1.
Ringerike (municipality)
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Ringerike is a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway. It is part of the region of Ringerike. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Hønefoss, the municipality of Ringerike was created on 1 January 1964 after the merger of the town of Hønefoss and the rural municipalities of Hole, Norderhov, Tyristrand, and Ådal. However, the area of Hole was removed from the municipality of Ringerike on 1 January 1977 to become a separate municipality once again, the historic area of Ringerike included not just the modern municipality of Ringerike but also Hole and Krødsherad, Modum and Sigdal. The Old Norse form of name was Hringaríki. The first element is the plural of hringir, the name of an old Germanic tribe. The last element is ríki n kingdom, reich, the coat of arms were granted on 16 June 1967. The arms show a ring on a red background. The colours red and gold represent royalty and are the colors of Norway. The ring is a symbol and at the same time symbolises the unity of the area. Lakes in the include, Samsjøen Øyangen Sperillen Ullerentjernet Vestre Bjonevatnet Ringerike is famous for two agriculture products, Ringerike potato and Ringerike pea. Jens Aabel first started production of Ringerike potato around 1867, the Ringerike pea has obtained PDO. The Ringerike potato has applied for the protection, and is waiting for the result from the Agriculture department. In June 2007, the potato got protected geographical indication under the name Ringerikspotet fra Ringerike, six farmers are now producing and packing this special potato at Ask in Ringerike. Most of the potatoes are sold in the Oslo area, bjørn Kjos CEO and founder of Norwegian Air Shuttle
2.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
3.
University of Oslo
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The University of Oslo, until 1939 named the Royal Frederick University, is the oldest university in Norway, located in the Norwegian capital of Oslo. Until 1 January 2016 it was the largest Norwegian institution of education in terms of size, now surpassed only by the Norwegian University of Science. The Academic Ranking of World Universities has ranked it the 58th best university in the world, in 2015, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked it the 135th best university in the world and the seventh best in the Nordics. While in its 2016, Top 200 Rankings of European universities, the university has approximately 27,700 students and employs around 6,000 people. Its faculties include Theology, Law, Medicine, Humanities, Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, Dentistry, the universitys original neoclassical campus is located in the centre of Oslo, it is currently occupied by the Faculty of Law. Most of the other faculties are located at the newer Blindern campus in the suburban West End. The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area, the university was founded in 1811 and was modeled after the University of Copenhagen and the recently established University of Berlin. It was originally named for King Frederick VI of Denmark and Norway, the university is informally also known as Universitetet, having been the only university in Norway, until 1946 and was commonly referred to as The Royal Fredericks, prior to the name change. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in the universitys Atrium, from 1947 to 1989, since 2003, the Abel Prize is awarded in the Atrium. Five researchers affiliated with the university have been Nobel laureates, in 1813, The Royal Frederiks University was founded in Christiania, a small city at that time. Circumstances then changed dramatically one year into the commencement of the university, however, independence was somewhat restricted, as Norway was obliged to enter into a legislative union with Sweden based on the outcome of the War of 1814. Norway retained its own constitution and independent state institutions, although royal power, at a time when Norwegians feared political domination by the Swedes, the new university became a key institution that contributed to Norwegian political and cultural independence. The main initial function of The Royal Frederick University was to educate a new class of civil servants, as well as parliamentary representatives. The university also became the centre for a survey of the survey of culture, language, history. The staff of the university strove to undertake a range of tasks necessary for developing a modern society. Throughout the 1800s, the academic disciplines gradually became more specialised. Classical education came under increasing pressure, Education, health services and public administration were among those fields that recruited personnel from the universitys graduates. Research changed qualitatively around the turn of the century as new methods, scientific theories and it was decided that teachers should arrive at their posts as highly qualified academics and continue academic research alongside their role as teachers
4.
Viking Age
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The Viking Age is the period from the late 8th century to the mid-11th century in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, following the Germanic Iron Age. It is the period of history when Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonisation and conquest. Three Viking ships had beached in Weymouth Bay four years earlier, the Viking devastation of Northumbrias Holy Island was reported by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York, who wrote, Never before in Britain has such a terror appeared. Vikings were portrayed as violent and bloodthirsty by their enemies. The chronicles of medieval England portrayed them as rapacious wolves among sheep, the first challenges to the many anti-Viking images in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Pioneering scholarly works on the Viking Age reached a readership in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britains Viking past, linguistics traced the Viking-Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. New dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled more Victorians to read the Icelandic Sagas, the Vikings who invaded western and eastern Europe were chiefly pagans from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They also settled in the Faroe Islands, Ireland, Iceland, peripheral Scotland, Greenland and their North Germanic language, Old Norse, became the mother-tongue of present-day Scandinavian languages. By 801, a central authority appears to have been established in Jutland. In Norway, mountainous terrain and fjords formed strong natural boundaries, communities there remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By 800, some 30 small kingdoms existed in Norway, the sea was the easiest way of communication between the Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. It was in the 8th century that Scandinavians began to build ships of war, the North Sea rovers were traders, colonisers and explorers as well as plunderers. There are various theories concerning the causes of the Viking invasions, for people living along the coast, it would seem natural to seek new land by the sea. Another reason was that during this period England, Wales and Ireland, the Franks, however, had well-defended coasts and heavily fortified ports and harbours. Pure thirst for adventure may also have been a factor, a reason for the raids is believed by some to be over-population caused by technological advances, such as the use of iron, or a shortage of women due to selective female infanticide. Although another cause could well have been caused by the Frankish expansion to the south of Scandinavia. Consequently, these Vikings became raiders, in search of subsistence, There is ongoing debate among scholars as to why the Scandinavians began to expand during the 8th through 11th centuries
5.
Haugsbygd
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Haugsbygd is a village in Ringerike municipality, northeast of the center of Hønefoss, in Buskerud, Norway. The village is known for its landscape and is located relatively high in the landscape. Its area can be said to stretch from the border on Norderhov in the south to Knestang, administratively, the area was part of Norderhov municipality before the great unification of the municipalities on 1 January 1964, but it currently belongs to the large municipality of Ringerike. The center of the city is known as Haug from the Old Norse word haugr meaning mound. Haug church, which is the church of Haug parish, Vang primary school. Previously, there was both a bank and a post office there, but after the bank- and postal services started their rationalizations, currently Haugsbygd mainly consist of agricultural estates and modern residential areas of detached houses. In recent years the area has one of the most desirable building areas of Ringerike municipality. There are roads leading to Haug over county road 163 Hønefoss to Klekken, either over Fløytingen north of Sætrang and it is also possible to get to Haug over Riksvei 35 in direction of Jevnaker, over Viulveien from Hvalsmoen and Hvalsveien. One can also get there from Jevnaker or Norderhov over Riksvei over Åsbygda and Klekken, the village must have been of significance in the past. The Sætrang and Gjermundbu discoveries are proof of this, the Sætrang discovery was a rich grave finds from a burial mound dating to ca. The tomb was a grave which was discovered in 1834 on the Sætrang farm Haugsbygd. The burial mound was about 20 meters in diameter and about 4 feet high, in the middle of the mound was found a double tomb. Contents included 63.89 grams of gold in the form of five rings and about 900 beads of amber, glass and glass mosaics. The Gjermundbu mound burial was unearthed during 1943 and contained many artifacts, a Viking Era helmet with aventail and a single fragmented but possibly complete mail shirt have been excavated at the Gjermundbu farm. This helmet was made of iron and was in the shape of a rounded or peaked cap made from four plates after the spangenhelm pattern, the helmet has a rounded cap and has a spectacle guard around the eyes and nose which formed a sort of mask. Presently it is the known example of a complete Viking helmet in existence. Viking Age arms and armour University of Oslo, kulturhistorisk museum Viking Helmet from Gjermundbu
6.
Buskerud
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Buskerud is a county in Norway, bordering Akershus, Oslo, Oppland, Sogn og Fjordane, Hordaland, Telemark and Vestfold. The county extends from the Oslofjord and Drammensfjorden in the southeast to Hardangervidda mountain range in the northwest, the county administration is located in Drammen. The county is named after the old manor Buskerud located on the west side of the Drammen River in Åmot, the first element is the genitive case of biskup, bishop, the last element is ruð n clearing, farm. The farm was one of the largest in Buskerud, and the name of the farm was probably Modum. At the time of the Reformation the farm property of the Crown at which time the farm then served as the residence of the kings bailiffs until 1668. Buskerud extends from Hurum at the Oslofjord to the Halling mountains, the county is conventionally divided into traditional districts. These are Hallingdal, Numedal, Ringerike, Lower Buskerud, which was part of Vestfold. Hallingdal consists of Flå, Nes, Gol, Hemsedal, Ål, Numedal consists of Flesberg, Rollag and Nore og Uvdal. Ringerike consists of Hole, Krødsherad, Modum, Ringerike and Sigdal, Western Vingulmark consists of Hurum and Røyken. Lower Buskerud consists of Drammen, Hurum, Kongsberg, Lier, Nedre Eiker, Røyken, the district is merged from parts that belonged to Vestfold and Vingulmark. Buskeruds western part is a plateau with forested valleys and high, grassy pastures, its eastern part contains a lowland basin with many lakes. Tyrifjorden and Krøderen are the biggest lakes, numedalslågen, the third longest river in Norway, starting in Hordaland, runs through Buskerud unto Vestfold where it reaches the sea, while river Begna sweeps into lake Sperillen. Buskerud was separated from Akershus as an amt of its own in 1685 and it then consisted of the present districts Eiker, Hallingdal, and Ringerike. The area of the present municipalities of Flesberg, Hurum, Kongsberg, Lier, Nore og Uvdal, Rollag, the name Buskeruds amt was changed to Buskerud fylke in 1919. The municipality of Skoger was transferred from Vestfold to Buskerud in 1964, the area Ringerike may once have been a small kingdom. During the 10th century, Norways kings Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson grew up at Bønsnes in Ringerike, in the valley of Numedal, silver has been mined in Kongsberg from the 17th century until discontinued in 1957. Weapons industry had developed in Kongsberg from 1814, and various high tech industry companies now represent the towns major employers. At Modum there was also Blaafarveværket, a cobalt pigment production works, today, agriculture, lumber, wood-pulp mills and other related industries are the countys main economic activities, ample hydroelectric power is produced by the rivers Begna and Rands
7.
Viking era
–
The Viking Age is the period from the late 8th century to the mid-11th century in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, following the Germanic Iron Age. It is the period of history when Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonisation and conquest. Three Viking ships had beached in Weymouth Bay four years earlier, the Viking devastation of Northumbrias Holy Island was reported by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York, who wrote, Never before in Britain has such a terror appeared. Vikings were portrayed as violent and bloodthirsty by their enemies. The chronicles of medieval England portrayed them as rapacious wolves among sheep, the first challenges to the many anti-Viking images in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Pioneering scholarly works on the Viking Age reached a readership in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britains Viking past, linguistics traced the Viking-Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. New dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled more Victorians to read the Icelandic Sagas, the Vikings who invaded western and eastern Europe were chiefly pagans from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They also settled in the Faroe Islands, Ireland, Iceland, peripheral Scotland, Greenland and their North Germanic language, Old Norse, became the mother-tongue of present-day Scandinavian languages. By 801, a central authority appears to have been established in Jutland. In Norway, mountainous terrain and fjords formed strong natural boundaries, communities there remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By 800, some 30 small kingdoms existed in Norway, the sea was the easiest way of communication between the Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. It was in the 8th century that Scandinavians began to build ships of war, the North Sea rovers were traders, colonisers and explorers as well as plunderers. There are various theories concerning the causes of the Viking invasions, for people living along the coast, it would seem natural to seek new land by the sea. Another reason was that during this period England, Wales and Ireland, the Franks, however, had well-defended coasts and heavily fortified ports and harbours. Pure thirst for adventure may also have been a factor, a reason for the raids is believed by some to be over-population caused by technological advances, such as the use of iron, or a shortage of women due to selective female infanticide. Although another cause could well have been caused by the Frankish expansion to the south of Scandinavia. Consequently, these Vikings became raiders, in search of subsistence, There is ongoing debate among scholars as to why the Scandinavians began to expand during the 8th through 11th centuries
8.
Museum of Cultural History, Oslo
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Museum of Cultural History is an organisation at the University of Oslo, Norway. It was established in 1999 as Universitetets kulturhistoriske museum with the merging of the bodies Oldsaksamlingen, Myntkabinettet, in 2004 the name was changed to Kulturhistorisk museum. Olavs gate 29, as well as the Viking Ship Museum on the Bygdøy peninsula, the Museum of Cultural History is one of Norway’s largest cultural history museums. It holds the country’s largest prehistoric and medieval archaeological collections, including the Viking ships at Bygdøy, a collection of medieval church objects. The museum also has an ethnographic collection that includes objects from every continent. Through a major project, a review and revision of all the museum’s collections is being undertaken. The project has launched in connection with the planned move of the museum to a new building in Bjørvika
9.
Gotland
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Gotland, Gutland in the local dialect Gutnish, is a province, county, municipality, and diocese of Sweden. The province includes the islands of Fårö and Gotska Sandön to the north. The population is 57,221, of which about 23,600 live in Visby, the island of Gotland and the other areas of the province of Gotland make up less than one percent of Swedens total land area. From a military viewpoint, it occupies a location in the Baltic sea. The island is the home of the Gutes, and sites such as the Ajvide Settlement show that it has occupied since prehistory. This is consistent with the spread of peoples from the Middle East at about that time. Early on, Gotland became a center, with the town of Visby the most important Hanseatic city in the Baltic Sea. In late medieval times, the island had twenty district courts, each represented by its elected judge at the island-ting, new laws were decided at the landsting, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. Gutasaga contains legends of how the island was settled by Þieluar, according to some historians, it is therefore an effort not only to write down the history of Gotland, but also to assert Gotlands independence from Sweden. In 1361, Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark invaded the island, the Victual Brothers occupied the island in 1394 to set up a stronghold as a headquarters of their own in Visby. At last, Gotland became a fief of the Teutonic Knights, an invading army of Teutonic Knights conquered the island in 1398, destroying Visby and driving the Victual Brothers from Gotland. The number of Arab dirhams discovered on the island of Gotland alone is astoundingly high, in the various hoards located around the island, there are more of these silver coins than at any other site in Western Eurasia. The total sum is almost as great as the number that has been unearthed in the entire Muslim world, the Berezan Runestone, discovered in 1905 in Ukraine, was made by a Varangian trader named Grani in memory of his business partner Karl. It is assumed that they were from Gotland, the Mästermyr chest, an important artefact from the Viking Age, was found in Gotland. The authority of the landsting was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order, then sold to Eric of Pomerania, in late medieval times, the ting consisted of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants. Since the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, the island has remained under Swedish rule, the Order never regained its territory, and eventually it reestablished itself in Rome as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. On 22 April 1808, during the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, a Russian army landed on the shores of Gotland near Grötlingbo. Under command of Nikolaus Andrejevich Bodisco 1,800 Russians took the city of Visby without any combat or engagement, and occupied the island
10.
Kiev
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Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population in July 2015 was 2,887,974, Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many industries, higher education institutions. The city has an infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport. The citys name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, during its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus, completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland. The city prospered again during the Russian Empires Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, Kiev became its capital. From 1919 Kiev was an important center of the Armed Forces of South Russia and was controlled by the White Army. From 1921 onwards Kiev was a city of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, during World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years, remaining the third largest city of the Soviet Union. During the countrys transformation to an economy and electoral democracy. Kievs armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science, Kiev emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine where parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. As a prominent city with a history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. The early English spelling was derived from Old East Slavic form Kyjev, the name is associated with that of Kyi, the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Early English sources use various names, including Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, on one of the oldest English maps of the region, Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae published by Ortelius the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, in the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall, the city is referred to as Kiovia
11.
Rupert Bruce-Mitford
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Rupert Leo Scott Bruce-Mitford was a British archaeologist best known for his multi-volume publication on the Sutton Hoo ship burial. This he did through four decades at the British Museum and he also became President of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Apart from military service in World War II he worked at the British Museum continuously until 1977, globs book The Bog People into English. In the 1950s, Bruce-Mitford was invited to join the panel of the television show Animal. He was married three times and had three children by his first wife, Kathleen Dent, the Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, A Provisional Guide. London, Trustees of the British Museum, aspects of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology, Sutton Hoo and Other Discoveries. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 1, Excavations, Background, the Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 2, Arms, Armour and Regalia. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Reflections after thirty years, university of York Medieval Monograph Series. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 3, Late Roman and Byzantine silver, hanging-bowls, drinking vessels, cauldrons and other containers, textiles, the lyre, pottery bottle and other items. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 3, Late Roman and Byzantine silver, hanging-bowls, drinking vessels, cauldrons and other containers, textiles, the Corpus of Late Celtic Hanging-Bowls with An Account of the Bowls Found in Scandinavia. Mawgan Porth, A settlement of the late Saxon period on the north Cornish coast, the Bog People, Iron Age man preserved. The Archaeology of the Site of the Bodleian Extension in Broad Street, skinner, F. G. & Bruce-Mitford, Rupert. A Celtic Balance-beam of the Christian Period, the Excavations at Seacourt, Berks,1939, an interim report. Bruce-Mitford, Rupert & Jope, E. M. Eleventh and Twelfth Century Pottery from the Oxford Region, myres, J. N. L. Hawkes, C. F. C. Bruce-Mitford, Rupert, Hill, J. W. F. & Radford, the Archaeology of Lincolnshire and Lincoln, Anglian and Anglo-Danish Lincolnshire. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology, the Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Recent theories and some comments on general interpretations. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology, proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. The Problem of the Sutton Hoo Cenotaph, the Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, A New Chapter in Anglo-Swedish Relations
12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
13.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
14.
Open access
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Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to
15.
Helmet
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A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head from injuries. More specifically, a helmet aids the skull in protecting the human brain, ceremonial or symbolic helmets without protective function are sometimes used. The oldest known use of helmets was by Assyrian soldiers in 900 BC, soldiers still wear helmets, now often made from lightweight plastic materials. In civilian life, helmets are used for activities and sports, dangerous work activities. Since the 1990s, most helmets are made from resin or plastic, the word helmet is diminutive from helm, a medieval word for protective combat headgear. The Medieval great helm covers the head and often is accompanied with camail protecting throat. Originally a helmet was a helm which covered the head only partly, all helmets attempt to protect the users head by absorbing mechanical energy and protecting against penetration. Their structure and protective capacity are altered in high-energy impacts, beside their energy-absorption capability, their volume and weight are also important issues, since higher volume and weight increase the injury risk for the users head and neck. Anatomical helmets adapted to the head structure were invented by neurosurgeons at the end of the 20th century. Helmets used for different purposes have different designs, for example, a bicycle helmet must protect against blunt impact forces from the wearers head striking the road. A helmet designed for rock climbing must protect against heavy impact, sports helmets may have an integrated metal face protector. Baseball batting helmets have an expanded protection over the ear, which protects the jaw from injury, motorcycle helmets often have flip-down face screens for rain and wind protection, and they may also have projecting visors to protect the eyes from glare. Hard hats for construction workers are mainly to protect the wearer from falling objects such as tools. Helmets for riot police often have flip-down clear visors and thick padding to protect the back of the neck, Modern firefighters helmets protect the face and back of the head against impact, fires and electricity, and can include masks, communication systems, and other accessories. Welding helmets protect the eyes and face and neck from flash burn, ultraviolet light, sparks and heat. They have a window, called a lens shade, through which the welder looks at the weld. People with some medical conditions must wear a helmet to protect the brain, due to a gap in the braincase, mixed martial arts helmets have ear pads to prevent serious injuries to the athletes, who do not usually endure such force to the ears. Crash helmets for F1 racing drivers, their design and construction have evolved enormously, nevertheless, head and neck trauma remains the greatest single injury risk to drivers
16.
Benty Grange helmet
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The remains and a reconstruction are in Sheffields Weston Park Museum. This helmet is of the Spangenhelm type and like the Pioneer helmet is boar-crested, the surviving iron bands would have supported plates of horn held in place with small silver rivets and the nasal of the helmet is decorated with a silver cross. This helm is crested with a boar with bronze eyes inset with garnet. The hips of the boar are made with pear shaped plates of gilded silver, the 1986 reconstruction, based on conservation work carried out at the British Museum has boar bristles running along the back. In Norse mythology, the boar talisman was associated with Freyjas role as battle goddess, aspects of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology, Sutton Hoo and Other Discoveries. The Anglo-Saxon Helmet from Benty Grange, Derbyshire, the Museums Sheffield page for this object
17.
Celts in Transylvania
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The appearance of Celts in Transylvania can be traced to the later La Tène period. Excavation of the great La Tène necropolis at Apahida, Cluj County, the 3rd–2nd century BC site is remarkable for its cremation burials and chiefly wheel-made funeral vessels. The Celts exercised politico-military rule over Transylvania between the 4th and 2nd century BC and brought them a more advanced iron-working technology. They were also responsible for the spread of the wheel into a much wider area than the one they occupied. They were followed by an equally large wave of Celts migrating west to east. Celts arrived in northwestern Transylvania in around 400–350 BC as part of their great migration eastwards, when Celtic warriors first penetrated these territories, the group seem to have merged with the domestic population of early Dacians and assimilated many Hallstatt cultural traditions. The second half of the 4th century BC saw the Middle La Tène Celtic culture emerge in north-western and central Dacia, Celtic artifacts dating to this time have been discovered at Turdaş, Haţeg and Mediaş in modern-day Romania. By 1976, the number of Celtic sites found in Transylvania had reached about 150, archaeological investigations have highlighted several warrior graves with military equipment, suggesting that an elite Celtic military force penetrated the region. Celtic vestiges are found concentrated in the Transylvanian plateau and plain, as well as the upper Someş basin, whereas the valleys of Haţeg, Hunedoara, Făgăraş, Bârsa. Gheorghe and Ciuc have neither necropoleis nor settlements but only tombs or isolated items, nevertheless, these valleys, as well as those of Banat and Maramureş, have also yielded contemporary Dacian findings. Of the Celtic cemeteries excavated, the most important are those in Ciumeşti and Pişcolt and these contain over 150 graves compared to the average of 50–70. Necropoleis have also found at Sanislău, Curtuişeni, Galaţii Bistriţei. Twenty-three of the oldest graves from the extensive Fântânele, Mureş cemetery in Mureş County have been dated to the beginning of the 4th century BC, among European Celtic cemeteries, this one is second only to Munsingen in size. The Geto-Dacian population is represented through a full range of contemporary native pottery types. Finds from Pişcolt reveal that the inhabitants of settlements in the area practiced inhumation, or reuse of a barrow or grave. At Ciumeşti cemetery, of the 34 graves excavated,21 were simple cremations in pits, seven featured inhumations, the number and type of finds in the graves differed in each case. In Transylvania, the Celts shifted from inhumation to cremation, either through natural progression or because of Dacian influence, almost without exception, the necropoleis so far studied are bi-ritual, although cremation appears to be more prevalent than inhumation. The Celts in Dacia certainly cremated their dead from the second La Tène period onwards and it is impossible to say whether the Celts turned away from the practice of cremation as the Scythians had
18.
Coppergate Helmet
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The Coppergate Helmet is an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon helmet found in York. It is remarkably well preserved and, together with the Benty Grange, Pioneer, Shorwell, Sutton Hoo, like many other helmets of Germanic Western and Northern Europe in the Early Middle Ages the construction of Coppergate helmet is derivative of Late Roman helmet types. It has a composite skull, the iron elements making up the skull are riveted together. Two deep cheek-pieces are attached to the skull by hinges, a mail curtain is attached to the lower rim of the helmet behind the cheek-pieces to defend the wearers neck and an unusually large nose-guard provided facial protection. The mail is remarkable in consisting of forge-welded links, rather than the far more common riveted links and it is richly decorated with brass ornamentation. On analysis, the helmet was found to be made of iron and its basic construction is almost identical to another surviving Anglo-Saxon helmet, the Pioneer helmet. It is also very like the helmets depicted being worn by Anglo-Saxon Northumbrian cavalrymen on one of the Pictish Aberlemno Sculptured Stones, believed to depict the Battle of Dun Nechtain of 685. The helmet has two low crests of brass, one running from front to back the other side to side. Oshere is a male Anglian name and XPI are the first three letters of the word Christos Χριστός in Greek, the brass crest terminates in a decorative animal head at the base of the nasal. The brass eyebrow decorations which flank the nasal also terminate in animal heads, the decoration of the nasal itself consists of two intertwined beasts, whose bodies and limbs degenerate into interlace ornament. The helmet had been hidden in a well found near what is now the JORVIK Viking Centre and it is now in the Yorkshire Museum. Addyman, Peter V. Pearson, Nicholas, Tweddle, Dominic, binns, James W. Norton, Edward C. The Latin inscription on the Coppergate helmet, the Anglian Helmet from 16–22 Coppergate. Viking Age arms and armour Coppergate Helmet Collections Page
19.
Coventry Sallet
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The Coventry Sallet is a 15th-century helmet now on display at Herbert Art Gallery and Museum. English sallets have been considered rare and important. The Sallet is 11 inches in height,12.25 inches from front to back and is 7.75 inches wide and it has a short tail and a jawbone type visor with a brow reinforcing. Stylistically, it is termed a high crowned helmet, different from the usually seen in Italy or Germany. A plume holder was added to the helmet at some time after its manufacture. The helmet was made around 1460, during the period of English civil conflict known as the Wars of the Roses, during the 19th century it was used in Coventry’s Godiva Procession. For a period it was kept on display at St Marys Hall, Coventry, very few pieces of English-made armour survive from this period, the Coventry Sallet is believed to be the only example of its type in England. This article is about an item held at Herbert Art Gallery and Museum, Coventry
20.
Crosby Garrett Helmet
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The Crosby Garrett Helmet is a copper alloy Roman cavalry helmet dating from the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. It was found by a metal detectorist near Crosby Garrett in Cumbria, England. Later investigations found that a Romano-British farming settlement had occupied the site where the helmet was discovered, which was located a few miles away from a Roman road and it is possible that the owner of the helmet was a local inhabitant who had served with the Roman cavalry. The helmet appears to have been folded up and deposited in an artificial stone structure. It is thought to have used for ceremonial occasions rather than for combat. Its design may allude to the Trojans, whose exploits the Romans re-enacted in cavalry tournaments, Dr Ralph Jackson, Senior Curator of Romano-British Collections at the British Museum, has described the helmet as. An immensely interesting and outstandingly important find and its face mask is both extremely finely wrought and chillingly striking, but it is as an ensemble that the helmet is so exceptional and, in its specifics, unparalleled. It is a find of the greatest national significance, on 7 October 2010, the helmet was sold at Christies for £2.3 million to an undisclosed private buyer. Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle sought to purchase the helmet, the helmet has so far been publicly displayed twice, once in a 2012 exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts, and again at Tullie House in 2013–14. The Crosby Garrett helmet is an almost complete example of a two-piece Roman cavalry helmet, the visor portrays the face of a youthful, clean-shaven male with curly hair. The headpiece is in the shape of a Phrygian cap, on the crest of which is a griffin that stands with one raised foot resting on an amphora. The helmet would have held in place using a leather strap attached from the wearers neck to a decorated rivet on either side of the helmet. Wear marks caused by opening and closing the visor are still visible, only two other Roman helmets complete with visors have been found in Britain – the Newstead Helmet and Ribchester Helmet. The helmet and visor were cast from an alloy consisting of an average of 82% copper, 10% zinc and this alloy was probably derived from melted-down scrap brass with a low zinc content, with which some tin had been added to improve the quality of the casting. Some of the fragments show traces of a metal coating, indicating that the visor would originally have been tinned to give the appearance of silver. The griffin was cast separately from a different alloy consisting of 68% copper, 4% zinc, 18% tin, the visor would originally have been a silver hue and the helmet would have had a coppery yellow appearance. The helmets creation can be dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century from the use of a type of decorated rivet as well as some of its design features. There has been debate about the symbolic meaning of the helmets design
21.
Guisborough Helmet
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The Guisborough Helmet is a Roman cavalry bronze helmet found in 1864 near Guisborough in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England. It was originally fitted with a pair of protective cheek-pieces, which have not survived, the helmet was found in what appears to have been a carefully arranged deposition in a bed of gravel, distant from any known Roman sites. After it was recovered during road works it was donated to the British Museum in London, prancing horsemen are depicted between the figures. The brow band has three diadem-like peaks bordered by writhing snakes whose heads meet at the centre, forming an arch above the figure of Mars. Two bosses stand out at the rear of the helmet, at the centre of embossed flowers, the sides and top of the helmet are embossed with feathers and a feather-like pattern. The design is similar to found in Worthing, Norfolk. Despite its relative thinness and lavish decoration, it is thought that such helmets would have used in battle as well as in parades or hippika gymnasia. The helmet remains something of an enigma, there is no closely associated fort or fortress in the vicinity. The helmet was discovered on 19 August 1864 at Barnaby Grange Farm and it was found buried deep in a bed of gravel during road works carried out for the Cleveland Railway Company. These were carefully collected, and have now accumulated to a mass of considerable extent, but the most remarkable of the non-osseus matters was a folded and doubled metal plate, embossed and engraved. No other artefacts were found at the site and the bones appeared to have no connection with the helmet and they had apparently been deposited naturally by the prehistoric stream that had laid down the gravel bed. It is scarcely corroded in any degree in any visible part. Neither is it bruised or dented, except where the workmans pick happened to strike, indeed and its crushed condition meant that it was not initially recognisable as a helmet, though its ornamentation was clearly visible. Atkinson described the outer decoration, The chief ornamentation seems to depend on the effigies of two snakes in strong relief and wrought hollow, with their heads meeting. The bodies of the snakes slightly descending thence, and diverging, but these details cannot be ascertained so long as the object remains in its present condition. Besides these figures and ornaments, other minor ornamental engravings are worked in here and there and it was at first incorrectly identified as a breastplate of unknown origin and age. Thomas Richmond, a historian, erroneously assigned it in 1868 to a late Celtic. Greenwood, who owned the land on which the helmet had been found and it was restored at the museum by Robert Cooper Ready, resulting in the discovery that it was in fact a Roman helmet
22.
Hallaton Helmet
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The Hallaton Helmet is a decorated iron Roman cavalry parade helmet originally covered in a sheet of silver and decorated in places with gold leaf. It was discovered in 2000 near Hallaton, Leicestershire after Ken Wallace, further investigation by professional archaeologists from University of Leicester Archaeological Services discovered that the site appeared to have been used as a large-scale Iron Age shrine. Nine years of conservation and restoration has been undertaken by experts from the British Museum, the helmet is now on permanent display at the Harborough Museum in Market Harborough alongside other artefacts from the Hallaton Treasure hoard. Although it was shattered into thousands of pieces and is now heavily corroded. It was plated with silver-gilt and decorated with images of goddesses and it would have been used by a Roman auxiliary cavalryman for displays and possibly in battle. The identity of the owner is not known but the helmet was discovered on a native British ceremonial site, buried alongside thousands of Iron Age British and it is possible that the helmet was owned by a Briton who fought alongside the Romans during the conquest of Britain. The helmet is an example of a three-piece Roman ceremonial cavalry helmet, made of iron covered with silver sheet. Such helmets were worn by Roman auxiliary cavalrymen in displays known as hippika gymnasia and may also have worn in battle, despite their relative thinness. It is the only Roman helmet ever found in Britain that still has most of its silver-gilt plating attached, the helmet would originally have had two cheekpieces attached via holes in front of its ear guards. It has a prominent browguard, the shape of which is similar to that of the 3rd-century Guisborough Helmet, discovered in 1864 near Guisborough in Redcar, the rear of the helmet bowl descended to form a neckguard. As is the case with other Roman cavalry helmets, the Hallaton Helmet was very ornately decorated, a number of similar features have survived on the Hallaton Helmet. Its bowl is decorated with laurel wreaths while the scalloped browguard is edged with elaborate cabling, in the centre of the browguard is the bust of a woman flanked by repoussé lions. Her identity is unclear, but she may have been an empress or goddess, the iconography is reminiscent of depictions of Cybele, the Magna Mater or Great Mother whose image was used to promote the values of the Augustan period a few decades after the helmet was deposited. However, the depiction has a number of features that are more in common with funerary art, the earguards are in the shape of silver ears, and the neckguard is decorated with a scrolling leaf pattern. Six detached cheekpieces were found within the bowl along with the disintegrated remains of a seventh. Hinges were also found, as was the pin of one cheekpiece and it may have been forcibly removed or possibly sustained damage at a later date, perhaps from a plough. The surviving cheekpieces are very elaborate, five of the cheekpieces show equestrian scenes, one depicts the triumph of a Roman emperor on horseback, holding his arm in the air as he is crowned with a laurel wreath by the goddess Victoria. A cowering barbarian is depicted below being trampled by the hooves of the emperors horse, another less well-preserved cheekpiece depicts a possibly Middle Eastern figure holding a large cornucopia, and a Roman helmet and shield below
23.
Helmet of Iron Gates
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The Helmet of Iron Gates is a Geto-Dacian silver helmet dating from the 4th century BC, housed in the Detroit Institute of Arts, United States. It probably comes from Iron Gates area, in the Mehedinţi County, formerly it was in the collection of Franz Tau, Vienna. It is referred to as “Iron Gates” as it was dredged out of the Danube in the Iron Gate gorge in 1913 or 1914. But, there is no record of the Iron Gate material before 1931. It is probably that the so-called Iron Gates material was looted from the Agighiol grave shortly after its opening by local villagers, however, no other grave has been suggested for the Iron Gate helmet. And, In fact, it seems that both Agighiol and Iron Gates helmets had been made by the workshop, or by the same silversmith. Also, it appears that punchmarks on the helmets had been made by the same tool, almost identical in decoration and details of craftsmanship are the two silver beakers, now in Bucharest and New York, that reputedly came from the region of the Iron Gates. The other designs chased on the helmet are clearly within the Scythian sphere, the helmet type is related to and probably a little earlier in date than the gold helmet in Bucharest which shows some Sarmatian aspects. Lacking evidence of comparable helmets in the Scythian homeland, we may assign this helmet to a development of a helmet type found in Kuban dating in the early years of the fifth century B. C, with the addition of some Greek features, such eyes were considered to be a borrowing from the Greek world where greaves and shields have eyes that have been considered truly apotropaic, serving to divert evil. However, it is argued that the display the feature of doubling of attributes. Besides the eyes, there is the stag depicted with eight legs that is interpreted as “I run twice as fast”, therefore, the “apotropaic eyes” could say, I see twice as well. The motif in question is that of a bird with a great round eye. The beakers that reputedly came from the region of the Iron Gates carry the same eagle-hare motif, getae Dacia History of Romania Goldman, Bernard. DACIAN ART AND THE EAGLE-HARE MOTIF, bericht, International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences. Flying stags, icons and power in Thracian art pp. 117-132, the Archaeology of contextual meanings edited by Ian Hodder. DIA helmet page Gold and Silver Armour of the Getian-Dacian Elite
24.
Meyrick Helmet
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The Meyrick Helmet is an Iron Age bronze peaked helmet, with La Tène style decoration, that is held at the British Museum in London. It is one of only three Iron Age helmets to have discovered in Britain, the other two being the more famous Waterloo Helmet and the recently discovered Canterbury Helmet. Unlike the Waterloo Helmet, which bears two cone-shaped horns, the Meyrick Helmet is hornless and appears to be based on a Roman model. The provenance of the helmet is unknown, but on stylistic grounds it is likely that it comes from the north of England. The helmet is first recorded as part of the collection of arms and armour accumulated by Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick, and so must have been discovered some time before 1848. After Meyricks death the helmet and other items of Iron Age armour, such as the Witham Shield, were left to his cousin, Lt. Colonel Augustus Meyrick, the helmet was purchased by Augustus Franks, an independently wealthy antiquarian who worked for the British Museum. Franks donated the helmet to the British Museum in 1872, the helmet is considered to be a Celtic version of a Roman auxiliary helmet, combining a Roman shape with La Tène style decoration. It is in the shape of a cap with a peaked neck guard. On the neck guard are two flat domed bosses with criss-cross grooves which would originally have held red glass enamel studs. There are holes on either side for attachment to a chin-strap or cheekpiece, on the outer margin of the helmet are incised two strokes which could represent the Roman number II
25.
Newstead Helmet
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The Newstead Helmet is an iron Roman cavalry helmet dating to 80–100 AD that was discovered at the site of a Roman fort in Newstead, near Melrose in Roxburghshire, Scotland in 1905. It is now part of the Newstead Collection at the National Museum in Edinburgh, the helmet would have been worn by auxiliary cavalrymen in cavalry displays known as hippika gymnasia. Its discoverer, Sir James Curle, described the helmet as one of the most beautiful things that the tide of Roman conquest has left behind. Only one helmet found in 1905 is largely complete and preserves the face mask, and this helmet was discovered in a pit dating to the Flavian period in the south annexe of the fort. The helmet is in two pieces, comprising a head-piece and a mask, both of which are made of beaten iron. There is a rim at the back of the headpiece by the neck, to which is attached a thin plate with an embossed chevron pattern. There are traces of silver or tin plating on the outer surface, the mask shows the face of a youth with curly hair held in a laurel wreath, which suggests a Celtic influence. From the helmets hang yellow plumes — a matter of decor as much as of utility, as the horses move forward, the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes. It is probable that it would have originally been fitted with a face visor, on the rim at the back of the helmet is a punctured inscription of eight letters punched into the metal. A plain iron legionary helmet with two hinged cheek pieces, a bronze visor-mask showing a youthful, beardless face with curly locks of hair. There is a hole beneath each ear, which may have used to attach the mask to a helmet. Pictures of the Roman cavalry sports helmets from Newstead in the National Museum of Scotland on www. flickr. com
26.
Nijmegen Helmet
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The Nijmegen Helmet is an Ancient Roman helmet, found in a gravel bed on the left bank of Waal river, near the Dutch city of Nijmegen in 1915. The helmet would have worn by the elite Roman cavalry. The head portion of the helmet is made of iron, while the mask, the helmet has a neck-protecting projecting rim, overlaid with a thin bronze covering plated with silver. The diadem features two male and three female figures, several other Roman sports helmets have also been found in or near Nijmegen
27.
Helmet of Peretu
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The Helmet of Peretu is a Geto-Dacian silver helmet dating from the 5th century BC, housed in the National Museum of Romanian History, Bucharest. It comes from Peretu area, in the Teleorman County, Romania, there were 50 artifacts having 750g. The helmet is similar to the Helmet of Coţofeneşti and other three Getian gold or silver helmets discovered so far
28.
Ribchester Helmet
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The Ribchester Helmet is a Roman bronze ceremonial helmet dating to between the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD, which is now on display at the British Museum. It was found in Ribchester, Lancashire, England in 1796, the model of a sphinx that was believed to attach to the helmet was lost. The helmet was impractical for protecting a soldier in battle, the helmet was intended to be used in displays of professionalism known as hippika gymnasia or cavalry sports. The helmet was discovered, part of the Ribchester Hoard, in the summer of 1796 by the son of Joseph Walton, a clogmaker. The boy found the buried in a hollow, about three metres below the surface, on some waste land by the side of a road leading to Ribchester church. The hoard was thought to have stored in a wooden box and consisted of the corroded remains of a number of items. The finds were thought to have survived so well because they were covered in sand, the helmet and other items were bought from Walton by Townley, who lived nearby at Towneley Hall. Townley was a collector of Roman sculpture and antiquities, who had himself. Townley reported the details of the find in a letter to the secretary of the Society of Antiquaries, intended for publication in the Societys Proceedings. The helmet, together with the rest of Townleys collection, was sold to the British Museum in 1814 by his cousin, Peregrine Edward Towneley, who had inherited the collection on Townleys death in 1805. In addition to the items purchased by Townley, there was originally a bronze figurine of a sphinx. This theory has become more plausible with the discovery of the Crosby Garrett Helmet in 2010, only three Roman helmets with a covering over the face have been found in Britain. Prior to the 2010 discovery of the Crosby Garrett Helmet and the 1905 discovery of the Newstead Helmet this helmet was described as the highest quality helmet found. The Ribchester helmet was found corroded but, like the Newstead helmet, largely complete and it is known that these helmets were used for display because of accounts left by Arrian of Nicomedia, who was a governor in the time of Emperor Hadrian. Arrian describes how soldiers of high rank or with skills were allowed to wear these helmets in the hippika gymnasia or cavalry tournaments. The helmet was voted Britains second best Roman find, behind the Vindolanda tablets, according to a web site poll by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team
29.
Sutton Hoo helmet
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The Sutton Hoo helmet is a decorated Anglo-Saxon helmet discovered during the 1939 excavation of the Sutton Hoo ship-burial. Buried around 625, it is believed to have been the helmet of King Rædwald. The helmet is the most iconic object from one of the most spectacular archaeological discoveries ever made, and one of the most important Anglo-Saxon artefacts ever found. Along with all the finds from Sutton Hoo, the helmet was determined by a treasure trove inquest to be the property of the landowner of the site of the ship-burial. She subsequently donated all the objects to the British Museum, where they were conserved and put on display, the helmet was buried among other regalia and instruments of power as part of a furnished ship burial, probably dating from the early 7th century. Although the man in the grave has not been identified, the contents of the point to its being that of a king. The ship had been hauled from the river up the hill. Inside this, the helmet was wrapped in cloths and placed to the left of the head of the body, an oval mound was constructed around the ship. Long afterwards, the roof collapsed violently under the weight of the mound. It is thought that the helmet was shattered either by the collapse of the chamber or by the force of another object falling on it. However, the fact that the helmet had shattered meant that it was possible to be reconstructed, the Sutton Hoo helmet was made of iron and covered with decorated sheets of tinned bronze. Fluted strips of moulding divided the exterior panels, each of which was stamped with one of five designs. The existence of five designs has been generally understood since the first reconstruction. As referred to below, the designs are numbered according to Rupert Bruce-Mitfords 1978 work, the core of the helmet was constructed of iron and consisted of a cap from which hung a face mask and cheek and neck guards. The cap was beaten up out of a piece of metal. On either side of the cap were hung iron cheek guards, deep enough to protect the side of the face. Two hinges per side—possibly made of leather—supported these pieces, allowing them to be pulled flush with the face mask, the inset portion afforded the neck guard extra movement, and like the cheek guards was attached to the cap by leather hinges. Finally, the mask was riveted to the cap on both sides and above the nose
30.
Waterloo Helmet
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It is now on display at the British Museum in London. The helmet was dredged from the bed of the River Thames close to Waterloo Bridge in 1868, in 1988 its successor body, the Port of London Authority, donated the helmet to the British Museum. The main part of the helmet is constructed from two sheets of bronze, one forming the front and one the back of the helmet, that are riveted together at the sides and top. A separate crescent-shaped bronze piece is riveted to the bottom of the front sheet, a decorative strip with a row of rivets overlays the join between the front and back sheets, and goes around the base of the horns. At the end of the strip, on sides of the helmet, is a ring fitting for a chin-strap or cheekpiece. There are a number of holes around the bottom edge. The helmet was decorated with six bronze studs, one of which is now missing and these have cross scores on them that suggest they were designed to hold red glass enamel studs, but these are no longer present. There is also a repoussé decoration in the La Tène style on the front, the design is similar to that on the Snettisham Great Torc. Being made from thin sheets, the helmet would have been too fragile for use in battle. In this respect it is similar to Iron Age bronze shields that have been found, alternatively, it has been suggested that the helmet is in any case too small for most adult males, and may have been worn by a wooden statue of a Celtic deity. The Waterloo Helmet is one of only three Iron Age helmets found in England and also the horned helmet dating to the Iron Age to have been found anywhere in Europe. However, there are several Iron Age depictions of people wearing horned helmets from elsewhere in Europe. There are some carvings of Gauls wearing horned helmets on the arch at Orange, France, dating to c.55 BC. An Iron Age bas-relief at Brague, near Antibes in France, canterbury helmet Battersea shield Wandsworth Shield Witham Shield Horned helmet at the British Museum
