wedding took place in Pesaro, when Costanzo Sforza and Camilla DAragona married. On 11 September 1860 Piedmontese troops entered the city, and Pesaro was subsequently annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy, rocca Costanza - Massive castle built by Costanzo I Sforza, it has a square plan with four cylindrical corner towers and a wide dry moat. Its sunken court is the precedent for the more famous one at the Roman Villa Giulia. Rooms are frescoed by prominent Mannerist painters Bronzino, Francesco Menzocchi, Girolamo Genga, mura Roveresche - Della Rovere Walls, demolished in the early 20th century), only two gates, Porta del Ponte and Porta Rimini, and a short section remain. Birthplace of Gioacchino Rossini- Now a museum dedicated to the composer and it has a museum with manifestoes, prints, portraits and his spinet. Among the masterpieces is the Pesaro Altarpiece by Giovanni Bellini, oliveriani Museum and Library- Archaeological Collection and Manuscript Library, founded in 1756 by Annibale degli Abati Olivieri. Cathedral of Pesaro Romanesque-Gothic Basilica built over remains of a late Roman edifice, the façade, in Romanesque-Gothic style, is unfinished, it has a simple ogival portal surmounted by a band of small arches. A recent restoration has brought to light floor mosaics, the Baroque Sanctuary of Beata Vergine del Carmelo. Rossini Opera Festival has taken place every summer since 1980 in Pesaro, Pesaro hosts the home games of Victoria Libertas basketball team, better known across Europe as Scavolini Pesaro. Adriatic Arena, third biggest Italian indoor arena behind Mediolanum Forum in Milan, among the town industries is the motocross and enduro brand of TM Racing, a small manufacturer of race-ready motorbikes based in the coastal town since 1978
Pesaro
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Piazza del Popolo
Pesaro
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Palazzo Ducale
Pesaro
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Duomo di Pesaro
Pesaro
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Rocca Costanza
3.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
4.
Pion
–
Protein pigeon homolog also known as gamma-secretase activating protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PION gene. The human PION gene is located on the arm of chromosome 7 at band 11.23. Highly conserved PION orthologs have been identified in most vertebrates for which complete genome data are available, more distantly related orthologs are also expressed in insects including the pigeon gene in Drosophila melanogaster that when mutated produces the pigeon phenotype. The name of the human PION gene derives the corresponding Drosophila gene, the transcribed human pigeon homolog protein is 854 amino acid residues in length. A16 kDa fragment derived from 121 residues from the C-terminus region of the full length protein is known as the activating protein. γ-secretase activating protein increases β-amyloid production through a mechanism involving its interactions with both γ-secretase and its substrate, the precursor protein. By binding to both the enzyme and its APP substrate, GSAP increases the affinity and the selectivity of the enzyme for this particular substrate. Imatinib itself does not get into the brain so imatinib could not be used as an AD therapeutic, however it may be possible to identify imatinib-like drugs that do get into the brain. Hence GSAP represents a potential target for the treatment of Alzheimers disease. The drug semagacestat in contrast to imatinib, works by inhibiting the γ-secretase. While semagacestat reduces β-amyloid plaque formation in AD patients, γ-secretase is also needed to other important proteins. The failure of semagacestat to improve the function of AD patients may be due to its non-selective blockade of γ-secretase. The more selective blockade of γ-secretase provided by inhibiting GSAP may make GSAP a more efficacious, the PION gene was originally discovered through a large scale genome sequencing effort. However the function of the PION gene product remained a mystery, in the laboratory of Paul Greengard, a screen of compounds that could inhibit the formation of β-amyloid identified imatinib, however it was not immediately known how it accomplished this. Later it was discovered by Greengards lab that imatinib inhibited the function of GSAP and that GSAP in turn functions as an activator of γ-secretase
Pion
5.
Meson
–
In particle physics, mesons are hadronic subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark sub-particles, they have a size, with a diameter of roughly one fermi. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond, charged mesons decay to form electrons and neutrinos. Uncharged mesons may decay to photons, both of these decays imply that color is no longer a property of the byproducts. Outside of the nucleus, mesons appear in only as short-lived products of very high-energy collisions between particles made of quarks, such as cosmic rays and ordinary matter. Mesons are also frequently produced artificially in particle accelerators in the collisions of protons, anti-protons. Mesons are the associated quantum-field particles that transmit the force between hadrons that pull those together into a nucleus. Higher energy mesons were created momentarily in the Big Bang, but are not thought to play a role in nature today. However, such heavy mesons are regularly created in particle accelerator experiments, mesons are part of the hadron particle family, and are defined simply as particles composed of two quarks. The other members of the family are the baryons, subatomic particles composed of three quarks. Some experiments show evidence of exotic mesons, which do not have the conventional valence quark content of one quark, because quarks have a spin of 1⁄2, the difference in quark-number between mesons and baryons results in conventional two-quark mesons being bosons, whereas baryons are fermions. Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice versa. For example, a pion is made of one up quark and one down antiquark, and its corresponding antiparticle. Because mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions, mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. Mesons are classified according to their content, total angular momentum, parity and various other properties. Although no meson is stable, those of mass are nonetheless more stable than the more massive. Mesons are also less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments. For example, the quark was first seen in the J/Psi meson in 1974
Meson
–
Mesons of spin 0 form a nonet
6.
Bruno Rossi
–
Bruno Benedetto Rossi was an Italian experimental physicist. He made major contributions to physics and the study of cosmic rays. A1927 graduate of the University of Bologna, he interested in cosmic rays. Forced to emigrate in October 1938 due to the Italian Racial Laws, where he worked with Niels Bohr. He then moved to Britain, where he worked with Patrick Blackett at the University of Manchester, finally he went to the United States, where he worked with Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, and later at Cornell University. Rossi stayed in the United States, and became an American Citizen, after the war, he was recruited by Jerrold Zacharias at MIT, where Rossi continued his pre-war research into cosmic rays. In the 1960s, he pioneered X-ray astronomy and space plasma physics and his instrumentation on Explorer 10 detected the magnetopause, and he initiated the rocket experiments that discovered Scorpius X-1, the first extra-solar source of X-rays. Rossi was born to a Jewish family in Venice, Italy and he was the eldest of three sons of Rino Rossi and Lina Minerbi. His father was an engineer, who participated in the electrification of Venice. Rossi was tutored at home until the age of fourteen, after which he attended the Ginnasio, after beginning his university studies at the University of Padua. He then began advanced work at the University of Bologna, where he received a Laurea in Physics in 1927 and his thesis advisor was Quirino Majorana, who was a well-known experimentalist and uncle of the physicist Ettore Majorana. In 1928, Rossi began his career at the University of Florence, as assistant to Antonio Garbasso and it was located in Arcetri, on a hill overlooking the city. When Rossi arrived, Garbasso was Podestà of Florence, appointed by Benito Mussolinis fascist government of Italy, in 1929, Rossis first graduate student, Giuseppe Occhialini, was awarded the doctoral degree. In search of pioneering research, Rossi turned his attention to cosmic rays, in 1929, Rossi read the paper of Walther Bothe and Werner Kolhörster, which described their discovery of charged cosmic ray particles that penetrated 4.1 centimetres of gold. This was astonishing, for the most penetrating charged particles known at the time were electrons from radioactive decay, in Rossis words it came like a flash of light revealing the existence of an unsuspected world, full of mysteries, which no one had yet begun to explore. It soon became my ambition to participate in the exploration. In 1954, Bothe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the coincidence method, however, his implementation of this method was very cumbersome, for it involved visual correlation of photographed pulses. Within a few weeks of reading his paper with Kolhörster, Rossi invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit, the Rossi coincidence circuit has two major advantages, it offers very precise temporal resolution and it can detect coincidences among any number of pulse sources
Bruno Rossi
–
Bruno Benedetto Rossi
Bruno Rossi
–
Signature
Bruno Rossi
–
At the Rome conference on nuclear physics in 1931, Rossi met
Robert Millikan and
Arthur Compton.
Bruno Rossi
–
Rossi's Cosmic ray telescope
7.
Royal Society
–
Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
Royal Society
–
The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Royal Society
–
The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Royal Society
–
John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Royal Society
–
Mace granted by Charles II
8.
Physicist
–
A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
Physicist
–
Albert Einstein, physicist who developed the theory of general relativity.
9.
Cecil Frank Powell
–
Following this he attended Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, graduating in 1925 in the natural sciences. After completing his bachelors degree he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, wilson and Lord Rutherford, conducting research into condensation phenomena, and gaining his Ph. D. in Physics in 1927. In 1928 he took up a post as Research Assistant to A. M, tyndall in the H. H. Wills Physical Laboratory at the University of Bristol, later being appointed lecturer, and in 1948 appointed Melville Wills Professor of Physics. In 1932 Powell married Isobel Artner, and the couple had two daughters, in 1936 he took part in an expedition to the West Indies as part of a study of volcanic activity, and where he appears on a stamp issued in Grenada. Muirhead and young Brazilian physicist César Lattes and this work led in 1946 to the discovery of the pion, which proved to be the hypothetical particle proposed in 1935 by Yukawa Hideki in his theory of nuclear physics. In 1949 Powell became a Fellow of the Royal Society and received the societys Hughes Medal the same year, in 1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method. From 1952 Powell was appointed director of several expeditions to Sardinia, as Rotblat put it, Cecil Powell has been the backbone of the Pugwash Movement. He gave it coherence, endurance and vitality, Powell chaired the meetings of the Pugwash Continuing Committee, often standing in for Bertrand Russell, and attended meetings until 1968. Powell died on 9 August 1969, whilst out walking in the foothills of the Alps near the Valsassina region of Italy, a bench with commemorative plaque was erected near the site of his death. The Cecil F. Powell Memorial Medal was named in his honour by the European Physical Society, marietta Blau Page on Powell on the Nobel site, including biography, speeches, and lecture Portrait photograph of Powell at the American Institute of Physics
Cecil Frank Powell
–
C. F. Powell
Cecil Frank Powell
–
Memorial bench and plaque dedicated to Powell at the site of his death in the foothills of the alps, Italy.
10.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
Nobel Prize
–
Alfred Nobel had the unpleasant surprise of reading his own obituary, which was titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
–
Alfred Nobel's
will stated that 94% of his total assets should be used to establish the Nobel Prizes.
Nobel Prize
–
Wilhelm Röntgen received the first Physics Prize for his discovery of X-rays.
11.
University of Bristol
–
The University of Bristol is a red brick research university located in Bristol, United Kingdom. It received its charter in 1909, and its predecessor institution, University College. Bristol is organised into six academic faculties composed of multiple schools, the university had a total income of £565.8 million in 2015/16, of which £146.2 million was from research grants and contracts. It is the largest independent employer in Bristol, the University of Bristol is ranked 11th in the UK for its research, according to the Research Excellence Framework 2014 by GPA. The University of Bristol is ranked 37th by the QS World University Rankings 2015-16, and is ranked amongst the top of UK universities by QS, THE, a highly selective institution, it has an average of 6.4 to 13.1 applicants for each undergraduate place. Current academics include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences,13 fellows of the British Academy,13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. In addition, the university holds an Erasmus Charter, sending more than 500 students per year to partner institutions in Europe, the earliest antecedent of the university was the engineering department of the Merchant Venturers Technical College which became the engineering faculty of Bristol University. The university was preceded by Bristol Medical School and University College, Bristol, founded in 1876. The university was able to apply for a royal charter due to the support of the Wills and Fry families. The Wills Family made a vast fortune from the tobacco industry, the royal charter was gained in May 1909, with 288 undergraduates and 400 other students entering the university in October 1909. Henry Overton Wills III became its first chancellor, the University College was the first such institution in the country to admit women on the same basis as men. However, women were forbidden to take examinations in medicine until 1906, Bristol does not have a campus but is spread over a considerable geographic area. Most of its activities, however, are concentrated in the area of the city centre and it is a member of the Russell Group of research-led UK universities, the Coimbra Group of leading European universities and the Worldwide Universities Network. After the founding of the University College in 1876, Government support began in 1889, in December 1909, the King granted such a charter and erected the University of Bristol. Henry Wills became its first chancellor and Conwy Lloyd Morgan the first vice-chancellor, Wills died in 1911 and in tribute his sons George and Harry built the Wills Memorial Building, starting in 1913 and finally finishing in 1925. Today, it parts of the academic provision for earth sciences and law. The Wills Memorial Building is a Grade II* listed building, in 1920, George Wills bought the Victoria Rooms and endowed them to the university as a Students Union. The building now houses the Department of Music and is a Grade II* listed building, at the point of foundation, the university was required to provide for the local community
University of Bristol
–
The
Wills Memorial Building (Schools of Law and Earth Sciences) on
Park Street, Bristol. The tower was cleaned in 2006–2007. [
citation needed]
University of Bristol
–
University of Bristol
University of Bristol
–
Evacuated
King's College London students at the University of Bristol in 1940
University of Bristol
–
The Victoria Rooms, comprising the School of Music
12.
BeppoSAX
–
BeppoSAX was an Italian–Dutch satellite for X-ray astronomy which played a crucial role in resolving the origin of gamma-ray bursts, the most energetic events known in the universe. BeppoSAX was a programme of the Italian Space Agency with the participation of the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes. The prime contractor for the segment was Alenia while Nuova Telespazio led the development of the ground segment. BeppoSAX was named in honour of the Italian physicist Giuseppe Beppo Occhialini, SAX stands for Satellite per Astronomia a raggi X or Satellite for X-ray Astronomy. X-ray observations cannot be performed from ground-based telescopes, since Earths atmosphere blocks most of the incoming radiation, one of BeppoSAXs main achievements was the identification of numerous gamma ray bursts with extra-galactic objects. After this date, the orbit started to rapidly and various subsystems were starting to fail making it no longer worthwhile to conduct scientific observations. On April 29,2003, the satellite ended its life falling into the Pacific Ocean, BeppoSAX was a three axes stabilized satellite, with a pointing accuracy of 1. The main attitude constraint derived from the need to maintain the normal to the solar arrays within 30° from the Sun, due to the low orbit the satellite was in view of the ground station of Malindi for only a limited fraction of the time. Data was stored on-board on a unit with a capacity of 450 Mbits. The average data rate available to instruments was about 60 kbit/s, with the solar panels closed, the spacecraft was 3.6 m in height and 2.7 m in diameter. The total mass amounts to 1400 kg, with a payload of 480 kg. the Payload Module, which housed the scientific instruments, the Thermal Shade Structure, that enclosed the Payload Module. It included redundant magnetomers, Sun acquisition sensors, three star trackers, six gyroscopes, three magnetic torquers and four wheels, all controlled by a dedicated computer. The AOCS ensured a pointing accuracy of 1 during source observations, the On Board Data Handler was the core for data management and system control on the satellite and it also managed the communication interfaces between the satellite and the ground station. Its computer supervised all subsystem processor activities, such as those of each instrument, the WFC contained two coded aperture cameras operating in the 2 to 30 keV range and each covering a region of 40 x 40 degrees on the sky. The WFC was complemented by the shielding of PDS which had a view in the 100 to 600 keV band. The PDS shielding has poor angular resolution, in theory, after a GRB was seen in the PDS, the position was refined first with the WFC. However, due to the spikes in the PDS, in practice a GRB was found using the WFC. The position up to arcminute precision - depending on the signal to noise ratio of the burst - was found using the deconvoluted WFC-image, the coordinates were speedily sent out as an International Astronomical Union and Gamma-ray burst Coordinate Network Circular
BeppoSAX
–
Artist's conception of BeppoSax in space (credit: the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and BeppoSAX Science Data Center (SDC))
BeppoSAX
–
A model of BeppoSAX.
BeppoSAX
–
BeppoSAX particle monitor.
BeppoSAX
–
BeppoSAX X-ray concentrator mirror unit.
13.
Cavendish Laboratory
–
The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the School of Physical Sciences. The laboratory was opened in 1874 on the New Museums Site as a laboratory for experimental physics, the laboratory moved to its present site in West Cambridge in 1974. As of 2011,29 Cavendish researchers have won Nobel Prizes, the Cavendish Laboratory was initially located on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge. After perennial space problems, it moved to its present site in West Cambridge in the early 1970s. The oak door of the new Cavendish Laboratory is known for its inscription from the Book of Psalms in the Bible, The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein. Professor James Clerk Maxwell, the developer of electromagnetic theory, was a founder of the lab, the Duke of Devonshire had given to Maxwell, as Head of the Laboratory, the manuscripts of Henry Cavendishs unpublished Electrical Works. The editing and publishing of these was Maxwells main scientific work while he was at the laboratory, Cavendishs work aroused Maxwells intense admiration and he decided to call the Laboratory the Cavendish Laboratory and thus to commemorate both the Duke and Henry Cavendish. In World War II the laboratory carried out research for the MAUD Committee, researchers included Nicholas Kemmer, Alan Nunn May, Anthony French, Samuel Curran and the French scientists including Lew Kowarski and Hans von Halban. Several transferred to Canada in 1943, the Montreal Laboratory and some later to the Chalk River Laboratories, mcMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. The Cavendish Laboratory has had an important influence on biology, mainly through the application of X-ray crystallography to the study of structures of biological molecules, the discovery was made on 28 February 1953, the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day, the article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Braggs original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press, sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory, Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. The Cavendish Professors were the Heads of the Department until the tenure of Professor Sir Brian Pippard, areas in which the Laboratory has been very influential include, - As of 2015 the laboratory is headed by Andy Parker and the Cavendish Professor of Physics is Sir Richard Friend. As of 2015 senior academic staff include, The Cavendish is home to a number of Emeritus Scientists, besides the Nobel Laureates, the Cavendish has many distinguished alumni including, Austin Memories—History of Austin and Longbridge Cavendish Article
Cavendish Laboratory
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Southern aspect of the laboratory at its current site, viewed from across 'Payne's Pond'
Cavendish Laboratory
–
Entrance at the original Cavendish Laboratory site on
Free School Lane
Cavendish Laboratory
–
Cavendish plaque at original
New Museums Site
14.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam about 50 miles north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in the Bronze Age and in Roman Britain, under Viking rule, Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951, the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, is one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the Cavendish Laboratory, Kings College Chapel, the citys skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, the chimney of Addenbrookes Hospital and St Johns College Chapel tower. Anglia Ruskin University, evolved from the Cambridge School of Art, Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies spun out of the university. More than 40% of the workforce has a higher education qualification, the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to be home to AstraZeneca, a hotel and the relocated Papworth Hospital. Parkers Piece hosted the first ever game of Association football, the Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fairs are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads, settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3, the principal Roman site is a small fort Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street, the eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettles Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads, evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement—also on and around Castle Hill—became known as Grantebrycge, Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands, by the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a little ruined city containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river, the arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill, like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies
Cambridge
–
King's College Chapel, seen from
the Backs
Cambridge
–
St Bene't's Church, the oldest standing building in Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Peterhouse was the first college to be founded in the University of Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge in 1575
15.
Patrick Blackett
–
He also made a major contribution in World War II advising on military strategy and developing operational research. His left-wing views saw an outlet in third world development and in influencing policy in the Labour Government of the 1960s, Blackett was born in Kensington, London, the son of Arthur Stuart Blackett, a stockbroker, and his wife Caroline Maynard. His younger sister was the psychoanalyst Marion Milner and his paternal grandfather Rev. Henry Blackett, brother of Edmund Blacket the Australian architect, was for many years Vicar of Croydon. His maternal grandfather Charles Maynard was an officer in the Royal Artillery at the time of the Indian Mutiny, the Blackett family lived successively at Kensington, Kenley, Woking and Guildford, Surrey, where Blackett went to preparatory school. His main hobbies were model aeroplanes and crystal radio and he was accepted and spent two years there before moving on to Dartmouth where he was usually head of his class. In August 1914 on the outbreak of World War I Blackett was assigned to service as a midshipman. He was transferred to the Cape Verde Islands on HMS Carnarvon and was present at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and he was then transferred to HMS Barham and saw much action at the Battle of Jutland. While on HMS Barham, Blackett was co-inventor of a device on which the Admiralty took out a patent. In 1916 he applied to join the RNAS but his application was refused, in October that year he became a sub-lieutenant on HMS P17 on Dover patrol, and in July 1917 he was posted to HMS Sturgeon in the Harwich Force under Admiral Tyrwhitt. Blackett was particularly concerned by the quality of gunnery in the force compared with that of the enemy and of his own previous experience. He was promoted to Lieutenant in May 1918, but had decided to leave the Navy, then, in January 1919, the Admiralty sent the officers whose training had been interrupted by the war to Cambridge University for a course of general duties. On his first night at Magdalene College, Cambridge he met Kingsley Martin and Geoffrey Webb, later recalling that he had never before, in his naval training, Blackett was impressed by the prestigious Cavendish Laboratory, and left the Navy to study mathematics and physics at Cambridge. Rutherford had found out that the nucleus of the nitrogen atom could be disintegrated by firing fast alpha particles into nitrogen. He asked Blackett to use a chamber to find visible tracks of this disintegration. Eight of these were forked, and this showed that the nitrogen atom-alpha particle combination had formed an atom of fluorine, which then disintegrated into an isotope of oxygen, Blackett spent some time in 1924–1925 at Göttingen, Germany working with James Franck on atomic spectra. In 1932, working with Giuseppe Occhialini, he devised a system of geiger counters which only took photographs when a ray particle traversed the chamber. They found 500 tracks of high energy cosmic ray particles in 700 automatic exposures, in 1933, Blackett discovered fourteen tracks which confirmed the existence of the positron and revealed the now instantly recognisable opposing spiral traces of positron/electron pair production. This work and that on annihilation radiation made him one of the first and that same year he moved to Birkbeck College, University of London as Professor of Physics for four years
Patrick Blackett
–
Patrick Blackett, ca. 1950
16.
Gleb Wataghin
–
Wataghin was hired in 1934 to found with other European physicists the Department of Physics of the recently founded University of São Paulo. There, he was the tutor of a brilliant group of physicists, such as César Lattes, Oscar Sala, Mário Schenberg, Roberto Salmeron, Marcelo Damy de Souza Santos. The Institute of Physics of the State University of Campinas, in Campinas, Brazil, was named in his honour and he was awarded the Antonio Feltrinelli Prize in 1951 and was national member of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, from 1960. On the Formation of Chemical Elements Inside the Stars, brazilian Physical Society Salmeron, Roberto A. Gleb Wataghin
Gleb Wataghin
–
Gleb Wataghin in the 1970s
17.
Brazil
–
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
Brazil
–
Megaliths in the
Solstice Archaeological Park, in
Amapá, erected between 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry out
astronomical observations.
Brazil
–
Flag
Brazil
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Representation of the landing of
Pedro Álvares Cabral in
Porto Seguro, 1500.
Brazil
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Painting showing the arrest of
Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known
movement for independence in Colonial Brazil.
18.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
Genoa
–
A collage of Genoa, clockwise from top left:
Torre della Lanterna,
Piazza de Ferrari, Galleria Mazzini, Brigata Liguria Street, view of San Teodoro from
Port of Genoa
Genoa
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The Polcevera bronze tablet, evidence of the Roman and pre-Roman past of Genoa.
Genoa
–
Portrait of
Christopher Columbus by
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio
Genoa
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The iconic
Lanterna, renaissance lighthouse of Genoa built in 1543
19.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
Milan
–
Milan Cathedral,
La Scala opera house and
Porta Nuova business district
Milan
Milan
Milan
20.
Bristol
–
Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
Bristol
–
Bristol
Bristol
Bristol
–
Black and white etching showing the towers of
St Stephen's Church,
St Augustine the Less Church and
Bristol Cathedral, published c.1850
Bristol
–
West front of Bristol Cathedral
21.
European Space Agency
–
The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
European Space Agency
–
ESA Mission Control at
ESOC in
Darmstadt, Germany
European Space Agency
–
Acronym
European Space Agency
–
ESTEC buildings in
Noordwijk, Netherlands. ESTEC was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so for the successor organization, ESA.
European Space Agency
–
Mock-up of the
Ariane 1
22.
University of Milan Bicocca
–
The University of Milano-Bicocca is a public university located in Milan, Italy, providing undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate education. Established in 1998, it was ranked by the Times Higher Education 2014 ranking of the best 100 Universities under 50 years old as number 21 worldwide and first in Italy. The University of Milano-Bicocca is located in an area on the outskirts of Milan. The industrial area has been redesigned by architect Vittorio Gregotti into a complex, including the University of Milano-Bicocca’s research laboratories. The University of Milano-Bicocca has its origins from the splitting of the University of Milan, a large area in the north of Milan, the Bicocca, was chosen as the location for the new university. This area was occupied by the Pirelli industrial complex until the 1980s, the university was officially established on 10 June 1998. ESDP-Network List of Italian universities Milan University of Milano-Bicocca Website
University of Milan Bicocca
–
University of Milano-Bicocca
University of Milan Bicocca
23.
Asteroid
–
Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids and these terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, in this article, the term asteroid refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter. There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the remnants of planetesimals. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter. However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects, individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups, C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are identified with carbon-rich, metallic. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as 1000 km across, asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition, while asteroids are composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice, the difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size, meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials, only one asteroid,4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the eye for a short time. As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, the United Nations declared June 30 as International Asteroid Day to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia, the first asteroid to be discovered, Ceres, was found in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered to be a new planet. In the early half of the nineteenth century, the terms asteroid. Asteroid discovery methods have improved over the past two centuries. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, the expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers
Asteroid
–
253 Mathilde, a
C-type asteroid measuring about 50 kilometres (30 mi) across, covered in craters half that size. Photograph taken in 1997 by the
NEAR Shoemaker probe.
Asteroid
–
2013 EC, shown here in radar images, has a provisional designation
Asteroid
–
⚵
Asteroid
–
243 Ida and its moon Dactyl. Dactyl is the first satellite of an asteroid to be discovered.
24.
University of Bologna
–
The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation. It was the first place of study to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters which came to define the institution, located in Bologna, as of 2013, the Universitys crest carries the motto Alma mater studiorum and the date A. D.1088. The University has about 85,500 students in its 11 schools and it has campuses in Ravenna, Forlì, Cesena and Rimini and a branch center abroad in Buenos Aires. It also has a school of excellence named Collegio Superiore di Bologna, an associate publisher of the University of Bologna is Bononia University Press S. p. A. The date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088 and these students then hired scholars from the city to teach them. In time the various nations decided to form an association, or universitas—thus. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended, there was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses, the professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the Denouncers of Professors, kept tabs on them, Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming a College of Teachers, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues, until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate. Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community, nowadays the University offers 101 different Laurea or Laurea breve first-level degrees, followed by 108 Laurea specialistica or Laurea magistrale second-level degrees. After the Laurea one may attain 1st level Master, after second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to 2nd level Master, specialisation schools, or doctorates of research. A new department of Latin History was added in 2015, on 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, il Mulino became one of the most interesting points in Italy for the political and cultural debate. Editorial activities evolved along with the review, in 1954, the il Mulino publishing house was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects, that led, in 1964. In the 2016-17 THE World University Rankings the University of Bologna was ranked in the worlds top 250 universities
University of Bologna
–
The entry of some students in the Natio Germanica Bononiae, the
nation of German students at Bologna; miniature of 1497.
University of Bologna
–
University of Bologna
University of Bologna
–
Area above Bologna's old city centre.
University of Bologna
–
Interior view of the Porticum and
Loggia of its oldest College, the
Royal Spanish College.
25.
Institute of Physics
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The Institute of Physics is a scientific charity that works to advance physics education, research and application. It has a membership of over 50,000. The IOP supports physics in education, research and industry, the IOPs publishing company, IOP Publishing, publishes more than 70 academic journals and magazines. The Institute of Physics was formed in 1960 from the merger of the Physical Society, founded as the Physical Society of London in 1874, the Physical Society of London had been officially formed on 14 February 1874 with John Hall Gladstone as its first president. From its beginning, the society held meetings and demonstrations. In the early part of the 20th century, the profession of physicist emerged, in 1920, the Institute of Physics was created under special license from the Board of Trade. Sir Richard Glazebrook was elected first President of the Institute, as with the Physical Society, dissemination of knowledge was fundamental to the Institute, which began publication of the Journal of Scientific Instruments in 1922. The annual Reports on Progress in Physics began in 1934 and is published today. In 1952, the Institute began the Graduateship course and examination, upon being granted a royal charter in 1970, the organization renamed itself to Institute of Physics. There are four grades of membership, iMember, Associate Member, Member, qualification for AMInstP is normally by completion of an undergraduate degree that is recognised by the Institute – this covers almost all UK physics degrees. An AMInstP can become an MInstP by gaining experience as a physicist. MInstP and FInstP are the two grades of membership, granting the right to vote in Institute elections. The Institute grants academic dress to the grades of membership. Those who have passed the Institutes graduateeship examination are entitled to a violet damask Oxford burgon-shaped hood, corporate members are entitled to wear a hood of Toronto full shape in violet damask, lined in violet and faced on the cowl with 2/5 cm shot crimson silk. Fellows wear a doctors bonnet in bkack velvet with red tassels, until 1998 CPhys was granted automatically with MInstP, however since then it has become a separate qualification that is equal in stature to Chartered Engineer. From 2012, it requires re-validation every three years, the IOP accredits undergraduate degrees in physics in British and Irish universities. At post-16 level, the IOP developed the Advancing Physics A-level course, in conjunction with the OCR examining board, Advancing Physics was sold to Oxford University Press in January 2011. The IOP also developed the Integrated Sciences degree, which is run at four universities in England, the IOP provides an important educational service for secondary schools in the UK
Institute of Physics
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John Hall Gladstone, the first President of the Physical Society of London.
Institute of Physics
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The Institute of Physics building in
Portland Place, London
26.
Itatiaia National Park
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Itatiaia National Park, established in 1937, is the oldest national park in Brazil. It is located on the border between the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, the Itatiaia National Park is the oldest national park of Brazil, created on 14 June 1937 by President Getúlio Vargas. The park is in the Mantiqueira Mountains and it covers parts of the municipalities of Itatiaia and Resende in Rio de Janeiro state, and Bocaina de Minas and Itamonte in Minas Gerais state. It is mountainous and rocky with altitudes ranging from 540 to 2,791 metres, the highest point is the Black Needles peak. The lower part of the park has lush Atlantic Forest vegetation, the Pico das Agulhas Negras is the state third highest mountain at 2,878 metres. The park attracts bird watchers from all over the world with its 350 species of birds, other attractions include hiking and rock climbing. The park is surrounded by the Serra da Mantiqueira Environmental Protection Area which provides a buffer zone for the park. The high area of the park is accessible through an entrance about 35 km from the main entrance, the low area of the park is much closer to the city of Itatiaia and has many waterfalls, such as Véu da Noiva with 45 meters. The low area has also a Natural History museum, Itatiaia means many-pointed rock in the Tupi language. Jorge Pádua, Maria Tereza e Coimbra Filho, Adelmar F. Os Parques Nacionais do Brasil, ISBN 84-85389-19-0, pág.122 a 129 Corrêa, Marcos Sá Itatiaia - O Caminho das Pedras São Paulo. Leite, Helton Perillo Ferreira - Planalto do Itatiaia - Região das Agulhas Negras, Rio de Janeiro
Itatiaia National Park
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Itatiaia National Park Overview
Itatiaia National Park
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Pico das Agulhas Negras, the highest peak in the National Park
Itatiaia National Park
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Itatiaia National Park
Itatiaia National Park
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Véu de Noiva waterfall
27.
Valentine L. Telegdi
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Valentine Louis Telegdi was a Hungarian-born U. S. physicist. He was the Enrico Fermi Distinguished Service Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago before he moved to ETH Zürich, after retiring from ETH he divided his time between CERN and the California Institute of Technology. Telegdi chaired CERNs scientific policy committee from 1981 to 1983, in 1991 he shared the Wolf Prize in Physics with Maurice Goldhaber. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 2003
Valentine L. Telegdi
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Valentine Louis Telegdi
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
29.
Chien-Shiung Wu
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Chien-Shiung Wu was a Chinese-American experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics. Wu worked on the Manhattan Project, where she helped develop the process for separating uranium metal into uranium-235 and she is best known for conducting the Wu experiment, which contradicted the hypothetical law of conservation of parity. This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics and her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie. Her nicknames include the First Lady of Physics, the Chinese Madame Curie, Chien-Shiung Wu was born in the town of Liuhe in Taicang, Jiangsu province, China, on May 31,1912, the second of three children of Wu Zhong-Yi and Fan Fu-Hua. Accordingly, she had a brother, Chien-Ying, and a younger brother. Wu and her father were close and he encouraged her interests passionately, creating an environment where she was surrounded by books, magazines. Wu received her school education at Ming De School, a school for girls founded by her father. She left her hometown in 1923 at the age of 11 to go to the Suzhou Womens Normal School No.2 and this was a boarding school with classes for teacher training as well as for regular high school. Admission to teacher training was more competitive, as it did not charge for tuition or board, although her family could have afforded to pay, Wu chose the more competitive option, and was ranked ninth among around 10,000 applicants. In 1929 Wu graduated at the top of her class, and was admitted to the National Central University in Nanjing, according to the governmental regulations of the time, teacher-training college students wanting to move on to the universities needed to serve as schoolteachers for one year. In Wus case, this was only nominally enforced and she went to teach at the Public School in Shanghai, the president of which at the time was the philosopher Hu Shih, whose class she took. From 1930 to 1934, Wu studied at the National Central University, first in mathematics and she became involved in student politics. Relations between China and Japan were tense at this time, and students were urging the government to take a line with Japan. That being the case, she was not to neglect her studies. She led protests that included a sit-in at the Presidential Palace in Nanjing, for two years after graduation, she did graduate-level study in physics and worked as an assistant at the Zhejiang University. She became a researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Academia Sinica and her supervisor was Professor Gu Jing-Wei, who had earned her PhD abroad at the University of Michigan, and encouraged Wu to do the same. Wu was accepted by the University of Michigan, and her uncle, Wu Zhou-Zhi and she embarked for the United States with a female friend, Dong Ruo-Fen, a chemist from Taicang, on the SS President Hoover in August 1936. Her parents and uncle saw her off and she would never see her parents again
Chien-Shiung Wu
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Chien-Shiung Wu in 1958 at Columbia University
Chien-Shiung Wu
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The experiments of Columbia University physicists (left to right) Wu, Y.K. Lee, and L.W. Mo confirmed the theory of conservation of vector current. In the experiments, which took several months to complete, proton beams from Columbia's
Van de Graaff accelerator were transmitted through pipes to strike a 2 mm Boron target at the entrance to a spectrometer chamber.
Chien-Shiung Wu
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Sites
30.
George Eugene Uhlenbeck
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George Eugene Uhlenbeck was a Dutch-American theoretical physicist. George Uhlenbeck was the son of Eugenius and Anne Beeger Uhlenbeck and he attended the Hogere Burgerschool in The Hague, from which he graduated in 1918. Subsequently entered Delft University of Technology as a student in chemical engineering, during the next year, he transferred to the Leiden University, to study physics and mathematics, and he earned his bachelors degree in 1920. Uhlenbeck was then admitted by Ehrenfest to the Wednesday evening physics colloquium in Leiden, Ehrenfest became the most important scientific influence in his life. From 1922 to 1925 Uhlenbeck was the tutor of the son of the Dutch ambassador in Rome. While there, he attended lectures by Tullio Levi-Civita and Vito Volterra and met his longtime friend, in 1923, Uhlenbeck received his masters degree from Leiden. He returned to Leiden in 1925 to become Ehrenfests assistant, Ehrenfest assigned him to work with his graduate student, Samuel Goudsmit for a quick update on what was currently happening in physics. In mid-September 1925, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit discovered the spin on the electron, in 1927 Uhlenbeck earned his Ph. D. degree under Ehrenfest with his thesis titled, Over Statistische Methoden in de Theorie der Quanta. Uhlenbeck married Else Ophorst in Arnhem, Netherlands in August 1927 and he received a doctorate from the Leiden University in the same year. As a graduate student in 1925, he and Samuel Goudsmit introduced the concept of electron spin, in 1927, Uhlenbeck took a position as an instructor in physics at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He stayed there until 1935, when he succeeded H. A. Kramers as a professor of physics in Utrecht. During his eight years in Ann Arbor, Uhlenbeck organized the noted Summerschool in theoretical physics. In 1938, Uhlenbeck spent half a year as visiting professor at Columbia University in New York City, because of the rise of Nazism in Europe, he and Else decided to leave his position in the Netherlands and return to America. During part of World War II, from 1943 through 1945, Uhlenbeck led a group at the Radiation Laboratory in Cambridge. In 1945, he returned to Ann Arbor, where he was named the Henry Cahart Professor of Physics in 1954 and he remained in Ann Arbor until 1960, when he joined the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York City as a professor and member of the Institute. He retired in 1971, but he remained active until the early 1980s. Uhlenbeck died on October 31,1988, in Boulder, Colorado at the age of 87 years, in 1951 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Uhlenbeck was a friend of many of the physicists and mathematicians of his era, including Enrico Fermi
George Eugene Uhlenbeck
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George Uhlenbeck,
Hendrik Kramers, and
Samuel Goudsmit circa 1928 in
Ann Arbor.
31.
Kenneth G. Wilson
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Kenneth Geddes Wilson was an American theoretical physicist and a pioneer in leveraging computers for studying particle physics. He was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on phase transitions—illuminating the subtle essence of phenomena like melting ice and it was embodied in his fundamental work on the renormalization group. His mother also trained as a physicist and he attended several schools, including Magdalen College School, Oxford, England, ending up at the George School in eastern Pennsylvania. He went on to Harvard College at age 16, majoring in Mathematics and and he was also a star on the athletics track, representing Harvard in the Mile. During his summer holidays he worked at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and he earned his PhD from Caltech in 1961, studying under Murray Gell-Mann. He did post-doc work at Harvard and CERN and he joined Cornell University in 1963 in the Department of Physics as a junior faculty member, becoming a full professor in 1970. He also did research at SLAC during this period, in 1974, he became the James A. Weeks Professor of Physics at Cornell, in 1982 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on critical phenomena using the renormalization group. He was a co-winner of the Wolf Prize in physics in 1980, together with Michael E. Fisher and his other awards include the A. C. Eringen Medal, the Franklin Medal, the Boltzmann Medal, and the Dannie Heinemann Prize. He was elected to the National Academy of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Science, in 1988, Dr. Wilson joined the faculty at The Ohio State University, moved to Gray, Maine in 1995. He continued his association with Ohio State University until he retired in 2008, prior to his death, he was actively involved in research on physics education and was an early proponent of active involvement of K-12 students in science and math. Some of his PhD students include H. R. Krishnamurthy, Roman Jackiw, Michael Peskin, Serge Rudaz, Paul Ginsparg, and Steven R. White. Wilsons brother David is also a Professor at Cornell in the department of Molecular Biology and Genetics and he died at the age of 77 in Saco, Maine on June 15,2013. He was respectfully remembered by his colleagues, wilsons work in physics involved formulation of a comprehensive theory of scaling, how fundamental properties and forces of a system vary depending on the scale over which they are measured. This provided profound insights into the field of critical phenomena and phase transitions in statistical physics enabling exact calculations, one example of an important problem in solid-state physics he solved using renormalization is in quantitatively describing the Kondo effect. On such a lattice, he further shed light on chiral symmetry, kenneth Geddes Wilson, 1936-2013, An Appreciation
Kenneth G. Wilson
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Kenneth G. Wilson
32.
Freeman Dyson
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Freeman John Dyson FRS is an English-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician, known for his work in quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, astronomy and nuclear engineering. He is professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, a Visitor of Ralston College, born on 15 December 1923, at Crowthorne in Berkshire, Dyson is the son of the English composer George Dyson, who was later knighted. His mother had a law degree, and after Dyson was born she worked as a social worker, at the age of five he calculated the number of atoms in the sun. As a child, he showed an interest in numbers and in the solar system. Politically, Dyson says he was brought up as a socialist, from 1936 to 1941, Dyson was a Scholar at Winchester College, where his father was Director of Music. After the war, Dyson was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1946 to 1949, he was a Fellow of his college, occupying rooms just below those of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, who resigned his professorship in 1947. In 1947, he published two papers in number theory, in 1947, Dyson moved to the United States as a Commonwealth Fellow to earn a physics doctorate with Hans Bethe at Cornell University. Within a week, however, he had made the acquaintance of Richard Feynman, the budding English physicist recognized the brilliance of the flamboyant American, and attached himself as quickly as possible. He then moved to the Institute for Advanced Study, before returning to England and he was the first person after their creator to appreciate the power of Feynman diagrams, and his paper written in 1948 and published in 1949 was the first to make use of them. He said in paper that Feynman diagrams were not just a computational tool, but a physical theory. Dysons paper and also his lectures presented Feynmans theories of QED in a form that other physicists could understand, Robert Oppenheimer, in particular, was persuaded by Dyson that Feynmans new theory was as valid as Schwingers and Tomonagas. Oppenheimer rewarded Dyson with an appointment at the Institute for Advanced Study, for proving me wrong. Also in 1949, in related work, Dyson invented the Dyson series and it was this paper that inspired John Ward to derive his celebrated Ward identity. In 1957, he became a citizen of the United States. One reason he gave decades later is that his children born in the US had not been recognized as British subjects, from 1957 to 1961, he worked on the Orion Project, which proposed the possibility of space-flight using nuclear pulse propulsion. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional explosives, but the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty permitted only underground nuclear testing, so the project was abandoned. In 1958, he led the team for the TRIGA. In condensed matter physics, Dyson also analysed the phase transition of the Ising model in 1 dimension, Dyson also did work in a variety of topics in mathematics, such as topology, analysis, number theory and random matrices
Freeman Dyson
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At the
Long Now Seminar in San Francisco, 2005
Freeman Dyson
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External video
33.
Victor Frederick Weisskopf
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Victor Frederick Viki Weisskopf was an Austrian-born American theoretical physicist. He did postdoctoral work with Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli, during World War II he was Group Leader of the Theoretical Division of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, and later campaigned against the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Weisskopf was born in Vienna to Jewish parents and earned his doctorate in physics at the University of Göttingen in Germany in 1931 and his brilliance in physics led to work with the great physicists exploring the atom, especially Niels Bohr, who mentored Weisskopf at his institute in Copenhagen. By the late 1930s, he realized that, as a Jew, Bohr helped him find a position in the United States. In the 1930s and 1940s, Viki, as everyone called him, made contributions to the development of quantum theory. One of his few regrets was that his insecurity about his abilities may have cost him a Nobel prize when he did not publish results about what is now known as the Lamb shift. From 1937 to 1943 he was a Professor of Physics at the University of Rochester, after World War II, Weisskopf joined the physics faculty at MIT, ultimately becoming head of the department. At MIT, he encouraged students to ask questions, and, even in undergraduate courses, taught his students to think like physicists. Weisskopf was a co-founder and board member of the Union of Concerned Scientists and he served as director-general of CERN from 1961 to 1966. Weisskopf was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and he was president of the American Physical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Thus, there is a vital role for religion and science. He was survived at death by his second wife Duscha, Weisskopf, Victor, Blatt, J. M. Theoretical Nuclear Physics. Knowledge and Wonder, The Natural World as Man Knows It, new York, Anchor Books/Doubleday & Co. Modern Physics from an Elementary Point of View, Physics in the Twentieth Century, Selected Essays. The Privilege of Being a Physicist, the Joy of Insight, Passions of a Physicist. Hitlers Gift, The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list V. Stefan. Essays in Honor of Victor Frederick Weisskopf by the International Community of Physicists
Victor Frederick Weisskopf
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Victor Frederick Weisskopf in the 1940s.
34.
Leon M. Lederman
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He is Director Emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, USA. He founded the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, in Aurora, Illinois in 1986, in 2012, he was awarded the Vannevar Bush Award for his extraordinary contributions to understanding the basic forces and particles of nature. Lederman was born in New York City, New York, the son of Minna and Morris Lederman, Lederman graduated from the James Monroe High School in the South Bronx. He received his bachelors degree from the City College of New York in 1943 and he then joined the Columbia faculty and eventually became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics. In 1960, on leave from Columbia, he spent some time at CERN in Geneva as a Ford Foundation Fellow and he took an extended leave of absence from Columbia in 1979 to become director of Fermilab. In 1991, Lederman became President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Lederman is also one of the main proponents of the Physics First movement. Also known as Right-side Up Science and Biology Last, this movement seeks to rearrange the current high school curriculum so that physics precedes chemistry. A former president of the American Physical Society, Lederman also received the National Medal of Science, the Wolf Prize, Lederman served as President of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1989 to 1992, among his achievements are the discovery of the muon neutrino in 1962 and the bottom quark in 1977. These helped establish his reputation as among the top particle physicists, in 1977, a group of physicists, the E288 experiment team, led by Leon Lederman announced that a particle with a mass of about 6.0 GeV was being produced by the Fermilab particle accelerator. The particles initial name was the greek letter Upsilon, after taking further data, the group discovered that this particle did not actually exist, and the discovery was named Oops-Leon as a pun on the original name and Ledermans first name. Lederman later wrote his 1993 popular science book The God Particle, If the Universe Is the Answer, – which sought to promote awareness of the significance of such a project – in the context of the projects last years and the changing political climate of the 1990s. The increasingly moribund project was finally shelved that same year after some $2 billion of expenditures, Lederman also received the National Medal of Science, the Elliott Cresson Medal for Physics, the Wolf Prize for Physics and the Enrico Fermi Award. In 1995, he received the Chicago History Museum Making History Award for Distinction in Science Medicine, Lederman was an early supporter of Science Debate 2008, an initiative to get the then-candidates for president, Barack Obama and John McCain, to debate the nations top science policy challenges. Lederman was also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festivals Advisory Board, Lederman was born in New York to a family of Jewish immigrants from Russia. His father operated a hand laundry while encouraging Leon to pursue his education and he went to elementary school in New York City, continuing on to college and his doctorate in the city. In his book, The God Particle, If the Universe Is the Answer, Lederman wrote that, although he was a chemistry major, he became fascinated with physics, because of the clarity of the logic and the unambiguous results from experimentation. His best friend during his years, Martin Klein, convinced him of the splendors of physics during a long evening over many beers
Leon M. Lederman
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Lederman on May 11, 2007
35.
Martin Lewis Perl
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Martin Lewis Perl was an American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 for his discovery of the tau lepton. Perl was born in New York City, New York and his parents, Fay, a secretary and bookkeeper, and Oscar Perl, a stationery salesman who founded a printing and advertising company, were Jewish immigrants to the US from the Polish area of Russia. Perl is a 1948 chemical engineering graduate of Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in Brooklyn, after graduation, Perl worked for the General Electric Company, as a chemical engineer in a factory producing electron vacuum tubes. He received his Ph. D. from Columbia University in 1955, perls thesis described measurements of the nuclear quadrupole moment of sodium, using the atomic beam resonance method that Rabi had won the Nobel Prize in Physics for in 1944. While at Michigan, Perl and Lawrence W. Jones served as co-advisors to Samuel C. C, ting, who earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1976. Seeking a simpler interaction mechanism to study, Perl started to consider electron and muon interactions and he had the opportunity to start planning experimental work in this area when he moved in 1963 to the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, then being built in California. He was particularly interested in understanding the muon, why it should interact almost exactly like the electron but be 206.8 times heavier, Perl chose to look for answers to these questions in experiments on high-energy charged leptons. In addition, he considered the possibility of finding a third generation of lepton through electron-positron collisions and he died after a heart attack at Stanford University Hospital on September 30,2014 at the age of 87. The tau lepton is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with electric charge and a spin of 1⁄2. Together with the electron, the muon, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton, the tau was first detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Perl with his colleagues at the SLAC-LBL group. Their equipment consisted of SLACs then-new e+–e− colliding ring, called SPEAR, and they could detect and distinguish between leptons, hadrons and photons. The tau has a lifetime of only 2. 9×10−13 s, the need for at least two undetected particles was shown by the inability to conserve energy and momentum with only one. However, no other muons, electrons, photons, or hadrons were detected, work done at DESY-Hamburg, and with the Direct Electron Counter at SPEAR, subsequently established the mass and spin of the tau. The symbol τ was derived from the Greek τρίτον, since it was the third charged lepton discovered, Perl won the Nobel Prize in 1995 jointly with Frederick Reines. The prize was awarded for pioneering contributions to lepton physics. Perl received half for the discovery of the tau lepton while Reines received his share for the detection of the neutrino and he joined University of Liverpool as a visiting professor. He served on the board of advisors of Scientists and Engineers for America, in 2009, Perl received an honorary doctorate from the University of Belgrade. S. Patent 5943075 Universal fluid droplet ejector U. S, patent 5975682 Two-dimensional fluid droplet arrays generated using a single nozzle
Martin Lewis Perl
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Martin Lewis Perl
36.
Mitchell Feigenbaum
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Mitchell Jay Feigenbaum is a mathematical physicist whose pioneering studies in chaos theory led to the discovery of the Feigenbaum constants. Feigenbaum was born in New York City, to Polish and Ukrainian Jewish immigrants and he attended Samuel J. Tilden High School, in Brooklyn, New York, and the City College of New York. In 1964 he began his studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Enrolling for graduate study in engineering, he changed his area to physics. He completed his doctorate in 1970 for a thesis on dispersion relations, although that group of researchers was ultimately unable to unravel the currently intractable theory of turbulent fluids, his research led him to study chaotic maps. He is a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute and he has been Toyota Professor at Rockefeller University since 1986. Some mathematical mappings involving a single linear parameter exhibit the apparently random behavior known as chaos when the lies within certain ranges. As the parameter is increased towards this region, the mapping undergoes bifurcations at precise values of the parameter, at first there is one stable point, then bifurcating to an oscillation between two values, then bifurcating again to oscillate between four values and so on. For the first time, this universal result enabled mathematicians to take their first steps to unraveling the apparently random behavior of chaotic systems. This ratio of convergence is now known as the first Feigenbaum constant, the logistic map is a prominent example of the mappings that Feigenbaum studied in his noted 1978 article, Quantitative Universality for a Class of Nonlinear Transformations. Feigenbaums other contributions include important new methods in cartography, starting when he was hired by Hammond to develop techniques to allow computers to assist in drawing maps. Dr. Feigenbaum also created a new computerized type placement program which places thousands of map labels in minutes, in another practical application of his work, he founded Numerix with Michael Goodkin in 1996. The company’s initial product was an algorithm that dramatically reduced the time required for Monte Carlo pricing of exotic financial derivatives. Numerix remains one of the leading software providers to financial market participants, the press release made on the occasion of his receiving the Wolf Prize summed up his works, The impact of Feigenbaums discoveries has been phenomenal. It has spanned new fields of theoretical and experimental mathematics and it is hard to think of any other development in recent theoretical science that has had so broad an impact over so wide a range of fields, spanning both the very pure and the very applied. Feigenbaum was referenced on the Season 5, Episode 15 of the TV series Angel, while suffering a deadly illness, the character Winnifred Fred Burkle -- a major protagonist, who is a physicist -- exchanges the following dialogue, FRED, Feigenbaum. FRED, I—I have to find him, hes the master of— I have to have Feigenbaum here. Logistic map Radial basis function Theory of Colours OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Mitchell Feigenbaum, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, Feigenbaums webpage at Rockefeller The Theory of Relativity - Galileos Child
Mitchell Feigenbaum
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Mitchell Feigenbaum in 2006
Mitchell Feigenbaum
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Mitchell Feigenbaum (right) and
Joel Lebowitz (left), 1998
37.
Riccardo Giacconi
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Riccardo Giacconi is an Italian Nobel Prize-winning astrophysicist who laid the foundations of X-ray astronomy. He is currently a professor at the Johns Hopkins University, born in Genoa, Italy, Giacconi received his Laurea from the University of Milan before moving to the US to pursue a career in astrophysics research. Since cosmic X-ray radiation is absorbed by the Earths atmosphere, space-based telescopes are needed for X-ray astronomy, Giacconi also applied his expertise to other fields of astronomy, becoming the first director of the Space Telescope Science Institute, the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope. Giacconi was awarded a share of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002 for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, during that time he also held the position of Director General of the European Southern Observatory. He is currently principal investigator for the Chandra Deep Field-South project with NASAs Chandra X-ray Observatory
Riccardo Giacconi
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National Medal of Science award ceremony, 2003
38.
Roger Penrose
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Sir Roger Penrose OM FRS is an English mathematical physicist, mathematician and philosopher of science. He is the Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute of the University of Oxford, Penrose is known for his work in mathematical physics, in particular for his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He has received prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics. Penrose told a Russian audience that his grandmother had left St. Petersburg in the late 1880s and his uncle was artist Roland Penrose, whose son with photographer Lee Miller is Antony Penrose. Penrose is the brother of physicist Oliver Penrose and of chess Grandmaster Jonathan Penrose, Penrose attended University College School and University College, London, where he graduated with a first class degree in mathematics. In 1955, while still a student, Penrose reintroduced the E. H. Moore generalised matrix inverse, also known as the Moore–Penrose inverse, after it had been reinvented by Arne Bjerhammar in 1951. He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s, describing it as impossibility in its purest form, Escher, whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it. Eschers Waterfall, and Ascending and Descending were in inspired by Penrose. As reviewer Manjit Kumar puts it, As a student in 1954, soon he was trying to conjure up impossible figures of his own and discovered the tribar – a triangle that looks like a real, solid three-dimensional object, but isnt. Together with his father, a physicist and mathematician, Penrose went on to design a staircase that simultaneously loops up, an article followed and a copy was sent to Escher. Completing a cyclical flow of creativity, the Dutch master of illusions was inspired to produce his two masterpieces. One approach to issue was by the use of perturbation theory. The importance of Penroses epoch-making paper Gravitational collapse and space-time singularities was not only its result, following up his weak cosmic censorship hypothesis, Penrose went on, in 1979, to formulate a stronger version called the strong censorship hypothesis. Together with the BKL conjecture and issues of stability, settling the censorship conjectures is one of the most important outstanding problems in general relativity. Also from 1979 dates Penroses influential Weyl curvature hypothesis on the conditions of the observable part of the universe. Penrose and James Terrell independently realised that objects travelling near the speed of light appear to undergo a peculiar skewing or rotation. This effect has come to be called the Terrell rotation or Penrose–Terrell rotation, in 1967, Penrose invented the twistor theory which maps geometric objects in Minkowski space into the 4-dimensional complex space with the metric signature. Penrose developed these ideas based on the article Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique by Czech geographer, demographer, in 1984, such patterns were observed in the arrangement of atoms in quasicrystals
Roger Penrose
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Roger Penrose, 2005
Roger Penrose
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Predicted view from outside the horizon of a black hole lit by a thin accretion disc
Roger Penrose
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Oil painting by Urs Schmid (1995) of a
Penrose tiling using fat and thin
rhombi.
Roger Penrose
–
Prof. Penrose at a conference.
39.
Stephen Hawking
–
Hawking was the first to set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. He is a supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. In 2002, Hawking was ranked number 25 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Hawking has a rare early-onset, slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis that has gradually paralysed him over the decades. He now communicates using a single cheek muscle attached to a speech-generating device, Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 in Oxford, England to Frank and Isobel Hawking. Despite their families financial constraints, both attended the University of Oxford, where Frank read medicine and Isobel read Philosophy. The two met shortly after the beginning of the Second World War at a research institute where Isobel was working as a secretary. They lived in Highgate, but, as London was being bombed in those years, Hawking has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward. In 1950, when Hawkings father became head of the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research, Hawking and his moved to St Albans. In St Albans, the family were considered intelligent and somewhat eccentric. They lived an existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house. During one of Hawkings fathers frequent absences working in Africa, the rest of the family spent four months in Majorca visiting his mothers friend Beryl and her husband, Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School in Highgate, London. He later blamed its progressive methods for his failure to learn to read while at the school, in St Albans, the eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans High School for Girls for a few months. At that time, younger boys could attend one of the houses, the family placed a high value on education. Hawkings father wanted his son to attend the well-regarded Westminster School and his family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans. From 1958 on, with the help of the mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta, they built a computer from clock parts, although at school Hawking was known as Einstein, Hawking was not initially successful academically. With time, he began to show aptitude for scientific subjects and, inspired by Tahta. Hawkings father advised him to medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates. He wanted Hawking to attend University College, Oxford, his own alma mater, as it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry
Stephen Hawking
–
Hawking at
NASA, 1980s
Stephen Hawking
–
Hawking with string theorists
David Gross and
Edward Witten at the 2001 Strings Conference,
TIFR, India
Stephen Hawking
–
Stephen Hawking holding a public lecture at the
Stockholm Waterfront congress center, 24 August 2015.
Stephen Hawking
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Stephen Hawking at the
Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris, and the French release of his work
God Created the Integers, 5 May 2006.
40.
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
–
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was a French physicist and the Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1991. He was born in Paris, France, and was home-schooled to the age of 12, by the age of 13, he had adopted adult reading habits and was visiting museums. Later, de Gennes studied at the École Normale Supérieure and he defended his Ph. D. in 1957 at the University of Paris. In 1959, he was a postdoctoral research visitor with Charles Kittel at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1961, he was assistant professor in Orsay and soon started the Orsay group on superconductors. In 1968, he switched to studying liquid crystals, in 1971, he became professor at the Collège de France, and participated in STRASACOL on polymer physics. From 1980 on, he interested in interfacial problems, the dynamics of wetting. More recently, he worked on materials and on the nature of memory objects in the brain. He was awarded the Harvey Prize, Lorentz Medal and Wolf Prize in 1988 and 1990, in 1991, he received the Nobel Prize in physics. He was then director of the École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris, P. G. de Gennes has also received the F. A. The Royal Society of Chemistry awards the De Gennes Prize biennially and he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1984. He was awarded A. Cemal Eringen Medal in 1998, in 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto. On 22 May 2007, his death was made public as official messages and tributes poured in
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
–
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
41.
Maurice Goldhaber
–
Maurice Goldhaber was an Austrian-born American physicist, who in 1957 established that neutrinos have negative helicity. He was born on April 18,1911 in Lemberg, Austria now called Lviv, after beginning his physics studies at the University of Berlin, he earned his doctorate at Cambridge University in 1936, belonging to Magdalene College. He moved to the University of Illinois in 1938, in the 1940s with his wife Gertrude Scharff-Goldhaber he established that beta particles are identical to electrons. He joined Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1950, with Edward Teller he proposed that the so-called giant-dipole nuclear resonance was due to the neutrons in a nucleus vibrating as a group against the protons as a group. In the 1950s also he speculated that all such as electrons, protons and neutrons are doubled. He also speculated that in what known as the Goldhaber-Christie model. He was Director of Brookhaven National Laboratory from 1961 to 1973, among his many other awards, he won the National Medal of Science in 1983, the Wolf Prize in 1991, the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1982, and the Fermi Award in 1998. Goldhaber died May 11,2011 at his home in East Setauket, in 2001, Brookhaven National Laboratory created the Gertrude and Maurice Goldhaber Distinguished Fellowships in his honor. These prestigious Fellowships are awarded to scientists with exceptional talent
Maurice Goldhaber
–
Maurice Goldhaber
42.
Valentine Telegdi
–
Valentine Louis Telegdi was a Hungarian-born U. S. physicist. He was the Enrico Fermi Distinguished Service Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago before he moved to ETH Zürich, after retiring from ETH he divided his time between CERN and the California Institute of Technology. Telegdi chaired CERNs scientific policy committee from 1981 to 1983, in 1991 he shared the Wolf Prize in Physics with Maurice Goldhaber. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 2003
Valentine Telegdi
–
Valentine Louis Telegdi
43.
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.
–
He attended the Moorestown Friends School in Moorestown Township, New Jersey, where he excelled in math. He received a B. A. in physics at Haverford College in 1963, Taylors thesis work was on lunar occultation measurements. About the time he completed his Ph. D, jocelyn Bell discovered the first radio pulsars with a telescope near Cambridge, England. Taylor immediately went to the National Radio Astronomy Observatorys telescopes in Green Bank, West Virginia, since then, he has worked on all aspects of pulsar astrophysics. In 1974, Hulse and Taylor discovered the first pulsar in a system, named PSR B1913+16 after its position in the sky. The orbit of binary system is slowly shrinking as it loses energy because of emission of gravitational radiation. This was the first confirmation of the existence of gravitational radiation, there are now scores of binary pulsars known, and independent measurements have confirmed Taylors results. Taylor has used this first binary pulsar to make tests of general relativity. He and Hulse shared the Nobel Prize for the discovery of this object, in 1980, he moved to Princeton University, where he was the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor in Physics, having served for six years as Dean of Faculty. Joe Taylor first obtained his amateur radio license as a teenager, Taylor is well known in the field of amateur radio weak signal communication and was assigned the call sign K1JT by the Federal Communications Commission. He had previously held the callsigns K2ITP, WA1LXQ, W1HFV, WSJT is useful for passing short messages via non-traditional radio communications methods, such as moonbounce and meteor scatter and other low signal-to-noise ratio paths. It is also useful for extremely long-distance contacts using very low power transmissions and he was a guest of honor in the 2009 International Physics Olympiad. Harold E. Taylor, brother – physicist, joseph Taylor, Dept. of Physics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 1993 Nobel Physics laureates Nobel autobiography
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.
–
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.
44.
Benoit Mandelbrot
–
He referred to himself as a fractalist. He is recognized for his contribution to the field of fractal geometry, in 1936, while he was a child, Mandelbrots family migrated to France. He spent most of his career in both the United States and France, having dual French and American citizenship, in 1958, he began a 35-year career at IBM, where he became an IBM Fellow, and periodically took leaves of absence to teach at Harvard University. At Harvard, following the publication of his study of U. S. commodity markets in relation to cotton futures, he taught economics and he showed how visual complexity can be created from simple rules. He said that things typically considered to be rough, a mess or chaotic, like clouds or shorelines, toward the end of his career, he was Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences at Yale University, where he was the oldest professor in Yales history to receive tenure. Mandelbrot also held positions at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Université Lille Nord de France, Institute for Advanced Study, during his career, he received over 15 honorary doctorates and served on many science journals, along with winning numerous awards. His autobiography, The Fractalist, Memoir of a Scientific Maverick, was published in 2012, Mandelbrot was born in Warsaw during the Second Polish Republic. Although his father made his living trading clothing, the family had a strong academic tradition and he was first introduced to mathematics by two of his uncles, one of whom, Szolem Mandelbrojt, was a mathematician who resided in Paris. According to Mandelbrots autobiography, The Fractalist - Memoir of a Scientific Maverick, the family emigrated from Poland to France in 1936, when he was 11. The fact that my parents, as economic and political refugees, joined Szolem in France saved our lives, Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rolin in Paris until the start of World War II, when his family then moved to Tulle, France. He was helped by Rabbi David Feuerwerker, the Rabbi of Brive-la-Gaillarde and this happened to a close friend from Paris, Zina Morhange, a physician in a nearby county seat. Simply to eliminate the competition, another physician denounced her, in 1944, Mandelbrot returned to Paris, studied at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon, and in 1945 to 1947 attended the École Polytechnique, where he studied under Gaston Julia and Paul Lévy. From 1947 to 1949 he studied at California Institute of Technology, returning to France, he obtained his PhD degree in Mathematical Sciences at the University of Paris in 1952. From 1949 to 1958, Mandelbrot was a member at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. During this time he spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1955 he married Aliette Kagan and moved to Geneva, Switzerland, and later to the Université Lille Nord de France. In 1958 the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the staff at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights. He remained at IBM for 35 years, becoming an IBM Fellow, from 1951 onward, Mandelbrot worked on problems and published papers not only in mathematics but in applied fields such as information theory, economics, and fluid dynamics. Mandelbrot found that changes in financial markets did not follow a Gaussian distribution
Benoit Mandelbrot
–
At a
TED conference in 2010.
Benoit Mandelbrot
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Mandelbrot speaking about the
Mandelbrot set, during his acceptance speech for the
Légion d'honneur in 2006
Benoit Mandelbrot
–
A Mandelbrot set
Benoit Mandelbrot
–
section of a Mandelbrot set
45.
Vitaly Ginzburg
–
He was the successor to Igor Tamm as head of the Department of Theoretical Physics of the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and an outspoken atheist. He defended his candidates dissertation in 1940, and his doctors dissertation in 1942, in 1944, he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In 1937, Ginzburg married Olga Zamsha, in 1946 he married his second wife, Nina Ginzburg, who had spent more than a year in custody on fabricated charges of plotting to assassinate the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Ginzburg was the editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk and he also headed the Academic Department of Physics and Astrophysics Problems, which Ginzburg founded at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology in 1968. He is also known for fighting anti-Semitism and supporting the state of Israel. In the 2000s Ginzburg was politically active, supporting the Russian liberal opposition and he defended Igor Sutyagin and Valentin Danilov against charges of espionage put forth by the authorities. On April 2,2009, in an interview to the Radio Liberty Ginzburg denounced the FSB as an institution harmful to Russia, Ginzburg worked at the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of Soviet and Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow since 1940. Russian Academy of Sciences is an institution where mostly all Nobel Prize laureates of physics from Russia have done their studies and/or research works. Ginzburg was an avowed atheist, both under the militantly atheist Soviet government and in post-Communist Russia when religion made a strong revival and he criticized clericalism in the press and wrote several books devoted to the questions of religion and atheism. Because of this, some Orthodox Christian groups denounced him and said no science award could excuse his verbal attacks on the Russian Orthodox Church. He was one of the signers of the Open letter to the President Vladimir V. Putin from the Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences against clericalisation of Russia. A spokeswoman for the Russian Academy of Sciences, announced that Ginzburg died in Moscow on November 8,2009 and he had been suffering from ill health for several years, and three years before his death said In general, I envy believers. I am 90, and being overcome by illnesses, for believers, it is easier to deal with them and with lifes other hardships. I cannot believe in resurrection after death, Ginzburg was buried on 11 November in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow, the resting place of many famous politicians, writers and scientists of Russia. Obituary The Independent November 14,2009
Vitaly Ginzburg
–
Vitaly Ginzburg
Vitaly Ginzburg
–
Ginzburg reads a Nobel lecture in
Moscow State University.
46.
John Archibald Wheeler
–
John Archibald Wheeler was an American theoretical physicist. He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II, Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in explaining the basic principles behind nuclear fission. Together with Gregory Breit, Wheeler developed the concept of Breit–Wheeler process, Wheeler earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld, and studied under Breit and Bohr on a National Research Council fellowship. In 1939 he teamed up with Bohr to write a series of using the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of fission. He returned to Princeton after the war ended, but returned to government service to help design, for most of his career, Wheeler was a professor at Princeton University, which he joined in 1938, remaining until his retirement in 1976. At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs, more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department, Wheeler was born in Jacksonville, Florida on July 9,1911 to librarians Joseph Lewis Wheeler and Mabel Archibald Wheeler. He was the oldest of four children, having two brothers, Joseph and Robert, and a younger sister, Mary. Joseph earned a Ph. D. from Brown University and a Master of Library Science from Columbia University, Robert earned a Ph. D. in geology from Harvard University and worked as a geologist for oil companies and at colleges. Mary studied library science at the University of Denver and became a librarian and they grew up in Youngstown, Ohio, but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in Benson, Vermont, where Wheeler attended a one-room school. After they returned to Youngstown he attended Rayen High School, after graduating from the Baltimore City College high school in 1926, Wheeler entered Johns Hopkins University with a scholarship from the state of Maryland. He published his first scientific paper in 1930, as part of a job at the National Bureau of Standards. He earned his doctorate in 1933 and his dissertation research work, carried out under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld, was on the Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium. He received a National Research Council fellowship, which he used to study under Gregory Breit at New York University in 1933 and 1934, and then in Copenhagen under Niels Bohr in 1934 and 1935. In a 1934 paper, Breit and Wheeler introduced the Breit–Wheeler process, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937, but he wanted to be able work more closely with the experts in particle physics. He turned down an offer in 1938 of a professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at Princeton University. Although it was a position, he felt that Princeton. He remained a member of the faculty there until 1976, werner Heisenberg subsequently developed the idea of the S-matrix in the 1940s. In doing so he was led to introduce a unitary characteristic S-matrix, Wheeler did not develop the S-matrix, but joined Edward Teller in examining Bohrs liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus
John Archibald Wheeler
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John Archibald Wheeler (right) together with Eckehard W. Mielke (de) in front of lake in Holstein before the Hermann Weyl-Conference 1985 in Kiel, Germany
John Archibald Wheeler
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Loading tubes of the Hanford
B Reactor
John Archibald Wheeler
–
The "Sausage" device of
Ivy Mike nuclear test on
Enewetak Atoll. The Sausage was the first true
hydrogen bomb ever tested.
John Archibald Wheeler
–
Illustration of a black hole and its surrounding disk
47.
Yakir Aharonov
–
Yakir Aharonov is an Israeli physicist specializing in quantum physics. He is a Professor of Theoretical Physics and the James J. Farley Professor of Natural Philosophy at Chapman University in California and he is also a distinguished professor in the Perimeter Institute and a professor emeritus at Tel Aviv University in Israel. He is president of the IYAR, The Israeli Institute for Advanced Research, yakir Aharonov was born in Haifa. He received his education at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa. He continued his studies at the Technion and then moved to Bristol University, UK together with his doctoral advisor David Bohm. His research interests are nonlocal and topological effects in quantum mechanics, quantum field theories, in 1959, he and David Bohm proposed the Aharonov–Bohm effect for which he co-received the 1998 Wolf Prize. In 1988 Aharonov et al. published their theory of weak values and this work was motivated by Aharonovs long time quest to experimentally verify his theory that apparently random events in quantum mechanics are caused by events in the future. Verifying a present effect of a future cause requires a measurement and he and his colleagues claim that they were able to use weak measurements and verify the present effect of the future cause. 2008–Present, Professor of Theoretical Physics and the James J.2010, National Medal of Science, awarded and presented by President Barack Obama
Yakir Aharonov
–
Yakir Aharonov
48.
Dan Shechtman
–
On April 8,1982, while on sabbatical at the U. S. National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D. C. Shechtman discovered the icosahedral phase, which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals, Shechtman was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals, making him one of six Israelis who have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Dan Shechtman was born in 1941 in Tel Aviv, in what was then Mandatory Palestine and he is married to Prof. Tzipora Shechtman, Head of the Department of Counseling and Human Development at Haifa University, and author of two books on psychotherapy. They have a son Yoav Shechtman and three daughters, Tamar Finkelstein, Ella Shechtman-Cory, and Ruth Dougoud-Nevo, in 1975, he joined the department of materials engineering at Technion. In 1981–1983 he was on sabbatical at Johns Hopkins University, where he studied rapidly solidified aluminum transition metal alloys, during this study he discovered the Icosahedral Phase which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals. In 1992–1994 he was on sabbatical at National Institute of Standards and Technology, Shechtmans Technion research is conducted in the Louis Edelstein Center, and in the Wolfson Centre which is headed by him. He served on several Technion Senate Committees and headed one of them, Shechtman joined the Iowa State faculty in 2004. He currently spends about five months a year in Ames on a part-time appointment, since 2014 he has been the head of the International Scientific Council of Tomsk Polytechnic University. From the day Shechtman published his findings on quasicrystals in 1984 to the day Linus Pauling died, for a long time it was me against the world, he said. I was a subject of ridicule and lectures about the basics of crystallography, the leader of the opposition to my findings was the two-time Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling, the idol of the American Chemical Society and one of the most famous scientists in the world. For years, til his last day, he fought against quasi-periodicity in crystals and he was wrong, and after a while, I enjoyed every moment of this scientific battle, knowing that he was wrong. Linus Pauling is noted saying There is no such thing as quasicrystals, Pauling was apparently unaware of a paper in 1981 by H. Kleinert and K. Maki which had pointed out the possibility of a non-periodic Icosahedral Phase in quasicrystals. The head of Shechtmans research group told him to go back and read the textbook, on publication of his paper, other scientists began to confirm and accept empirical findings of the existence of quasicrystals. Quasicrystals have also found naturally. A quasiperiodic crystal, or, in short, quasicrystal, is a structure that is ordered, a quasicrystalline pattern can continuously fill all available space, but it lacks translational symmetry. Underlying it is a worked out by Fibonacci in the 13th century. But presently have no technological applications, the Nobel prize was 10 million Swedish krona. On January 17,2014, in an interview with Israels Channel One, Shechtman received the endorsement of the ten Members of Knesset required to run
Dan Shechtman
–
Dan Shechtman, Nobel Prize 2011 press conference.
Dan Shechtman
–
Meeting at NIST in 1985 where Shechtman (left) explains the atomic structure of quasicrystals
Dan Shechtman
–
Shechtman's Nobel Prize–winning work was in the area of
quasicrystals, ordered crystalline materials lacking repeating structures, such as this Al-Pd-Mn alloy.
49.
Raymond Davis Jr.
–
Raymond Davis Jr. was an American chemist, physicist, and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate. Davis was born in Washington, D. C. where his father was a photographer for the National Bureau of Standards and he spent several years as a choirboy to please his mother, although he could not carry a tune. He enjoyed attending the concerts at the Watergate before air traffic was loud enough to drown out the music and his brother Warren,14 months younger than he, was his constant companion in boyhood. He received his B. S. from the University of Maryland in 1938 in chemistry, which is part of the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences. He also received a degree from that school and a Ph. D. from Yale University in physical chemistry in 1942. In 1948, he joined Brookhaven National Laboratory, which was dedicated to finding uses for nuclear power. Davis investigated the detection of neutrinos by beta decay, the process by which a neutrino brings enough energy to a nucleus to make certain stable isotopes into radioactive ones. Using barrels and tanks of carbon tetrachloride as detectors, Davis characterized the rate of the production of argon-37 as a function of altitude and he deployed a detector containing chlorine atoms at the Brookhaven Reactor in 1954 and later one of the reactors at Savannah River. Detecting neutrinos proved considerably more difficult than not detecting antineutrinos, Davis was the lead scientist behind the Homestake Experiment, the large-scale radiochemical neutrino detector which first detected evidence of neutrinos from the sun. He was 88 years old when awarded the prize, Davis met his wife Anna Torrey at Brookhaven and together they built a 21-foot wooden sailboat, the Halcyon. They had five children and lived in the house in Blue Point. He died in Blue Point, New York from Alzheimers Disease, – Non-detection of antineutrinos with chlorine Davis, Raymond Jr. – Proposal for Homestake Experiment Cleveland, B. T. et al, measurement of the solar electron neutrino flux with the Homestake chlorine detector. – final results of Homestake Experiment Davis, R. Jr. & D. S. Harmer, search for Neutrinos from the Sun, Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy. Report on the Brookhaven Solar Neutrino Experiment, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Davis, R. Jr. Evans, J. C. & B. T. Cleveland. Solar Neutrino Problem, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Davis, R. Jr. Cleveland, B. T. & J. K. Rowley. Variations in the Solar Neutrino Flux, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics at University of Pennsylvania, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Raymond Davis Jr.
–
Davis in 2001
Raymond Davis Jr.
–
Davis receiving the Medal of Science from President Bush, with OSTP Director Marburger on the left
50.
Masatoshi Koshiba
–
Masatoshi Koshiba is a Japanese physicist. He jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002 and he is now Senior Counselor of International Center for Elementary Particle Physics and Emeritus Professor of University of Tokyo. He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1951 and received a Ph. D. in physics at the University of Rochester, New York, in 1955. At the University of Tokyo he became Associate Professor in March 1963 and then Professor in March 1970 in the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, from 1987 to 1997, Koshiba taught at Tokai University. In 2002, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering contributions to astrophysics. Koshibas award-winning work centred on neutrinos, subatomic particles that had long perplexed scientists, since the 1920s it had been suspected that the Sun shines because of nuclear fusion reactions that transform hydrogen into helium and release energy. Later, theoretical calculations indicated that countless neutrinos must be released in these reactions and, consequently, because neutrinos interact weakly with matter, however, only one in a trillion is stopped on its way to Earth. Neutrinos thus developed a reputation as being undetectable, in the 1980s, Koshiba, drawing on the work done by Raymond Davis Jr, constructed an underground neutrino detector in a zinc mine in Japan. Called Kamiokande II, it was a water tank surrounded by electronic detectors to sense flashes of light produced when neutrinos interacted with atomic nuclei in water molecules. Koshiba was able to confirm Daviss results—that the Sun produces neutrinos, in 1987 Kamiokande also detected neutrinos from a supernova explosion outside the Milky Way. In 2003, he was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics, Koshiba is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He is a fellow of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences In commemoration of the Nobel Prize-winning by Masatoshi Koshiba, Koshiba hall was established at the University of Tokyo. Koshiba, M. Fukuda, Y, et al, evidence for Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos. Koshiba, M. Fukuda, Y, et al, constraints on Neutrino Oscillation Parameters from the Measurement of Day-Night Solar Neutrino Fluxes at Super-Kamiokande. Kamioka Observatory Institute for Cosmic Ray Research List of Japanese Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Tokyo Prof. Koshiba has won the Nobel prize
Masatoshi Koshiba
–
1901–1925
