1.
Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials and their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Semiconductor devices can display a range of properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called p-type, the semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions, although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called metalloid staircase, where the metalloids are located on the table, are usually used as semiconductors. Some of the properties of materials were observed throughout the mid 19th. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the Cats-whisker detector, developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958. There are several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials and these modifications have two outcomes, n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively, an unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material. Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together, for example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials, the n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, a product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field. Excited Electrons A difference in electric potential on a material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar diffusion, whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the amount of holes and electrons changes
2.
Santa Clara, California
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Santa Clara is a city in Santa Clara County, California, named after the Spanish mission that was established there in 1777. The citys population was 116,468 at the 2010 United States Census, located 45 miles southeast of San Francisco, the city was founded in 1777 and incorporated in 1852. The city is the site of the eighth of 21 California missions, Mission Santa Clara de Asís, the Mission and Mission Gardens are located on the grounds of Santa Clara University. Saint Clare is the saint of Santa Clara. Santa Clara is located in the center of Silicon Valley and is home to the headquarters of several companies such as Intel. It is also home to Santa Clara University, the oldest institution of learning in the state of California. It is bordered by San Jose, Sunnyvale, and Cupertino, the first European to visit the valley was José Francisco Ortega in 1769. He found the area inhabited by Native Americans, whom the Spanish called the Costanos, coast people, the Spanish began to colonize California with 21 missions and the Mission Santa Clara de Asis was founded in 1777. In 1846, the American flag was raised over Monterey and symbolized the transfer of the sovereignty of the California Republic over to the United States of America, in 1851, Santa Clara College was established on the grounds of the original Mission. In 1852, Santa Clara was incorporated as a town, it became state-chartered by 1862, for the next century the economy centered on agriculture since orchards and vegetables were thriving in the fertile soil. By the beginning of the 20th century, the population had reached 5,000, in 1905, the first public high-altitude flights by humans were made over Santa Clara in gliders designed by John J. Montgomery. The semiconductor industry, which sprouted around 1960, changed the city and surrounding Valley of Hearts Delight, Santa Claras first medical hospital was built in 1963. This structure, on Kiely Boulevard, was replaced in 2007 with the new Kaiser Permanente medical center located on Lawrence Expressway at Homestead Road, Santa Clara was also home to a major mental health facility, Agnews State Hospital. According to the National Park Service, more than 100 persons were killed at this site in the 1906 earthquake, the site is the former home to Sun Microsystems and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Santa Clara is drained by three creeks, all of which empty into the southern portion of San Francisco Bay, these creeks are San Tomas Aquino Creek, Saratoga Creek. This owl uses burrows created by ground squirrels and prefers generally level grasslands, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city covers an area of 18.4 square miles, all of it land. The average daily temperatures in July range from 82 °F to 53 °F, winters are mild, with the mean daily temperatures in January ranging from 58 °F to 38 °F. Most of the rainfall comes in the winter months, the summer months are generally rainless
3.
Wafer (electronics)
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Finally the individual microcircuits are separated and packaged. By 1960, silicon wafers were being manufactured in the U. S. by companies such as MEMC/SunEdison. In 1965, American engineers Eric O. Ernst, Donald J. Hurd, Wafers are formed of highly pure, nearly defect-free single crystalline material. One process for forming crystalline wafers is known as Czochralski growth invented by the Polish chemist Jan Czochralski. In this process, an ingot of high purity mono crystalline semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium. The boule is then sliced with a saw and polished to form wafers. The size of wafers for photovoltaics is 100–200 mm square and the thickness is 200–300 μm, in the future,160 μm will be the standard. Electronics use wafer sizes from 100–450 mm diameter, Wafers are cleaned with weak acids to remove unwanted particles, or repair damage caused during the sawing process. When used for cells, the wafers are textured to create a rough surface to increase their efficiency. The generated PSG is removed from the edge of the wafer in the etching, silicon wafers are available in a variety of diameters from 25.4 mm to 300 mm. Semiconductor fabrication plants are defined by the diameter of wafers that they are tooled to produce, Wafers grown using materials other than silicon will have different thicknesses than a silicon wafer of the same diameter. Wafer thickness is determined by the strength of the material used. This was the cost basis for increasing wafer size, conversion to 300 mm wafers from 200 mm wafers began in earnest in 2000, and reduced the price per die about 30-40%. However, this was not without significant problems for the industry, there is considerable resistance to the 450 mm transition despite the possible productivity improvement, because of concern about insufficient return on investment. Higher cost semiconductor fabrication equipment for larger wafers increases the cost of 450 mm fabs, converting to larger 450 mm wafers would reduce price per die only for process operations such as etch where cost is related to wafer count, not wafer area. Cost for processes such as lithography is proportional to wafer area, nikon plans to deliver 450-mm lithography equipment in 2015, with volume production in 2017. In November 2013 ASML paused development of 450-mm lithography equipment, citing uncertain timing of chipmaker demand, the time-line for 450 mm has not been fixed. Mark Durcan, CEO of Micron Technology, said in February 2014 that he expects 450 mm adoption to be delayed indefinitely or discontinued, “I am not convinced that 450mm will ever happen but, to the extent that it does, it’s a long way out in the future
4.
Mubadala Development Company
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Mubadala Development Company PJSC is a state-owned holding company that can be characterized as a National Wealth Fund. It was established in October 2002 as a Public Joint Stock Company and is a wholly owned investment vehicle of the government of Abu Dhabi, mubadala’s mandate is to facilitate the diversification of Abu Dhabi’s economy. Its focus is on managing long-term, capital-intensive investments intended to deliver strong financial returns, ATIC wholly owns GlobalFoundries, the world’s second largest semiconductor foundry company by revenue. Through a joint venture, ATIC and Advanced Micro Devices created the third largest independent foundry GlobalFoundries in early 2009. In late 2009, ATIC acquired Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing of Singapore, in January 2010, the two operations were integrated, and have since functioned as one company under the GlobalFoundries brand. In August 2010, the firm joined with other investors to fund Texas-based Calxeda and it worked with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to develop a masters program in microelectronics at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology in Abu Dhabi. Also in 2010, the firm joined a partnership with the Semiconductor Research Corporation to conduct research in the Abu Dhabi region. In 2011, it announced investments of $5.5 billion to expand chip manufacturing in Singapore, Dresden, Germany and it also announced a $6–$8 billion computer chip factory in Abu Dhabi for completion in 2012. In June 2016, they announced that they would be unite, ATIC has invested more than Dh100 million in research grants and funds since 2009 for building a globally-competitive technology R&D ecosystem within Abu Dhabi. It partners with the Semiconductor Research Corporation, a leading university-research consortium and it is supporting research initiatives spanning Khalifa University, UAE University, American University of Sharjah, Masdar Institute and New York University Abu Dhabi. ATIC is investing Dh17.5 million in the project, an amount matched by Masdar Institute, the total budget for the center is Dh35m spread during the initial three-year phase. The center will focus on research in four key areas, energy harvesting, power management, sensor technologies, ATIC and the state of German state of Saxony have invested $4.8 million in twinned laboratories that research 3-D stacking of integrated circuits. The project consists of one lab hosted at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology in Abu Dhabi, the labs, which host 10-12 graduate and PhD students, focus on research around three-dimensional chip stacking, a potentially faster and more energy efficient semiconductor technology. These programs have reached over 1,000 Emiratis to date, ibrahim Ajami is the Chief Executive Officer. He oversaw the joint venture between ATIC and Advanced Micro Devices of the creation of Global Foundries, mubadala Development Company ATIC official website
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Advanced Micro Devices
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While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company became fabless after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. AMDs main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, AMD is the second-largest supplier and only significant rival to Intel in the market for x86-based microprocessors. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete Graphics Processing Unit market, Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated on May 1,1969, by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor. In September 1969, AMD moved from its location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale. To immediately secure a base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild. AMD first focused on producing logic chips, in November 1969, the company manufactured its first product, the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter and its best-selling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available. In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101 and that year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year end the companys total annual sales reached $4.6 million. AMD went public in September 1972, the company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102, Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971. By 1975, AMD entered the market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080. In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, Siemens purchased 20% of AMDs stock, giving AMD an infusion of cash to increase its product lines. When the two companies vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens stake in the U. S. division in 1979, AMD closed its Advanced Micro Computers subsidiary in late 1981, after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors. Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and in 1979, in 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation. Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978, in 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intels x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981, the technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company. The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995, the agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one years notice. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips, in 1983, it introduced INT. STD.1000, the highest manufacturing quality standard in the industry
7.
Chartered Semiconductor
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Chartered Semiconductor was created in 1987, as a venture that included Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd. Yet, it was not until 2000, that ST Engineering, the company was listed on the Singapore Exchange under the trading symbol of CHARTERED, as well as on NASDAQ, until its buyout. Chartered provides comprehensive wafer fabrication services and technologies to semiconductor suppliers, Chartereds customer base is primarily high-growth, technologically advanced companies operating in the communication, computer and consumer sectors. It does not provide services and works from customers designs to produce communications chips. Besides its own fabs, Chartered operates joint venture facilities with other firms, it offers chip assembly, Chartered owns 6 fabrication facilities, all of which are located in Singapore, including the newest, Chartereds first 300-mm facility which started commercial shipment in June 2005. The other major semiconductor foundries include TSMC and UMC, Taiwanese-based companies, in 2006, AMD announced that it will manufacture CPUs with Chartered on a 65 nanometer process. It also has alliances with IBM, Infineon, Samsung and Agere Systems, by acquiring Chartered, ATIC is expanding its investments and expertise in technology in the semiconductor industry which currently consist of a GLOBALFOUNDRIES facility in Dresden, Germany. The transaction was completed at the end of 2009, making ATIC the sole owner of Chartered, general information page from Securities and Exchange Commission form 20C. Press release of the acquisition Official site
8.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
9.
Emirate of Abu Dhabi
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The Emirate of Abu Dhabi, is one of seven emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates. It is the largest emirate by area, accounting for approximately 87 percent of the land area of the federation. Abu Dhabi also has the largest population of the seven emirates, in June 2011, it was estimated to be 2,120,700 people, of which,439,100 people were Emirati citizens, which has risen to 2.3 million in 2012. Abu Dhabi is the city of the emirate, after which it is named. Abu Dhabi’s Gross Domestic Product estimates, in 2014, amounted to AED960 billion at current prices, mining and quarrying accounts for the largest contribution to GDP. Construction related industries are the next largest contributor, GDP grew to AED911.6 billion in 2012, or over 100,000 USD per capita. In the early 1970s, two important developments helped the emirate achieve leaps on the path of development, the first was the establishment of the United Arab Emirates in December 1971 with Abu Dhabi as its political and administrative capital. Dhabi is the Arabic name of a species of native gazelle that was once common in the Arabian region. Abu Dhabi means father of the Dhabi and it is thought that this name came about because of the abundance of Gazelles in the area and a folk tale involving Shakhbut bin Dhiyab al Nahyan. Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the 3rd millennium BC, modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation, the Bani Yas, in the late 18th century, which also assumed control of Dubai. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways, most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time, constructed of palm fronds, with the wealthier families occupying mud huts. In 1939, Sheikh Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan granted petroleum concessions, at first, oil money had a marginal impact. His brother, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi, the ruling Al Nahyan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On August 6,1966, with the assistance of the British, with the announcement by the UK in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Persian Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the United Arab Emirates. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil continued to flow to the area and traditional mud-brick huts were rapidly replaced with banks, boutiques. At present, Abu Dhabi boasts what is estimated to be the worlds highest absolute and per-capita level of sovereign wealth funds, the United Arab Emirates is located in the oil-rich and strategic Persian Gulf region. It adjoins the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Sultanate of Oman and it borders the emirate of Dubai and emirate of Sharjah to its north. The total area of the Emirate is 67,340 square kilometres, occupying about 87% of the area of the UAE
10.
Integrated circuit
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An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
11.
Broadcom
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Broadcom Corporation was an American fabless semiconductor company that made products for the wireless and broadband communication industry. It was acquired by Avago Technologies in 2016 and currently operates as an owned subsidiary of the merged entity called Broadcom Limited. The division is headquartered in Irvine, California, Broadcom Corporation was founded by professor-student pair Henry Samueli and Henry Nicholas from UCLA in 1991. In 1995 the company moved from its Westwood, Los Angeles office to Irvine, in 1998, Broadcom became a public company on the NASDAQ exchange and now employs approximately 11,750 people worldwide in more than 15 countries. Broadcom is among Gartners Top 10 Semiconductor Vendors by revenue, Broadcom first landed on the Fortune 500 in 2009. In 2012, Broadcoms total revenue was $8.01 billion, in 2013, Broadcom stood at No.327 on the Fortune 500, having climbed 17 places from its 2012 ranking of No.344. In May 28,2015 chip maker Avago Technologies Ltd. agreed to buy Broadcom Corp. for $37 billion in cash, at closing, which completed on February 1,2016, Broadcom shareholders will hold 32% of the new Singapore-based company to be called Broadcom Limited. Hock Tan, Avago President and CEO, will be the new CEO of the new combined company, Dr. Samueli will be Chief Technology Officer and member of the combined companys board. And Dr. Nicholas will serve in an advisory role within the new company. The new merged entity is named Broadcom Limited but inherits the ticker symbol AVGO, the BRCM ticker symbol was retired. In May 2016 Cypress Semiconductor announced that it will acquire Broadcom Corporations full portfolio of IoT products for $550 million, under the deal, Cypress acquires Broadcoms IoT products and intellectual property for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and ZigBee connectivity, as well as Broadcoms WICED platform and SDK for developers. Broadcoms product line spans computer and telecommunication networking, the company has products for enterprise/metropolitan high-speed networks, products include transceiver and processor ICs for Ethernet and wireless LANs, cable modems, digital subscriber line, servers, home networking devices and cellular phones. It is also known for a series of high-speed encryption co-processors, offloading this processor-intensive work to a dedicated chip and this has many practical benefits for e-commerce, and PGP or GPG secure communications. Major customers include Apple, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola, IBM, Dell, Asus, Lenovo, Linksys, Logitech, Nintendo, Nokia Siemens Networks, Nortel, TiVo, Tenda, in September 2011, Broadcom shut down its digital TV operations. Broadcom also shut down its Blu-ray chip business, the closure of these businesses began on September 19,2011. On June 2,2014, Broadcom announced intentions to exit the cellular baseband business, Vendors have included Broadcom NICs in their products. For example, the Dell blade-server M610 has two embedded Gigabit NetXtreme 5709 NICs, the latest member of the Trident family is the Trident II XGS which can support up to 32 x 40G ports or 104 x 10G ports on a single chip. Broadcom Crystal HD does video acceleration, more specifically, Broadcom would provide Bluetooth connectivity for Wiis controller
12.
Qualcomm
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Qualcomm is an American multinational semiconductor and telecommunications equipment company that designs and markets wireless telecommunications products and services. It derives most of its revenue from chipmaking and the bulk of its profit from patent licensing businesses, the company headquarters are located in San Diego, California, United States, and has 224 worldwide locations. The parent company is Qualcomm Incorporated, which includes the Qualcomm Technology Licensing Division, Jacobs and Viterbi had previously founded Linkabit. In 1990, Qualcomm began the design of the first CDMA-based cellular base station and this work began as a study contract from AirTouch which was facing a shortage of cellular capacity in Los Angeles. Two years later Qualcomm began to manufacture CDMA cell phones, base stations, the initial base stations were not reliable and the technology was licensed wholly to Nortel in return for their work in improving the base station switching. The first CDMA technology was standardized as IS-95, Qualcomm has since helped to establish the CDMA2000, WCDMA and LTE cellular standards. The following year, Qualcomm acquired Eudora, a client for PC that could be used with the OmniTRACS system. The acquisition associated a widely used email client with a company that was little-known at the time, in 1997, Qualcomm paid $18 million for the naming rights to the Jack Murphy Stadium in San Diego, renaming it to Qualcomm Stadium. The naming rights belong to Qualcomm until 2017. In 1999, Qualcomm sold its base station business to Ericsson, the company was now focused on developing and licensing wireless technologies and selling ASICs that implement them. Steve Mollenkopf was promoted to president and chief operating officer of the company, mollenkopfs appointment as CEO was announced on December 13,2013 and took effect on March 4,2014. He succeeded Paul E. Jacobs, who remains executive chairman, CFO Bill Keitel retired and was replaced by Applied Materials CFO George Davis on March 11,2013. Vista Equity Partners took over the Omnitracs business from Qualcomm Incorporated in November 2013, in October 2014, Qualcomm wrapped up a deal for chip maker CSR Plc for a fee of $2.5 billion, beating its biggest rival Microchip Technology. However, surprised by the release of the 64-bit Apple A7 in September 2013, furthermore, Qualcomm was facing anti-trust investigations in China, the European Union, and the United States. The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits. In July 2015, the company cut 4,700 jobs or about 15 percent of its 31,300 current workforce due to decline of sales, executive management knew this was coming so they came up with a plan to retain its employees. However, instead of paying reasonable salary, executive management used this plan as a justification to give themselves a big payout first and then lay off employees later. In December 2015, Qualcomm Inc. announced that it had rejected calls to split itself in two, deciding to keep its chipmaking and patent licensing businesses together
13.
STMicroelectronics
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STMicroelectronics is a French-Italian multinational electronics and semiconductor manufacturer headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is commonly called ST, and it is Europes largest semiconductor chip maker based on revenue, while STMicroelectronics corporate headquarters and the headquarters for EMEA region are based in Geneva, the holding company, STMicroelectronics N. V. is registered in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The companys US headquarters is in Coppell, Texas, headquarters for the Asia-Pacific region is in Singapore whilst Japan and Korea operations are headquartered in Tokyo. The company headquarters for the Greater China region is in Shanghai, STMicroelectronics was formed in 1987 by the merger of semiconductor companies SGS Microelettronica of Italy and Thomson Semiconducteurs, the semiconductor arm of Frances Thomson. At the time of the merger the company was known as SGS-THOMSON, SGS Microelettronica and Thomson Semiconducteurs were both long-established semiconductor companies. Thomson Semiconducteurs was created in 1982 by the French governments widespread nationalisation of industries and it included, the semiconductor activities of the French electronics company Thomson. Mostek, a US company founded in 1969 by some ex-employees of Texas Instruments, Eurotechnique founded in 1979 in Rousset, Bouches-du-Rhône as a joint-venture between Saint-Gobain of France and US-based National Semiconductor. After its creation by merger in 1987, SGS-Thomson was ranked 14th among the top 20 semiconductor suppliers with sales of around US$850 million, in 1994, Canada-based Nortels semiconductor activities. In 2002, Alcatels Microelectronics division, which along with the incorporation of smaller such as UK company, Synad Ltd. Genesis Microchip is known for their strength in video processing technology and has centres located in Santa Clara, Toronto, Taipei City, Taiwan R. O. C. On December 8,1994, the company completed its public offering on the Paris. Owner Thomson SA sold its stake in the company in 1998 when the also listed on the Borsa Italiana in Milan. In 2002, Motorola and TSMC joined ST and Philips in a new technology partnership, the Crolles2 Alliance was created with a new 12 wafer manufacturing facility located in Crolles. By 2005, STMicroelectronics was ranked fifth, behind Intel, Samsung, Texas Instruments and Toshiba, but ahead of Infineon, Renesas, NEC, NXP, the company was the largest European semiconductors supplier, ahead of Infineon and NXP. Early in 2007, NXP and Freescale decided to stop their participation in Crolles2 Alliance, under the terms of the agreement the Alliance came to an end on December 31,2007. On May 22,2007, ST and Intel created a joint venture in the application called Numonyx. This new company merged ST and Intel Flash Memory activities and this joint venture began on August 20,2008. On February 10,2009, ST Ericsson, a joint venture bringing together ST-NXP Wireless, in 2011, STMicroelectronics announced the creation of a joint lab with SantAnna School of Advanced Studies
14.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
15.
Vermont
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Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U. S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermonts western border with the state of New York, Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U. S. states, with nearly 50,000 more residents than Wyoming. The capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the U. S, the most populous municipality, Burlington, is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state. As of 2015, Vermont continued to be the producer of maple syrup in the U. S. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in January 2016, for thousands of years inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk, much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by Frances colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years War, for many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area. Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years, aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U. S. states that were previously sovereign states. Vermont was also the first state to join the U. S. as its 14th member state after the original 13, while still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U. S. state to partially abolish slavery. It played an important geographic role in the Underground Railroad, sights in Vermont Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles, making it the 45th-largest state. It is the state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet. Land comprises 9,250 square miles and water comprises 365 square miles, making it the 43rd-largest in land area, in total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the eastern border with New Hampshire. 41% of Vermonts land area is part of the Connecticut Rivers watershed, Lake Champlain, the major lake in Vermont, is the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States and separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles long and its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles at the Canada–U. S. Border, the narrowest width is 37 miles at the Massachusetts line, the states geographic center is approximately three miles east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U. S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada, the origin of the name Vermont is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning the Green Mountains
16.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
17.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
18.
Woodlands, Singapore
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Woodlands is a planning area and residential town located in the North Region of Singapore. The town is connected to Malaysias southernmost city, Johor Bahru, Woodlands planning area borders Sembawang to the east, Mandai to the south, Sungei Kadut to the west and the Straits of Johor to the north. Woodlands New Town is situated within the Woodlands planning area, the area consisting of modern-day Woodlands Town first witnessed the opening of the Johor-Singapore Causeway in 1923. The first HDB flats were built from 1972 in the part of Marsiling. Development of Woodlands began in 1981 and this compromises of the building of HDB flats in the Neighbourhood 1, which was completed in 1985, well after the Marsiling Estate. The Neighbourhood 8 were completed in 1987, together with the Neighbourhood 3 in 1989, because of the saturation of HDB flats, the numbering system added A, B and C. Blocks 6xx in Admiralty begun to be completed in 1996, together with the 7xx in 1997, expansion into Innova began in 1998 and was completed in 2002, which consists of block 5xx. Expansion into the Woodlands East began in 1999 and completed in 2004, there are three constituencies in the town, and nine neighbourhoods within the Woodlands vicinity made up primarily of Woodlands, Marsiling, Woodgrove and Admiralty. Woodlands Square serves as the centre while adjacent neighbourhood centres also offer a variety of commercial activities. Integrated development plans including Kampung Admiralty are officially launched in April 2014, of all the estates, Woodgrove is the smallest in size, located towards the northwest end of the town. Woodgrove houses most of the housing in Woodlands, consisting of high-rise condominiums. Woodgrove lies in between the estates of Marsiling and Woodlands, Marsiling, Woodlands, Woodgrove and Admiralty altogether form Woodlands New Town. Woodlands is diverse during the day and well lit at night, shops, eateries, and commercial zones are evenly spread through the town, with bus and transit routes operating till close to midnight. The theme of the park revolves around the Malay and Chinese culture, and winding through the park is Sungei Mandai Kechil, Woodlands Town Garden is located near to the Woodlands Checkpoint, in the Marsiling estate. To the east of this area, bordering the polytechnic is Admiralty Park, the recent riverine park which opened in phases is the Woodlands Waterfront. It has engaged a lot of residents, especially those staying in northern Singapore and it is also linked to Admiralty Park and a 25 km Northern Explorer Park Connector Network. Woodlands Regional Library, the largest neighbourhood library in Singapore at the time of its launch, is operated by the National Library Board, the four-storey public library caters to all ages and is organised according to themes of general, reference, teens, and children. Causeway Point, one of the largest shopping malls in Singapore, houses 250 shops, Woodlands Civic Centre is a designated centre of education, public services, and other forms of assistance for residents
19.
Tampines
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Tampines /tæmpəˈniːs/ is a planning area and residential town located in the East Region of Singapore. The planning area is bordered by Bedok and Paya Lebar to the west, Pasir Ris to the north, Changi to the east, Tampines New Town is located in the northern portion of Tampines planning area. Tampines is the third largest new town in Singapore by area, covering over 2089 hectares of land and also is the third most populated new town, following Bedok and it is the regional centre for the East Region. In the past, Tampines was covered by forests, swamp, ironwood trees, or tempinis, grew abundantly here and thus gave the area its name. It was part of training area until about 1987. The name Tampines goes back to the Franklin and Jackson map of 1828 and it is named after Sungei Tampenus, which in turn got its name from the tampines trees which were said to be growing there. The oldest street in the area, Tampines Road, dates to 1864, at the turn of the 20th century, Tampines was a rubber plantation. Tampines is also home to the quarry for a long time. Among the plantations were Teo Tek Ho and Hun Yeang estates, the new town started in 1978. Construction began for Neighbourhoods 1 and 2 and was completed between 1983 and 1987 although they were given priority, Neighbourhoods 8 and 9 started in 1985–1989, followed by Neighbourhood 5 which was completed in 1989 with the Tampines Town Centre. Neighbourhood 4 was completed with the new Tampines North Division between 1986 and 1988, Tampines Town was at the fast paced expansion, that breaks it into Tampines East, Tampines West, Tampines North and Tampines Changkat divisions. New construction methods expedited the development of the towns infrastructure, the Housing and Development Board managed the construction of the town until 1991, when it handed the reins over to the Tampines Town Council. The Town Council is run by leaders and the residents themselves. The Building and Social Housing Foundation of the United Nations awarded the World Habitat Award to Tampines, the award was given in recognition of an outstanding contribution towards human settlement and development. Neighbourhoods 3 and 7 were only completed in 1997. Neighbourhood 6, which is known as Tampines North New Town, has started construction with the first Build-To-Order flats Tampines GreenRidges being announced at the end of November 2014. Tampines, which includes Tampines North and Simei is home to over 237,800 residents living in 152,000 HDB flats spread out over 24, thus, an array of facilities are provided primarily for residents in the new towns. Tampines is one of Singapores four regional centres, under the plan of the Urban Redevelopment Authority, as a result, the Tampines Regional Centre serves the Tampines residents and the entire East Region
20.
Luther Forest Technology Campus
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The site is environmentally friendly and pre-approved with convenient dedicated Interstate highway access only 1.5 miles away. The campus sits on a sand plain, the delta of the prehistoric Iromohawk river as it entered Lake Albany at the end of the last ice age. When the early settlers cleared the forests and ploughed the soil they quickly discovered that the layer of topsoil blew away. In 1898 Thomas C. Luther began to purchase the otherwise useless land and undertook an effort of reforestation. The reforested area eventually grew to over 7,000 acres, the original facility included underground and above-ground bunkers, two gantries and a number of lab buildings. There were checkpoints with armed guards and clearance was required to gain entrance, rocket scientists such as Werner von Braun visited the site and often stayed for several weeks. General Electric later sold its business to Wright Malta Corporation. Wright Malta still maintains a facility, currently producing a variety of industrial products, project Hermes is commemorated by Hermes Road, one of the main access roads to the tech park. Another legacy of the project was soil contamination from rocket fuel that caused the facility to be listed as a Superfund site in 1987, in 1999 cleanup was completed and the site was removed from the list. The Malta Test Station was purchased in 1964 by the New York State Atomic, later another 280 acres was acquired by eminent domain. In 1998 New York began an initiative to pre-permit chip manufacturing plants, in 2000 the Saratoga Economic Development Corporation chose the current site, began the process of obtaining zoning approval, and began preliminary work. In 2006 Advanced Micro Devices began to evaluate Luther Forest, along with other sites worldwide, later that year they committed to constructing a chip plant, Fab 8, at the Campus with an estimated cost of $3.2 billion. At the time this was the most advanced semiconductor manufacturing facility in the world, in 2008 AMD spun off its manufacturing to a new joint venture with the Advanced Technology Investment Company of Abu Dhabi, called GlobalFoundries. Fab 8 was the first facility to produce 300 mm silicon wafers designed for 32 nm technologies and this was the second manufacturing facility operated by GlobalFoundries, with Fab 1 located in Dresden, Germany. As of 2015 it can produce wafers with technology of 28 nm, Construction is expected to be completed by Rifenburg Construction for the site roadways and infrastructure by the end of 2009. As of 2015 the following infrastructure is in place, Electrical – four independent 115 kV circuits attached to two separate providers, Natural gas –10,000,8 gas line with a capacity of 150,000 cfh, a 12 gas line is being installed. Water –10 million gallons/day capacity, a 5 million gallon water tank provides a back-up supply. Sewer –10 million gallon sewer main connects to Saratoga County waste treatment facility, roads – multiple entry points, five miles of interior roadways
21.
Saratoga County, New York
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Saratoga County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. The county seat is Ballston Spa, Saratoga County is included in the Capital District, encompassing the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, New York Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county is home to the internationally renowned Saratoga Race Course. The Fab 8 campus of GlobalFoundries, a company specializing in the industry, is a multibillion-dollar venture being developed in Saratoga County. When counties were established in the Province of New York in 1683 and this was an enormous county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. This large county was reduced in size by the separation of several counties until 1791. The Battles of Saratoga marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign, during the nineteenth century, Saratoga County was an important industrial center. Some of the most important industrial employers were paper mills, tanneries, foundries, the county has historically maintained a low county tax rate, according to its official website, Saratoga County levies one of the lowest county tax rates in New York State. Saratoga County is situated in the portion of New York State, north of Albany, northwest of Troy. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 844 square miles. The Hudson River forms the border of the county, while the Mohawk River demarcates its southern border. In 1960, Saratoga County had a population of only 89,000, less than half of its population in 2015, estimated at 226,249. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 219,607 people,88,296 households, the population density was 271 people per square mile. There were 98,656 housing units at a density of 122 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 94. 3% White,1. 8% Asian,1. 5% Black or African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 5% from other races, and 1. 7% from two or more races. 2. 4% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 26. 1% of all households were made up of individuals,31. 5% of households had individuals under 18 years, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.96. 22. 7% of the population was under age 18
22.
Essex Junction, Vermont
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Essex Junction is a village located within the town of Essex in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. The population was 9,271 at the 2010 census and it was incorporated on November 15,1892. Amtrak, the passenger rail system, provides daily service to its station in Essex Junction. The Vermonter train runs daily from the Franklin County seat of St. Albans to Union Station in Washington and it used to be called the Montrealer, its terminus being at Central Station in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The village of Essex Junction is one of three voting districts in the town of Essex, with Districts 8-1 & 8-3 together comprising the remainder of the town outside the village. The village and town each operate separate fire departments, libraries, parks departments, and municipal services, both governments collectively operate a unified police department and the unified Essex High School. Essex Junction is home to GlobalFoundries Burlington Design Center and 200 mm wafer fabrication plant, GlobalFoundries is the largest private employer in the state of Vermont, with approximately 3,000 employees. The village history was affected in a way by the presence of IBM. In 1958, IBM leased a 40,000 square feet facility in the southeast part of the village for its new Data Processing Division, by the end of the year, there were 500 workers. In 1969, the plant expanded to 820,000 square feet, in 1982, employment reached an all-time high of 8,000. In 2007, the town dropped the value of the plant from a high of $147.5 million to $104 million. The plants workforce was a little over 5,000 in 2011, as a GlobalFoundries operation since July 2015, the plant retains about 3,000 employees. In 2003, as a result of the publicized suicide of an Essex Junction teenager, Vermont. Essex Junction is located in the southwest part of the town of Essex and is bordered on the south by the Winooski River, the village is 6 miles east of downtown Burlington via Vermont Route 15. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 4.7 square miles, of which 4.6 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Essex Junction has a continental climate. As of the census of 2000, there were 8,591 people,3,409 households, the population density was 1,804.1 people per square mile
23.
East Fishkill, New York
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East Fishkill is a town on the southern border of Dutchess County, New York, United States. The population was 29,029 at the 2010 census, the town was once the eastern portion of the town of Fishkill. Hudson Valley Research Park is located in the town, and housed 27 divisions and 4,700 regular employees for IBM Microelectronics, while IBM produced microchips they owned the advanced, automated processor fabrication facility where IBMs Cell processor was co-developed. One early settler arrived around 1759, the town of East Fishkill was established in 1849 from the eastern part of the town of Fishkill. The name Fishkill comes from that of the river which the Dutch settlers in the area called Vis Kill which means fish creek. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 57.4 square miles, of which 56.5 square miles is land and 0.89 square miles. The south town line is the border of Putnam County, interstate 84 and the Appalachian Trail pass across the town. The Taconic State Parkway runs north-south as well, as of the census of 2000, there were 25,589 people,8,233 households, and 7,006 families residing in the town. The population density was 449.7 people per square mile, there were 8,495 housing units at an average density of 149.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 92. 54% White,2. 29% African American,0. 15% Native American,2. 80% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 86% from other races, and 1. 34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 04% of the population,11. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.10 and the family size was 3.38. In the town, the population was out with 29. 7% under the age of 18,6. 4% from 18 to 24,30. 4% from 25 to 44,25. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 98.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.9 males, the mean income for a household in the town was $116,059, and the mean income for a family was $129,660. Males had an income of $59,735 versus $35,014 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,553, about 1. 5% of families and 2. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 7% of those under age 18 and 3. 7% of those age 65 or over. Arthursburg – A hamlet by the town line, named for Chester A. Arthur
24.
Chengdu
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Chengdu, formerly romanized as Chengtu, is a sub-provincial city which has served as capital of Chinas Sichuan province. It is one of the three most populous cities in Western China, as of 2014 the administrative area houses 14,427,500 inhabitants, with an urban population of 10,152,632. At the time of the 2010 census, Chengdu was the 5th-most populous agglomeration in China, with 10,484,996 inhabitants in the area including Xinjin County. The surrounding Chengdu Plain is also known as the Country of Heaven and its prehistoric settlers included the Sanxingdui culture. It was the capital of Liu Beis Shu during the Three Kingdoms Era, after the fall of Nanjing to the Japanese in 1937, Chengdu briefly served as the capital of China. It is now one of the most important economic, financial, commercial, cultural, transportation, Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport is one of the 30 busiest airports in the world, and Chengdu Railway Station is one of the six biggest in China. Chengdu also hosts many international companies and more than 12 consulates, more than 260 Fortune 500 companies have established branches in Chengdu. In 2006, China Daily named it Chinas 4th-most-livable city, the name Chengdu is attested in sources going back to shortly after its founding. The present spelling is based on pinyin romanization, its Postal Map romanization was Chengtu and its former status as the seat of the Chengdu Prefecture prompted Marco Polos spellings Sindafu, Sin-din-fu, &c. and the Protestant missionaries romanization Ching-too Foo. Although the official name of the city has remained constant, the area has sometimes taken other names. The city logo adopted in 2011 is inspired by the Golden Sun Bird excavated from the Jinsha Ruins, archaeological discoveries at the Sanxingdui and Jinsha sites have established that the area surrounding Chengdu was inhabited over four thousand years ago. At the time of Chinas Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, in the early 4th century BC, the ninth king of Shus Kaiming dynasty relocated from nearby Pi County, giving his new capital the name Chengdu. Shu was conquered by Qin in 316 BC and the settlement refounded by the Qin general Zhang Yi, under the Han, the brocade produced at Chengdu became fashionable and was exported throughout China. A Brocade Official was established to oversee its quality and supply, after the fall of the Eastern Han, Liu Bei ruled Shu, the southwestern of the Three Kingdoms, from Chengdu. His minister Zhuge Liang called the area the Land of Abundance, under the Tang, Chengdu was considered the second most prosperous city in China after Yangzhou. Both Li Bai and Du Fu lived in the city, Li Bai praised it as lying above the empyrean. The citys present Caotang was constructed in 1078 in honor of an earlier, more humble structure of that name erected by Du Fu in 760, the Taoist Qingyang Gong was built in the 9th century. Chengdu was the capital of Wang Jians Former Shu from 907 to 925, the Later Shu was founded by Meng Zhixiang in 934, with its capital at Chengdu
25.
45 nm
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Per the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, the 45 nanometer technology node should refer to the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2007–2008 time frame. At the end of 2008, SMIC was the first China-based semiconductor company to move to 45 nm, many critical feature sizes are smaller than the wavelength of light used for lithography. A variety of techniques, such as lenses, are used to make sub-wavelength features. Double patterning has also introduced to assist in shrinking distances between features, especially if dry lithography is used. It is expected that more layers will be patterned with 193 nm wavelength at the 45 nm node, moving previously loose layers from 248 nm to 193 nm wavelength is expected to continue, which will likely further drive costs upward, due to difficulties with 193 nm photoresists. Chipmakers have initially voiced concerns about introducing new materials into the gate stack. As of 2007, however, both IBM and Intel have announced that they have high-k dielectric and metal gate solutions, which Intel considers to be a change in transistor design. NEC has also put high-k materials into production, in 2004, TSMC demonstrated a 0.296 square micrometer 45 nm SRAM cell. In 2008, TSMC moved on to a 40 nm process, in January 2006, Intel demonstrated a 0.346 square micrometers 45 nm node SRAM cell. In April 2006, AMD demonstrated a 0.370 square micrometer 45 nm SRAM cell, in June 2006, Texas Instruments debuted a 0.24 square micrometer 45 nm SRAM cell, with the help of immersion lithography. In November 2006, UMC announced that it had developed a 45 nm SRAM chip with a size of less than 0.25 square micrometer using immersion lithography. In June 2007 Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. started mass production of System-on-a-chip for use in consumer equipment based on the 45-nm process technology. The successors to 45 nm technology are 32 nm,22 nm, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. started mass production of System-on-a-chip for use in digital consumer equipment based on the 45-nm process technology. Intel shipped its first 45 nanometer based processor, the Xeon 5400-series, many details about Penryn appeared at the April 2007 Intel Developer Forum. Important advances include the addition of new instructions and new fabrication materials, AMD released its Sempron II, Athlon II, Turion II and Phenom II, as well as Shanghai Opteron processors using the 45-nm process technology. The Xbox 360 S, released in 2010, has its Xenon processor in 45 nm process, the PlayStation 3 Slim model introduced Cell Broadband Engine in 45 nm process. At IEDM2007, more details of Intels 45 nm process were revealed. Since immersion lithography is not used here, the patterning is more difficult
26.
Silicon on insulator
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SOI-based devices differ from conventional silicon-built devices in that the silicon junction is above an electrical insulator, typically silicon dioxide or sapphire. The insulating layer and topmost silicon layer also vary widely with application, resistance to latchup due to complete isolation of the n- and p-well structures. Reduced temperature dependency due to no doping, better yield due to high density, better wafer utilization. Reduced antenna issues No body or well taps are needed, lower leakage currents due to isolation thus higher power efficiency. Inherently radiation hardened, thus reducing the need for redundancy, from a manufacturing perspective, SOI substrates are compatible with most conventional fabrication processes. In general, an SOI-based process may be implemented without special equipment or significant retooling of an existing factory, among challenges unique to SOI are novel metrology requirements to account for the buried oxide layer and concerns about differential stress in the topmost silicon layer. The threshold voltage of the transistor depends on the history of operation and applied voltage to it, the primary barrier to SOI implementation is the drastic increase in substrate cost, which contributes an estimated 10–15% increase to total manufacturing costs. SOI MOSFET devices are adapted for use by the computer industry, the buried oxide layer can be used in SRAM designs. There are two type of SOI devices, PDSOI and FDSOI MOSFETs, for an n-type PDSOI MOSFET the sandwiched p-type film between the gate oxide and buried oxide is large, so the depletion region cant cover the whole p region. So to some extent PDSOI behaves like bulk MOSFET, obviously there are some advantages over the bulk MOSFETs. The film is thin in FDSOI devices so that the depletion region covers the whole film. In FDSOI the front gate supports less depletion charges than the bulk so an increase in inversion charges occurs resulting in higher switching speeds, the subthreshold swing can reach the minimum theoretical value for MOSFET at 300K, which is 60mV/decade. This ideal value was first demonstrated using numerical simulation, other drawbacks in bulk MOSFETs, like threshold voltage roll off, etc. are reduced in FDSOI since the source and drain electric fields cant interfere due to the BOX. The main problem in PDSOI is the body effect since the film is not connected to any of the supplies. Wafer bonding – the insulating layer is formed by directly bonding oxidized silicon with a second substrate, the majority of the second substrate is subsequently removed, the remnants forming the topmost Si layer. NanoCleave is a developed by Silicon Genesis Corporation that separates the silicon via stress at the interface of silicon. ELTRAN is a developed by Canon which is based on porous silicon. Seed methods - wherein the topmost Si layer is grown directly on the insulator, an exhaustive review of these various manufacturing processes may be found in reference IBM began to use SOI in the high-end RS64-IV Istar PowerPC-AS microprocessor in 2000
27.
Multigate device
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A multigate device or multiple-gate field-effect transistor refers to a MOSFET that incorporates more than one gate into a single device. The multiple gates may be controlled by a gate electrode, wherein the multiple gate surfaces act electrically as a single gate. A multigate device employing independent gate electrodes is called a multiple-independent-gate field-effect transistor. The primary roadblock to widespread implementation is manufacturability, as both planar and non-planar designs present significant challenges, especially with respect to lithography and patterning, other complementary strategies for device scaling include channel strain engineering, silicon-on-insulator-based technologies, and high-k/metal gate materials. Dual-gate MOSFETs are commonly used in VHF mixers and in sensitive VHF front-end amplifiers and they are available from manufacturers such as Motorola, NXP, and Hitachi. Dozens of multigate transistor variants may be found in the literature, in general, these variants may be differentiated and classified in terms of architecture and number of channels/gates. The first international demonstration of the devices family using thin Silicon film was performed with a double-gate MOSFET. The double-gate control of silicon-on-insulator transistors was used to force the whole film in strong inversion or strong accumulation. A simulation program and experiments on SIMOX structures was used to study this new type of device, in planar double-gate transistors the drain–source channel is sandwiched between two independently fabricated gate/gate-oxide stacks. The primary challenge in fabricating such structures is achieving satisfactory self-alignment between the upper and lower gates, flexFET is a planar, independently double-gated transistor with a damascene metal top gate MOSFET and an implanted JFET bottom gate that are self-aligned in a gate trench. This device is highly due to its sub-lithographic channel length, non-implanted ultra-shallow source and drain extensions, non-epi raised source and drain regions. Flexfet was developed and is manufactured by American Semiconductor, Inc, the term FinFET was coined by University of California, Berkeley, researchers to describe a nonplanar, double-gate transistor built on an SOI substrate, based on the earlier DELTA transistor design. The distinguishing characteristic of the FinFET is that the channel is wrapped by a thin silicon fin. The thickness of the fin determines the channel length of the device. The wrap-around gate structure provides an electrical control over the channel and thus helps in reducing the leakage current. In current usage the term FinFET has a precise definition. In the technical literature, FinFET is used generically to describe any fin-based. A25 nm transistor operating on just 0.7 volt was demonstrated in December 2002 by TSMC, the Omega FinFET design is named after the similarity between the Greek letter omega and the shape in which the gate wraps around the source/drain structure
28.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
29.
Extreme ultraviolet lithography
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Extreme ultraviolet lithography is a next-generation lithography technology using an extreme ultraviolet wavelength, currently expected to be 13.5 nm. EUV is currently being developed for high use by 2020. Immersion lithography is still at least three times faster than EUV, due to EUV source power limitations. As of 2016, a 125W source enables a wafer throughput of 85 WPH at a dose of 20 mJ/cm2, for reference, the leading immersion lithography tool runs at 275 WPH. Current throughput at customer site is 1,200 wafers per day with 80% availability, hence, multiple patterning with immersion lithography has been deployed for volume manufacturing, while deployment of EUV is expected in 2018–2020. While source power is the chief concern due to its impact on productivity, significant changes in EUV mask infrastructure, including blanks, pellicles, particle contamination would be prohibitive if pellicles were not stable above 200 W, i. e. the targeted power for manufacturing. Without pellicles, particle adders would reduce yield, which has not been an issue for conventional optical lithography with 193 nm light and pellicles. The current lack of any suitable material, aggravated by the use of hydrogen plasma cleaning in the EUV scanner. Even with a pellicle, the hydrogen interacts with Sn in the source or resist to form SnH4 which reaches the coatings of the EUV optical surfaces. Hydrogen also reacts with metal-containing compounds to reduce them to metal, and/or diffuses through to the multilayer, hydrogen also reacts with resists to etch or decompose them. Secondary electron effects degrade resolution at the targeted insertion nodes, some issues not specific to EUV, such as resist collapse and stochastic effects, also currently bar EUV from exceeding the resolution limits of immersion lithography in high volume manufacturing. Double patterning is expected for EUV for random logic patterns at the 7 nm node, the 5 nm node would likewise be expected to use multiple patterning already being developed for immersion lithography. Neutral atoms or condensed matter cannot emit EUV radiation, ionization must precede EUV emission in matter. Electrons must be bound to multicharged positive ions, for example, such electrons are more tightly bound than typical valence electrons. The thermal production of multicharged positive ions is only possible in a hot dense plasma, as of 2016, the established EUV light source is a laser-pulsed Sn plasma, where the source of 13. Xe or Sn plasma sources are either discharge-produced or laser-produced, discharge-produced plasma is made by discharging a lightning bolts worth of electric current through a tin vapor. Laser-produced plasma is made by microscopic droplets of molten tin heated by powerful laser, laser-produced plasma sources outperform discharge-produced plasma sources. Power output exceeding 250 W is a requirement for sufficient throughput, while state-of-the-art 193 nm ArF excimer lasers offer intensities of 200 W/cm2, lasers for producing EUV-generating plasmas need to be much more intense, on the order of 1011 W/cm2
30.
180 nm
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The origin of the 180 nm value is historical, as it reflects a trend of 70% scaling every 2–3 years. The naming is formally determined by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, some of the first CPUs manufactured with this process include Intel Coppermine family of Pentium III processors. This was the first technology using a length shorter than that of light used for lithography. Some more recent microprocessors and microcontrollers are using this technology because it is low cost. Intel Coppermine E- October,1999 AMD Athlon Thunderbird - June 2000 Intel Celeron - May,2002 Motorola PowerPC7445 and 7455 - January,2002 Radeon R100 and RV100 Radeon 7000 -2000
31.
Wi-Fi
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Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
32.
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks. Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, the IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, a manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices, the development of the short-link radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE9202239, issued 1992-07-24, Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund, the specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers, at the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtssons historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, the Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes and, Haralds initials. Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels, each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping enabled, Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying modulation was the modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2. 0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices, devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, the combination of these modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. Bluetooth is a protocol with a master-slave structure
33.
Burlington, Vermont
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Burlington is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Vermont and the seat of Chittenden County. It is located 45 miles south of the Canada–United States border and 94 miles south of Montreal and its population was 42,452 according to a 2015 U. S. census estimate. Burlington is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state, a regional college town, the municipality is home to the University of Vermont and Champlain College, a small private college. Vermonts largest hospital, the UVM Medical Center, is located within the city limits, in 2015, Burlington became the first city in the U. S. to run completely on renewable energy. Two theories have been put forward regarding the origin of Burlingtons name, the first is that it was named after Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, and the second is that the name honors the politically prominent and wealthy Burling family of New York. While no Burling family members are listed as grantees of the town, one of the New Hampshire grants, the land that was developed as Burlington was awarded by New Hampshire colonial governor Benning Wentworth on June 7,1763 to Samuel Willis and 63 others. In the summer of 1775, settlers began clearing land and built two or three log huts, but the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War delayed permanent settlement until after its conclusion, in 1783, Stephen Lawrence arrived with his family. The town was organized in 1785, the War of 1812 was unpopular in Vermont and New England, which had numerous trading ties with Canada. Neither Vermont nor other New England states provided militia units or financial support, Vermont voters supported the Federalist Party, which opposed the war. At one point during the war, the U. S. had 5,000 troops stationed in Burlington, outnumbering residents, about 500 soldiers died of disease, which was always a problem due to poor sanitation in army camps. Some soldiers were quartered in the building at the University of Vermont. In a skirmish on August 2,1813, British forces from Canada shelled Burlington and this is described as either a bold stroke by the British with an ineffectual response from the Americans, or a weak sally by the British, which was rightfully ignored by the Americans. The cannonade lasted about 10 minutes and caused no casualties, the American troops involved were commanded by Naval Lieutenant Thomas Macdonough, later hero of the Battle of Lake Champlain. Wharves allowed steamboats to connect freight and passengers with the Rutland & Burlington Railroad, Burlington became a bustling lumbering and manufacturing center and was incorporated as a city in 1865. Its Victorian era prosperity left behind fine architecture, including buildings by Ammi B. Young, H. H. Richardson, and McKim, Mead & White, in 1870, the waterfront was extended by construction of the Pine Street Barge Canal. This became polluted over the years and was a focus for cleanup in 2009 under the U. S. Environmental Protection Agencys Superfund program, in 1978, the ice cream enterprise Ben & Jerrys was founded in Burlington in a renovated gas station. It became a brand, with retail outlets in numerous cities
34.
7 nanometer
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In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors defines the 7 nanometer node as the technology node following the 10 nm node. Single transistor 7 nm scale devices were first produced in the early 2000s – as of 2017 commercial production of 7 nm chips is at a development stage, in 2002, IBM produced a 6 nm transistor. In 2003, NEC produced a 5 nm transistor, in 2012, IBM produced a sub-10 nm carbon nanotube transistor that outperformed silicon on speed and power. In July 2015, IBM announced that they had built the first functional transistors with 7 nm technology, although Intel has not yet divulged any certain plans to manufacturers or retailers, it has already stated that it would no longer use silicon at this node. A possible replacement material for silicon would be indium gallium arsenide or graphene, in April 2016, TSMC announced that 7 nm trial production would begin in the first half of 2017. In March 2017, TSMC announced 7 nm risk production starting by June 2018, in September 2016, GlobalFoundries announced trial production in the second half of 2017 and risk production in early 2018, with test chips already running. In February 2017, Intel announced Fab 42 in Arizona will produce microprocessors using 7 nm manufacturing process, summary technology trend targets lists the 2013 predictions of the 7nm node characteristics
35.
Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing
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Chartered Semiconductor was created in 1987, as a venture that included Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd. Yet, it was not until 2000, that ST Engineering, the company was listed on the Singapore Exchange under the trading symbol of CHARTERED, as well as on NASDAQ, until its buyout. Chartered provides comprehensive wafer fabrication services and technologies to semiconductor suppliers, Chartereds customer base is primarily high-growth, technologically advanced companies operating in the communication, computer and consumer sectors. It does not provide services and works from customers designs to produce communications chips. Besides its own fabs, Chartered operates joint venture facilities with other firms, it offers chip assembly, Chartered owns 6 fabrication facilities, all of which are located in Singapore, including the newest, Chartereds first 300-mm facility which started commercial shipment in June 2005. The other major semiconductor foundries include TSMC and UMC, Taiwanese-based companies, in 2006, AMD announced that it will manufacture CPUs with Chartered on a 65 nanometer process. It also has alliances with IBM, Infineon, Samsung and Agere Systems, by acquiring Chartered, ATIC is expanding its investments and expertise in technology in the semiconductor industry which currently consist of a GLOBALFOUNDRIES facility in Dresden, Germany. The transaction was completed at the end of 2009, making ATIC the sole owner of Chartered, general information page from Securities and Exchange Commission form 20C. Press release of the acquisition Official site
36.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
37.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
38.
Fujitsu
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Fujitsu Ltd. commonly referred to as Fujitsu, is a Japanese multinational information technology equipment and services company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. In 2015, it was the worlds fourth-largest IT services provider measured by IT services revenue, fortune named Fujitsu as one of the worlds most admired companies and a Global 500 company. It has approximately 159,000 employees and its products and services are available in over 100 countries, Fujitsu is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices. Despite its connections to the Furukawa zaibatsu, Fujitsu escaped the Allied occupation of Japan after the Second World War mostly unscathed, in 1954, Fujitsu manufactured Japans first computer, the FACOM100, and in 1961 launched the transistorized FACOM222. In 1955, Fujitsu founded Kawasaki Frontale as a football club. In 1967, the name was officially changed to the contraction Fujitsū. The company also fields a company American football team, the Fujitsu Frontiers, who play in the corporate X-League, have appeared in 6 Japan X Bowls, winning one, and winning one Rice Bowl. In 1971, Fujitsu signed an OEM agreement with the Canadian company Consolidated Computers Limited to distribute CCLs data entry product, mers Kutt, inventor of Key-Edit and founder of CCL, was the common thread that led to Fujitsu’s later association with ICL and Gene Amdahl. In 1986, Fujitsu and The Queens University of Belfast business incubation unit established a joint venture called Kainos, in 1990, Fujitsu acquired 80% of the UK-based computer company International Computers Limited for $1.29 billion. In September 1990, Fujitsu announced the launch of a new series of computers which were at that time the fastest in the world. In July 1991, Fujitsu acquired more than half of the Russian company KME-CS, in 1992, Fujitsu introduced the worlds first 21-inch full-color plasma display. It was a hybrid, based upon the plasma display created at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and NHK STRL, in 1993, Fujitsu formed a flash memory manufacturing joint venture with AMD, Spansion. From February 1989 until mid-1997, Fujitsu built the FM Towns PC variant and it started as a proprietary PC variant intended for multimedia applications and computer games, but later became more compatible with regular PCs. In 1993, the FM Towns Marty was released, a console compatible with the FM Towns games. Fujitsu agreed to acquire the 58 percent of Amdahl Corporation that it did not already own for around $850 million in July 1997, in April 2000, Fujitsu acquired the remaining 70% of GLOVIA International. In April 2002 ICL was re-branded as Fujitsu, on March 2,2004, Fujitsu Computer Products of America lost a class action lawsuit over hard disk drives with defective chips and firmware. In October 2004, Fujitsu acquired the Australian subsidiary of Atos Origin, in August 2007, Fujitsu signed a £500 million, 10-year deal with Reuters Group under which Reuters outsourced the majority of its internal IT department to Fujitsu. As part of the agreement around 300 Reuters staff and 200 contractors transferred to Fujitsu, in October 2007, Fujitsu announced that it would be establishing an offshore development centre in Noida, India with a capacity to house 1,200 employees, in an investment of US$10 million
39.
Infineon Technologies
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As of 30 September 2016, Infineon had 36,299 employees worldwide. In fiscal year 2016, the company achieved sales of €6.473 billion, on 1 May 2006, Infineons Memory Products division was carved out as a distinct company called Qimonda AG, which at its height employed about 13,500 people worldwide. Qimonda was listed on the New York Stock Exchange until 2009, Infineon Technologies AG, in Neubiberg near Munich, offers semiconductors and systems for automotive, industrial, and multimarket sectors, as well as chipcard and security products. With a global presence, Infineon operates through its subsidiaries in the USA, from Milpitas, California, Infineon has a number of facilities in Europe, one in Dresden, Germany, Europes microelectronic, and emerging technologies center. Infineons high power segment is in Warstein, Germany, Villach and Graz in Austria, Cegléd in Hungary, and Italy. It also runs R&D centers in France, Singapore, Romania, Taiwan, UK and India, as well as units in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia. Theres also a Shared Service Center in Maia, Portugal, Infineon is listed in the DAX index of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. After several restructurings, Infineon today comprises four areas, Infineon provides semiconductor products for use in powertrains. The product portfolio includes microcontrollers, power semiconductors and sensors, in fiscal year 2013, sales amounted to €1,714 million for the ATV segment. The industrial division of the company includes power semiconductors and modules which are used for generation, transmission and consumption of electrical energy and its application areas include control of electric drives for industrial applications and household appliances, modules for renewable energy production, conversion and transmission. This segment achieved sales of €651 million in fiscal year 2013, the division Power Management & Control sums up the business with semiconductor components for efficient power management or high-frequency applications. In fiscal year 2013 PMM generated €987 million, the CCS business provides microcontrollers for mobile phone SIM cards, payment cards, security chips and chip-based solutions for passports, identity cards and other official documents. Infineon delivers a significant number of chips for the new German identity card, in addition, CCS provides solutions for applications with high security requirements such as pay television and Trusted Computing. CCS achieved €463 million in fiscal year 2013, Infineon is the number 1 in embedded security. The former memory chip division was carved out in 2006 as Infineon’s subsidiary Qimonda, in January 2009, Qimonda filed for bankruptcy with the district court in Munich. On 7 July 2009, Infineon Technologies AG agreed by contract with the U. S. investor Golden Gate Capital on the sale of its Wireline Communications for €250 million, the resulting new company is now known as Lantiq. On 31 January 2011, the sale of the segment of wireless solutions to Intel was completed. The resulting new company has approximately 3,500 employees and now operates as Intel Mobile Communications, in July 2016, Infineon announced it agreed to buy the North Carolina-based company Wolfspeed from Cree Inc. for $850 million in cash
40.
Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc.
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Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc. is an electronics manufacturing services and original design manufacturing company located in Biñan, Laguna, Philippines. IMI is a provider of manufacturing services and power semiconductor assembly and test services with manufacturing facilities in Asia, Europe. It serves diversified markets that include those in the automotive, industrial, medical, telecommunications infrastructure, storage device and its customized solutions range from design and product development to manufacturing and order fulfillment. A subsidiary of Ayala Corporation, IMI is listed in the Philippine Stock Exchange, IMI started in 1980 as a joint venture between Ayala Corporation and Resins, Inc. With its headquarters in Muntinlupa, they were just a workforce of around 100 employees with fixed assets of US$3,700,290. By 2001, IMI only had three manufacturing sites in the Philippines, as of 2015, IMI has 13 manufacturing sites around the world with more than 15,000 employees. From a EMS company, it expanded its scope to include EMS and Power Semiconductor Assembly, IMI is also into prototyping, manufacturing, product test development, testing and order fulfillment. The company began to establish its presence outside the Philippines, in 2005, IMI acquired the EMS assets of Saturn Electronics and Engineering Inc. in the US and the Speedy-Tech Electronics Ltd of Singapore. The acquisition of Speedy-Tech eventually led to the establishment of IMI’s presence in China—through three facilities, namely, two in Shenzhen and one in Jiaxing. IMI strengthened its presence in Europe and North America in 2011 through the acquisition of EPIQ NV subsidiaries in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, in 2010, IMI acquired PSi Technologies, a power semiconductor assembly and test service provider. The company bought the minority shares of PSi Technologies in 2014, in January 2015, IMI acquired the remaining shares of PSi from private investment firms Narra Venture Capital II LP and Narra Associates II Limited. ]. On January 21,2010, IMI listed 1.137 billion common shares in the Philippine Stock Exchange and it has completed its follow-on offering and listing of 215,000,000 common shares on December 5,2014. IMI has 1,856,899,921 outstanding shares, IMI is an EMS player in the automotive industry. Aside from assembly services, IMI provides automotive tier 1 suppliers and Original equipment manufacturer services such as design and product development, the company manufactures safety electronics for vehicles such as automotive cameras and airbag controls. The company also produces access control devices design against theft and dosimeters and it is also involved in the robotics industry. In addition to these, IMI also produces medical diagnostic devices, IMI has four wholly owned subsidiaries that carry out the business through the various operating entities globally. IMI Singapore or officially IMI International Pte Ltd. wholly owns Speedy-Tech Electronics Ltd. when IMI acquired it on 2005, STEL, which provides EMS and power electronics, manages the China and Singapore operations. IMI Singapore also holds Monarch Elite Ltd. that manages the Europe, IMI ROHQ is also an affiliate that serves as a supervisory, communications and coordinating center for IMI Singapore affiliates and subsidiaries
