1.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
2.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
3.
Indulgence
–
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins. It may reduce the temporal punishment after death, in the state or process of purification called Purgatory and this temporal punishment would not be considered time, as Purgatory, like Heaven and Hell, is said to exist outside of time. The recipient of an indulgence must perform an action to receive it and this is most often the saying of a specified prayer, but may also include the visiting of a particular place, or the performance of specific good works. They draw on the Treasury of Merit accumulated by Christs superabundantly meritorious sacrifice on the cross and they are granted for specific good works and prayers in proportion to the devotion with which those good works are performed or prayers recited. By the late Middle Ages, the abuse of indulgences, mainly through commercialization, had become a problem which the Church recognized but was unable to restrain effectively. Indulgences were from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation a target of attacks by Martin Luther, eventually the Catholic Counter-Reformation curbed the excesses, but indulgences continue to play a role in modern Catholic religious life. Reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences and these days or years were meant to represent the equivalent of time spent in penance, although it was widely taken to mean time spent in Purgatory. The reforms also reduced the number of indulgences granted for visiting particular churches. When a person sins, he acquires certain liabilities, the liability of guilt, a mortal sin is equivalent to refusing friendship with God and communion with the only source of eternal life. The loss of life with God, and the eternal death of hell that is the effect of this rejection, is called the eternal punishment of sin. The Sacrament of Penance removes the guilt and the liability of eternal punishment related to mortal sin, though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be white as snow, though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool. The forgiveness of sin and restoration of communion with God entail the remission of the punishment of sin. The process of sanctification and interior renewal requires not only forgiveness from the guilt of sin and this purification process gives rise to temporal punishment, because, not involving a total rejection of God, it is not eternal and can be expiated. While patiently bearing sufferings and trials of all kinds and, when the day comes, serenely facing death, the Christian must strive to accept this temporal punishment of sin as a grace. He should strive by works of mercy and charity, as well as by prayer, the temporal punishment that follows sin is thus undergone either during life on earth or in purgatory. Indulgences are a help towards achieving this purification, an indulgence does not forgive the guilt of sin, nor does it provide release from the eternal punishment associated with unforgiven mortal sins. Similarly, an indulgence is not a permit to commit sin, ordinarily, forgiveness of mortal sins is obtained through Confession. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, The treasury of the Church is the value, which can never be exhausted
Indulgence
–
Inscription on the
Basilica of St. John Lateran in
Rome: Indulgentia plenaria perpetua quotidiana toties quoties pro vivis et defunctis (English trans: "Perpetual everyday plenary indulgence on every occasion for the living and the dead")
Indulgence
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Indulgence
–
Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas bestows the
Easter Mass Plenary Indulgence in 2012 (St. John the Evangelist Metropolitan Cathedral,
Dagupan City, Pangasinan).
Indulgence
–
Engraving of the
Mass of Saint Gregory by
Israhel van Meckenem, 1490s, with an unauthorized indulgence at the bottom
4.
Over-consumption
–
Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the ecosystem. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases. Generally the discussion of overconsumption parallels that of overpopulation, that is the more people, green parties and the ecology movement often argue that consumption per person, or ecological footprint, is typically lower in poor than in rich nations. A fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the carrying capacity. Excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long term carrying capacity of its environment and subsequent resource depletion, environmental degradation, the scale of modern lifes overconsumption has enabled an overclass to exist, displaying affluenza and obesity. However once again both of these claims are controversial with the latter being correlated to other factors more so than over-consumption, in the long term these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe. Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute, has said, It would take 1.5 Earths to sustain our present level of consumption, environmentally, the world is in an overshoot mode. The Worldwatch Institute said China and India, with their booming economies, the State of the World 2005 report said the two countries high economic growth exposed the reality of severe pollution. The idea of overconsumption is also tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term “ecological footprint” refers to the accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere. ”Currently, China is roughly 11 times lower in per capita footprint. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world consumption rates would roughly double, the most obvious solution to the issue of overconsumption is to simply slow the rate at which materials are becoming depleted. A fundamental shift in the economy may be necessary in order to account for the current change that is taking place or that will need to take place. Fifty Possible Ways to Challenge Over-Commercialism by Albert J
Over-consumption
–
Energy consumption per capita per country in 2001
5.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
Food
–
Various foods
Food
–
Foods from plant sources
Food
–
Various raw
meats
Food
–
Tractor and
Chaser bin
6.
Drink
–
A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain water, milk, juices, coffee, tea, in addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture and development for 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, the category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. When the human body becomes dehydrated it experiences the sensation of thirst and this craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the bodys electrolyte levels. The complete elimination of drinks, i. e. water, Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases, as mankind evolved, new techniques were discovered to create drinks from the plants that were native to their areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia, beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, tea likely originated in Yunnan, China during the Shang Dynasty as a medicinal drink. Drinking has been a part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence, in Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons, in some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink, another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
Drink
–
The world's second-most-consumed drink, tea
Drink
–
Caravagio 's interpretation of Bacchus
Drink
–
First developed in the Middle Ages, basket presses have a long history of use in winemaking.
Drink
–
An old
whiskey still.
7.
Christian
–
A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
Christian
–
Set of pictures for a number of famous Christians from various fields.
Christian
–
The
Church of St Peter near
Antakya, Turkey, in
Antioch the disciples were called Christians.
Christian
–
Nazareth the city is described as the childhood home of
Jesus, in many languages employ the word Nazarene as a general designation for those of the Christian faith.
Christian
–
Japanese Christians ("Kurisuchan") in Portuguese costume, 16–17th century.
8.
Christian denomination
–
A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
Christian denomination
–
Door of the Schlosskirche (castle church) in Wittenberg to which Luther is said to have nailed his
95 Theses on 31st October 1517, sparking the
Reformation.
9.
Seven deadly sins
–
The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices of Christian origin. Behaviors or habits are classified under this category if they give birth to other immoralities. According to the standard list, they are pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth and these sins are often thought to be abuses or excessive versions of ones natural faculties or passions. This classification originated with the fathers, especially Evagrius Ponticus. To inspire people to focus on the seven sins, the vices are discussed in treatises. The seven deadly sins in their current form are not found in the Bible, one such antecedent is found in the Book of Proverbs 6, 16–19, however only in the Masoretic Text. Since the apostle Paul goes on to say that the persons who practice these sins shall not inherit the Kingdom of God, still another list of things that God hates comes from Revelation 21,8. While the seven deadly sins as we know them did not originate with the Greeks or Romans, Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics lists several positive, healthy human qualities, excellences, or virtues. Aristotle argues that for each positive quality there are two negative vices that are found on each extreme of the virtue, courage, for example, is the human excellence or virtue in facing fear and risk. Excessive courage makes one rash, while a deficiency of courage makes one cowardly and this principle of virtue found in the middle or mean between excess and deficiency is Aristotles notion of the golden mean. Aristotle lists virtues like courage, temperance or self-control, generosity, greatness of soul, proper response to anger, friendliness, roman writers like Horace extolled the value of virtue while listing and warning against vices. His first epistles says that to flee vice is the beginning of virtue, Gregory combined tristitia and acedia, vanagloria and superbia, and added envy. Gregorys list became the standard list of sins, Thomas Aquinas uses and defends Gregorys list in his Summa Theologica. The Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church, and Methodist Church, among other Christian denominations, moreover, modern day evangelists, such as Billy Graham have explicated the seven deadly sins. In the seven sins are seven ways of eternal death. The capital sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride, lust, or lechery, is intense longing. It is usually thought of as intense or unbridled sexual desire, which leads to fornication, adultery, rape, bestiality, however, lust could also mean simply desire in general, thus, lust for money, power, and other things are sinful. In accordance with the words of Henry Edward, the impurity of lust makes one a slave of the devil, lust, if not managed properly, can subvert propriety
Seven deadly sins
–
Hieronymus Bosch 's
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
Seven deadly sins
–
The Holy Spirit and the Seven Deadly Sins. Folio from Walters manuscript W.171 (15th century)
Seven deadly sins
–
An allegorical image depicting the human heart subject to the seven deadly sins, each represented by an animal (clockwise:
toad = avarice;
snake = envy;
lion = wrath;
snail = sloth;
pig = gluttony;
goat = lust;
peacock = pride).
Seven deadly sins
–
Lust Sankt Bartholomäus church (
Reichenthal),
Pulpit (1894)
10.
Wilhelm Gesenius
–
Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm Gesenius was a German orientalist, Lutheran, and Biblical critic. In 1806, shortly after graduation, he became Repetent and Privatdozent at Göttingen and he taught with great regularity for over thirty years. He became the most popular teacher of Hebrew and of Old Testament introduction and exegesis in Germany, during his later years his lectures were attended by nearly five hundred students. Among his pupils the most eminent were Peter von Bohlen, C. P. W. Gramberg, A. G. Hoffmann, Hermann Hupfeld, Emil Rödiger, J. F. Tuch, Johann Karl Wilhelm Vatke and Theodor Benfey. W. Hengstenberg and his party in the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, on account of his rationalism, Gesenius died at Halle and is buried near the university. According to tradition, theology students in Halle put stones on his grave as a token of respect every year before their examinations, as an exegete he exercised a powerful influence on theological investigation. He may be too considered as a founder of Phoenician studies, in the same year appeared the first volume of the Hebräisches u. Chaldäisches Handwörterbuch, completed in 1812. Revised editions of this appear periodically in Germany, of particular interest to English-speaking students of Hebrew are two related works, which arrived on modern library shelves through parallel paths. The Lexicon Manuale was subsequently translated to English in America by Edward Robinson D. D. in 1836, with the Lexicon Manuale as a starting point, it drew heavily from the Hebräisches und Chaldäisches as well as Gesenius Hebrew Grammar and Thesaurus. Since then, both the Tregelles Lexicon and the BDB have been reissued with Strongs numbering system to aid in navigating their contents. The Hebräische Grammatik, published in 1813, was followed in 1815 by the Geschichte der hebräischen Sprache, the first volume of his well-known commentary on Isaiah, with a translation, appeared in 1821, but the work was not completed until 1829. The Thesaurus philologico-criticus linguae Hebraicae et Chaldaicae Veteris Testamenti, begun in 1829, he did not live to complete, for many years he also edited the Halle Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung. A sketch of his life was published anonymously in 1843, and another by Hermann Gesenius, Wilhelm Gesenius, chisholm, Hugh, ed. Gesenius, Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm. Scripturæ linguæque phoeniciæ monumenta quotquot supersunt edita et inedita ad autographorum optimorumque exemplorum fidem edidit additisque de scriptura et lingua phoenicum commentariis
Wilhelm Gesenius
–
Wilhelm Gesenius.
11.
613 commandments
–
The tradition that 613 commandments is the number of mitzvot in the Torah, began in the 3rd century CE, when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it in a sermon that is recorded in Talmud Makkot 23b. These principles of Biblical law are sometimes called connections or commandments and referred to collectively as the Law of Moses, Mosaic Law, Sinaitic Law, the word mitzvot is plural, singular is mitzvah. Although there have been attempts to codify and enumerate the commandments contained in the Torah. The 613 commandments include positive commandments, to perform an act, though the number 613 is mentioned in the Talmud, its real significance increased in later medieval rabbinic literature, including many works listing or arranged by the mitzvot. Three types of negative commandments fall under the self-sacrificial principle yehareg veal yaavor and these are murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual relations. The 613 mitzvot have been divided also into three categories, mishpatim, edot, and chukim. Mishpatim include commandments that are deemed to be self-evident, such as not to murder, edot commemorate important events in Jewish history. For example, the Shabbat is said to testify to the story that Hashem created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day, chukim are commandments with no known rationale, and are perceived as pure manifestations of the Divine will. Many of the mitzvot cannot be observed now, following the destruction of the Second Temple, According to one standard reckoning, there are 77 positive and 194 negative commandments that can be observed today, of which there are 26 commands that apply only within the Land of Israel. Furthermore, there are some time-related commandments from which women are exempt, some depend on the special status of a person in Judaism, while others apply only to men or only to women. 33,04 is to be interpreted to mean that Moses transmitted the Torah from God to the Israelites, Moses commanded us the Torah as an inheritance for the community of Jacob. The Talmud attributes the number 613 to Rabbi Simlai, but other classical sages who hold this view include Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai and it is quoted in Midrash Shemot Rabbah 33,7, Bamidbar Rabbah 13, 15–16,18,21 and Talmud Yevamot 47b. Many Jewish philosophical and mystical works find allusions and inspirational calculations relating to the number of commandments. The tzitzit of the tallit are connected to the 613 commandments by interpretation, principal Torah commentator Rashi bases the number of knots on a gematria, Each tassel has eight threads and five sets of knots, totalling 13. The sum of all numbers is 613 and this reflects the concept that donning a garment with tzitzit reminds its wearer of all Torah commandments. Rabbinic support for the number of commandments being 613 is not without dissent and, even as the number gained acceptance, some rabbis declared that this count was not an authentic tradition, or that it was not logically possible to come up with a systematic count. No early work of Jewish law or Biblical commentary depended on the 613 system, the classical Biblical commentator and grammarian Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra denied that this was an authentic rabbinic tradition. Nahmanides held that this particular counting was a matter of controversy
613 commandments
–
[De Rouwdagen] De treurdagen (The
mourning days) by Jan Voerman (nl), ca 1884
12.
Jews
–
The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
–
Map of
Canaan
Jews
–
David Ben-Gurion
Jews
–
George Gershwin
13.
Rambam
–
In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician. Born in Cordova, Almoravid Empire on Passover Eve,1135 or 1138, he worked as a rabbi, physician and he died in Egypt on December 12,1204, whence his body was taken to the lower Galilee and buried in Tiberias. Nonetheless, he was acknowledged as among the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law and he is sometimes known as ha Nesher ha Gadol in recognition of his outstanding status as a bona fide exponent of the Oral Torah. Aside from being revered by Jewish historians, Maimonides also figures prominently in the history of Islamic. Influenced by Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and his contemporary Averroes, he in his turn influenced other prominent Arab and Muslim philosophers and he became a prominent philosopher and polymath in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds. His full Hebrew name is Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, whose acronym forms Rambam and his full Arabic name is Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaidallāh al-Qurtabī or Mūsā bin Maymūn for short. In Latin, the Hebrew ben becomes the Greek−style suffix -ides to form Moses Maimonides, Maimonides was born in Córdoba during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule. At an early age, he developed an interest in sciences and he read those Greek philosophers accessible in Arabic translations, and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of Islamic culture. Maimonides was not known as a supporter of mysticism, although a strong type of mysticism has been discerned in his philosophy. He expressed disapproval of poetry, the best of which he declared to be false and this sage, who was revered for his personality as well as for his writings, led a busy life, and wrote many of his works while travelling or in temporary accommodation. Maimonides studied Torah under his father Maimon, who had in turn studied under Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash, a Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Córdoba in 1148, and abolished dhimmi status in some of their territories. The loss of protected status threatened the Jewish and Christian communities with conversion to Islam, death. The historical records of abuses against Jews in the immediate post-1148 period are subject to different interpretations, Maimonidess family, along with most other Jews, chose exile. Some say, though, that it is likely that Maimonides feigned a conversion to Islam before escaping and this forced conversion was ruled legally invalid under Islamic law when brought up by a rival in Egypt. For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain, during this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah in the years 1166–1168. Following this sojourn in Morocco, together with two sons, he sojourned in the Holy Land, before settling in Fustat, Egypt around 1168, while in Cairo, he studied in a yeshiva attached to a small synagogue. In the Holy Land, he prayed at the Temple Mount and he wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants
Rambam
–
18th-century portrait of Maimonides
Rambam
–
Maimonides's house in
Fes, Morocco
Rambam
–
Monument in
Cordoba
Rambam
–
Sculpture of Maimonides in the
U.S. House of Representatives.
14.
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
–
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things is a painting attributed to Hieronymus Bosch or to a follower of his, completed around 1500 or later. Since 1898 its authenticity has been questioned several times, in 2015 the Bosch Research Conservation Project claimed it to be by a follower, but the Prados scholars dismissed this argument. The painting is oil on wooden panels and is presented in a series of circular images, at the centre of the large circle, which is said to represent the eye of God, is a pupil in which Christ can be seen emerging from his tomb. Below this image is the Latin inscription Cave Cave Deus Videt, in 1560 Felipe de Guevara wrote about a pupil of Bosch, an unnamed discipulo, who was as good as his master and even signed his works with his masters name. Immediately after this, and without starting a new paragraph, Guevara refers to the painting of the Seven Deadly Sins as characteristic of his style and this led some scholars, as early as Dollmayr and most vocally Stechow, to ascribe the work to this pupil. Most experts have argued since, however, that given the highly ambiguous nature of the passage, phillip II of Spain himself purchased the work in the belief that the Seven Deadly Sins was a Bosch original, and he always regarded it as such. It was his favourite Bosch painting and it hanged in his own bedroom in El Escorial, the alleged poor quality of the drawing had led to the incorrect belief it dates from Boschs early period. They also noted that the painting is not on oak, adding to their doubts about the attribution to Bosch, furthermore, the theme, symbolism and the composition itself is profoundly original, which would make it extremely unlikely that an unknown pupil could have painted it. In 2005 Ed Hoffman argued for the work being a copy, in his view, the amateurish style, the plump figures, the lack of white highlights and the fact that the wooden panel is not oak but poplar. An argument for the authenticity, or at least originality, of the work could be found in the pentimenti of the underpainting, in addition, there is no question signature in the painting is that of Bosch himself, and not a forgery. In response, the Prado Museum stated that still consider the piece to be authentic. Each panel in the circle depicts a different sin. Clockwise from top, Gluttony, A drunkard swigs from a bottle while a fat man eats greedily, not heeding the plea of his equally obese young son. Sloth, A lazy man dozes in front of the fireplace while Faith appears to him in a dream, in the guise of a nun, lust, Two couples enjoy a picnic in a pink tent, with two clowns to entertain them. Pride, With her back to the viewer, a woman looks at her reflection in a mirror held up by a demon, wrath, A woman attempts to break up a fight between two drunken peasants. The dogs illustrate the Flemish saying, “Two dogs and only one bone, greed, A crooked judge pretends to listen sympathetically to the case presented by one party to a lawsuit, while slyly accepting a bribe from the other party. The four small circles also have details, saint Peter is shown as the gatekeeper. In Judgment, Christ is shown in glory while angels awake the dead, calendar Clock Face, c.1500 in the collection of M - Museum Leuven Rota Fortunae Bhavacakra, a similar diagram in Buddhism
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
–
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
–
Wrath (Ira)
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
–
Pride (Superbia)
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things
–
Lust (Luxuria)
15.
Hieronymus Bosch
–
Hieronymus Bosch was a Dutch/Netherlandish draughtsman and painter from Brabant. He is widely considered one of the most notable representatives of Early Netherlandish painting school and his work is known for its fantastic imagery, detailed landscapes, and illustrations of religious concepts and narratives. Within his lifetime his work was collected in the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain, little is known of Boschs life, though there are some records. He spent most of it in the town of s-Hertogenbosch, where he was born in his grandfathers house, the roots of his forefathers are in Nijmegen and Aachen. His pessimistic and fantastical style cast a wide influence on art of the 16th century. His paintings have been difficult to translate from a point of view. Today he is seen as a hugely individualistic painter with deep insight into humanitys desires, attribution has been especially difficult, today only about 25 paintings are confidently given to his hand along with 8 drawings. Approximately another half dozen paintings are attributed to his workshop. His most acclaimed works consist of a few triptych altarpieces, the most outstanding of which is The Garden of Earthly Delights, Hieronymus Bosch was born Jheronimus van Aken. He signed a number of his paintings as Jheronimus Bosch, the name derives from his birthplace, s-Hertogenbosch, which is commonly called Den Bosch. Little is known of Boschs life or training, nothing is known of his personality or his thoughts on the meaning of his art. Boschs date of birth has not been determined with certainty and it is estimated at c.1450 on the basis of a hand drawn portrait made shortly before his death in 1516. The drawing shows the artist at an age, probably in his late sixties. Bosch was born and lived all his life in and near s-Hertogenbosch and his grandfather, Jan van Aken, was a painter and is first mentioned in the records in 1430. It is known that Jan had five sons, four of whom were also painters, Boschs father, Anthonius van Aken, acted as artistic adviser to the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady. It is generally assumed that either Boschs father or one of his uncles taught the artist to paint, Bosch first appears in the municipal record on 5 April 1474, when he is named along with two brothers and a sister. In 1463,4,000 houses in the town were destroyed by a catastrophic fire and he became a popular painter in his lifetime and often received commissions from abroad. In 1488 he joined the highly respected Brotherhood of Our Lady, a religious group of some 40 influential citizens of s-Hertogenbosch
Hieronymus Bosch
–
Attributed to Jacques Le Boucq, Portrait of Hieronymus Bosch. c. 1550
Hieronymus Bosch
–
The Crucifixion of St Julia, c 1497
Hieronymus Bosch
–
The Garden of Earthly Delights in the
Museo del Prado in
Madrid
Hieronymus Bosch
–
The Last Judgment
16.
Ascetic
–
Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
Ascetic
–
Buddha practiced severe asceticism before his enlightenment and recommended a non-ascetic
middle way thereafter. In Christianity,
Francis of Assisi and his followers practiced extreme acts of asceticism.
Ascetic
Ascetic
–
The ascetics ask Rama for protection.
Ascetic
–
Acharya Vidyasagar,
Digambara Jain monk
17.
Pope Gregory I
–
Pope Saint Gregory I, commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was pope of the Catholic Church from 3 September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is famous for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome to convert a pagan people to Christianity, Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as the Great Visionary of Modern Educational System, for his writings, the epithet Saint Gregory the Dialogist has been attached to him in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Eastern texts will sometimes list him as Gregory Dialogos or the Latinized equivalent Dialogus. A senators son and himself the Prefect of Rome at 30, Gregory tried the monastery but soon returned to public life, ending his life. Although he was the first pope from a background, his prior political experiences may have helped him to be a talented administrator. Gregory regained papal authority in Spain and France, and sent missionaries to England, the realignment of barbarian allegiance to Rome from their Arian Christian alliances shaped medieval Europe. Gregory saw Franks, Lombards, and Visigoths align with Rome in religion, throughout the Middle Ages he was known as the Father of Christian Worship because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day. His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of the Latin Fathers. He is considered a saint in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good pope and he is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers. The exact date of Gregorys birth is uncertain, but is estimated to be around the year 540. The medieval writer who provided this etymology did not hesitate to apply it to the life of Gregory, aelfric states, He was very diligent in Gods Commandments. Gregory was born into a wealthy patrician Roman family with connections to the church. Gregorys mother, Silvia, was well-born, and had a sister, Pateria. His mother and two aunts are honored by Catholic and Orthodox churches as saints. Gregorys great-great-grandfather had been Pope Felix III, the nominee of the Gothic king, Gregorys election to the throne of St Peter made his family the most distinguished clerical dynasty of the period. The family owned and resided in a villa suburbana on the Caelian Hill, the north of the street runs into the Colosseum, the south, the Circus Maximus
Pope Gregory I
–
Pope Gregory dictating the
Gregorian chant
Pope Gregory I
–
Jerome and Gregory.
Pope Gregory I
–
Illumination in a 12th-century
manuscript of a letter of Gregory's to
Saint Leander,
bishop of Seville (Bibl. Municipale, MS 2,
Dijon).
Pope Gregory I
–
Saint Gregory the Great
18.
Doctor of the Church
–
Doctor of the Church is a title given by the Catholic Church to saints whom they recognize as having been of particular importance, particularly regarding their contribution to theology or doctrine. Some other churches have similar categories with various names, in the Western church four eminent Fathers of the Church attained this honour in the early Middle Ages, Saint Gregory the Great, Saint Ambrose, Saint Augustine, and Saint Jerome. The four Doctors became a commonplace among the Scholastics, and a decree of Boniface VIII ordering their feasts to be kept as doubles in the whole Church is contained in his book of Decretals. In the Eastern Church three Doctors were pre-eminent, Saint John Chrysostom, Saint Basil the Great, and Saint Gregory Nazianzen, the feasts of these three saints were made obligatory throughout the Eastern Empire by Leo VI the Wise. A common feast was instituted in their honour on 30 January. But sermons for the feast are attributed in manuscripts to Cosmas Vestitor, the three are as common in Eastern art as the four are in Western. Durandus remarks that Doctors should be represented with books in their hands, in the West analogy led to the veneration of four Eastern Doctors, Saint Athanasius being added to the three hierarchs. The details of the title, doctor of the church, vary from one autonomous ritual church to another, to these names others have subsequently been added to the liturgy. The requisite conditions are enumerated as three, eminens doctrina, insignis vitae sanctitas, Ecclesiae declaratio, Benedict XIV explains the third as a declaration by the supreme pontiff or by a general council. But though general councils have acclaimed the writings of certain Doctors, the procedure involves extending to the universal church the use of the Divine Office and Mass of the saint in which the title of doctor is applied to him. The decree is issued by the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints and approved by the pope, after an examination, if necessary. It is not in any way an ex cathedra decision, nor does it even amount to a declaration that no error is to be found in the teaching of the Doctor. It is, indeed, well known that the very greatest of them are not wholly immune from error, no martyr is in the list, since the Office and the Mass are for Confessors. Hence, as Benedict XIV points out, Saint Ignatius of Antioch, Saint Irenaeus, the Doctors works vary greatly in subject and form. Some, such as Pope Gregory I and Ambrose were prominent writers of letters, Catherine of Siena and John of the Cross wrote mystical theology. Augustine and Bellarmine defended the Church against heresy, bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People provides the best information on England in the early Middle Ages. Systematic theologians include the Scholastic philosophers Anselm, Albertus Magnus, Saints Teresa and Therese were both Discalced Carmelites, St. Catherine was a lay Dominican, and Hildegard was a Benedictine. * Jucunditatem et exsultationem thesaurizavit super eum, the Nicene Creed was also recited at Mass, which is normally not said except on Sundays and the highest-ranking feast days
Doctor of the Church
–
St.
Isidore of Seville, a 7th-century Doctor of the Church, depicted by
Murillo (c. 1628) with a book, common iconographical
attribute for a doctor.
Doctor of the Church
–
The Four Great Doctors of the Western Church were often depicted in art, here by
Pier Francesco Sacchi, c. 1516. From the left:
Saint Augustine,
Pope Gregory I,
Saint Jerome, and
Saint Ambrose, with their
attributes.
Doctor of the Church
–
St. Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582) by
Peter Paul Rubens (
Kunsthistorisches Museum)
Doctor of the Church
–
Virgin Mary
19.
David and Jonathan
–
David and Jonathan were heroic figures of the Kingdom of Israel, who formed a covenant of friendship recorded in the books of Samuel. Jonathan was the son of Saul, king of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, and David was the son of Jesse of Bethlehem, of the tribe of Judah, the biblical text does not explicitly depict the nature of the relationship between David and Jonathan. The traditional and mainstream religious interpretation of the relationship has been one of platonic love, in modern times, some scholars, writers, and activists have emphasized elements of homoeroticism in the story. A number of made up of gay Roman Catholics trying to reconcile their faith with their sexuality have also adopted the name to their cause - Davide e Gionata. The relationship between David and Jonathan is mainly covered in the Hebrew Bible Book of Samuel, the episodes belong to the story of Davids ascent to power, which is commonly regarded as one of the sources of the Deuteronomistic history, and to its later additions. David, the youngest son of Jesse, slays Goliath at the Valley of Elah where the Philistine army is in a standoff with the army of King Saul, Davids victory begins a rout of the Philistines who are driven back to Gath and the gates of Ekron. Abner brings David to Saul while David is still holding Goliaths severed head, Jonathan, the eldest son of Saul, has also been fighting the Philistines. Saul took him that day and did not let him return to his fathers house, then Jonathan made a covenant with David because he loved him as himself. Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was on him and gave it to David, with his armor, including his sword and his bow, so David went out wherever Saul sent him, and prospered, and Saul set him over the men of war. As Saul continues to pursue David, the pair renew their covenant, eventually Saul and David are reconciled. Jonathan, however, is slain on Mt. Gilboa along with his two brothers Abinadab and Malchi-shua, and there Saul commits suicide, how have the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle. Jonathan is slain on your high places, I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan, You have been very pleasant to me. Your love to me was more wonderful than the love of women, how have the mighty fallen, And the weapons of war perished. Which love depended on a selfish end and this was the love of Amnon and Tamar. And which did not depend on a selfish end and this was the love of David and Jonathan. ”A platonic interpretation for the relationship between David and Jonathan has been the mainstream view found in biblical exegesis, as led by Christian writers. This argues that the relationship between the two, although strong and close, is ultimately a platonic friendship, the covenant that is made is political, and not erotic, while any intimacy is a case of male bonding and homosociality. David and Jonathans love is understood as the camaraderie between two young soldiers with no sexual involvement. Neither of the men are described as having problems in their married life
David and Jonathan
–
Jonathan embraces David from Caspar Luiken's "Historiae Celebriores Veteris Testamenti Iconibus Representatae" (1712)
David and Jonathan
–
"Jonathan Lovingly Taketh His Leave of David" by
Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld
David and Jonathan
–
David and Jonathan The biblical account of David and Jonathan has been read by some as the story of two lovers. "La Somme le Roy", 1290 AD; French illuminated ms (detail); British Museum
David and Jonathan
–
Donatello, David (1440s?) Museo Nazionale del Bargello h.158 cm
20.
Saul
–
Saul, according to the Hebrew Bible, was the first king of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah. His reign, traditionally placed in the late 11th century BCE, Sauls life and reign are described in the Hebrew Bible. He was anointed by the prophet Samuel and reigned from Gibeah and he fell on his sword to avoid capture in the battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, during which three of his sons were also killed. The succession to his throne was contested by Ish-bosheth, his surviving son, and his son-in-law David. A similar yet different account of Sauls life may be given in the Quran, according to the New Testament account, Saul reigned for a period of forty years. The Biblical accounts of Sauls life are found in the Books of Samuel, the narrative contains various internal inconsistencies, to the point that his biography is often embarrassingly confusing. According to the Tanakh, Saul was the son of Kish, of the family of the Matrites, and it appears that he came from Gibeah. Saul married Ahinoam, daughter of Ahimaaz and they had four sons and two daughters. The sons were Jonathan, Abinadab, Malchishua and Ish-bosheth and their daughters were named Merab and Michal. Saul also had a concubine named Rizpah, daughter of Aiah, Saul died at the Battle of Mount Gilboa, and was buried in Zelah, in the region of Benjamin. Three of Sauls sons – Jonathan, and Abinadab, and Malchishua – died with him at Mount Gilboa, Ish-bosheth became king of Israel, at the age of forty. At Davids request Abner had Michal returned to David, Ish-bosheth reigned for two years, but after the death of Abner, was killed by two of his own captains. Armoni and Mephibosheth were given by David along with the five sons of Merab to the Gibeonites, the only male descendant of Saul to survive was Mephibosheth, Jonathans lame son, who had been five when his father and grandfather Saul had died in battle. In time, he came under the protection of David, Mephibosheth had a young son, Micah, who had four sons and descendants named until the ninth generation. The Books of Samuel give three differing accounts of Sauls rise to the throne, Saul is sent with a servant to look for his fathers strayed donkeys. Leaving his home at Gibeah, they arrive at the district of Zuph. Sauls servant tells him that they happen to be near the town of Ramah, where a famous seer is located, the seer offers hospitality to Saul and later anoints him in private. A popular movement having arisen to establish a centralized monarchy like other nations, after having been chosen as monarch, Saul returns to his home in Gibeah, along with a number of followers
Saul
–
David Plays the Harp for Saul, by
Rembrandt van Rijn, c. 1658.
Saul
–
David and Saul (1885) by
Julius Kronberg.
Saul
–
"Death of King Saul", 1848 by Elie Marcuse (Germany and France, 1817–1902).
Saul
–
Saul and the Witch of Endor by
Gustave Dore.
21.
Delicacy
–
A delicacy is a usually rare or expensive food item that is considered highly desirable, sophisticated or peculiarly distinctive, within a given culture. Irrespective of local preferences, such a label is typically pervasive throughout a region, often this is because of unusual flavors or characteristics or because it is rare or expensive compared to standard staple foods. Delicacies vary per different countries, customs and ages, flamingo tongue was a highly prized dish in ancient Rome, but is not eaten at all in modern times. Lobsters were considered poverty food in North America until the mid-19th century when they started being treated, as they were in Europe, some delicacies are confined to a certain culture, such as fugu in Japan, birds nest soup in China, and ant larvae in Mexico. Chinmi – Includes a list of Japanese delicacies Delicatessen Shaxian delicacies – a style of cuisine from Sha County, Sanming, Fujian, top 13 most disgusting delicacies in the world. 23 Unexpected Cultural Delicacies From Asia
Delicacy
–
A black Périgord
truffle
Delicacy
–
Kobe beef
Delicacy
–
Wild Iranian
Ossetra caviar, ready to serve with
champagne
Delicacy
–
Edible jellyfish prepared with sesame oil and chili sauce
22.
Eli (Bible)
–
Eli was, according to the Books of Samuel, a High Priest of Shiloh. Hannah is the wife of Elkanah, Elkanah also has another wife who bore him children. Peninnah, at every chance, teases and criticises Hannah about her barrenness to the point of Hannahs deep despair and her husband sees her distress and tries to uncover her deep despair with these questions. Am I not more to you than ten sons, the story indicates that Hannah gave no answer to the questions and rose and presented herself before God weeping bitterly in the temple. When she is found in the temple by the priest she is praying silently, a priest called Eli witnesses this odd posture and concludes she is drunk. In her despair she prays to God for a child and if her prayer is granted she will give the son back to God, after Hannahs explanation of her sobriety, Eli blesses her with peace and a guarantee that God of Israel will grant her request. She went home, ate and drank with her husband, and was filled with hope, subsequently, Hannah becomes pregnant, her child is named Samuel. The time had come to offer the sacrifice at the temple. She promises to go with him to the temple when Samuel is weaned and planned to leave him with Eli to be trained as a Nazirite, the book of Samuel records Hannahs prayer to God. She rejoices and exalts the Holy One there is no father like God, therefore and this story of Hannah intertwines itself with the culture of the nation of Israel. Eli is aware of their behavior but he rebukes them too lightly and is unable to stop them, the curse alludes to a previous promise from God of Elis lineage continuing eternally. While this continuation is not revoked, a curse is placed on all of Elis male descendants forever, as a sign of the accuracy of this future, Eli is told by the man of God that his sons will die on the same day. Eli goes on to train Samuel, when Samuel hears God speaking to him, he at first thinks it is Eli, Eli, who doesnt hear God calling Samuel, eventually realizes the truth, and instructs Samuel on how to respond. Samuel is told that Gods threat will be carried out on Eli and his family, and that there is nothing that can be done to prevent it. Eli asks Samuel what he had told, insisting that he be told the whole truth. Eli, who was blind, was unaware of the event until he asked about all the commotion. Eli, sitting in a chair, was told what had happened by a soldier who had fled the battle and his daughter-in-law, the wife of Phinehas, was pregnant and near the time of delivery. When she heard the news that the Ark of God had been captured and that her father-in-law and husband were dead, she went into labour and gave birth, as she was dying, the women attending her said, Dont despair, you have given birth to a son
Eli (Bible)
–
1645 painting by
Jan Victors of
Hannah presenting her son
Samuel to Eli, who is seated on the right.
Eli (Bible)
–
Depiction of Eli and Samuel by
John Singleton Copley, 1780.
23.
Kohen Gadol
–
High Priest was the title of the chief religious official of Judaism from the early post-Exilic times until the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. This tradition came to an end in the 2nd century BCE during the rule of the Hasmoneans, when the position was occupied by other priestly families. Aaron, though he is but rarely called the great priest, being simply designated as ha-kohen, was the first incumbent of the office. The succession was to be one of his sons, and was to remain in his own family. If he had no son, the office devolved upon the next of age. In the time of Eli, however, the passed to the collateral branch of Ithamar. But King Solomon is reported to have deposed the High Priest Abiathar, and to have appointed Zadok, a descendant of Eleazar, in his stead. After the Exile, the succession seems to have been, at first, in a line from father to son. Antiochus IV Epiphanes for instance, deposed Onias III in favor of Jason, Herod the Great nominated no less than six high priests, Archelaus, two. The Roman legate Quirinius and his successors exercised the right of appointment, as did Agrippa I, Herod of Chalcis, even the people occasionally elected candidates to the office. The age of eligibility for the office is not fixed in the Law, aristobulus, however, was only seventeen when appointed by Herod, but the son of Onias III was too young to succeed his father. The age a Levite entered the priesthood was 30 years of age, legitimacy of birth was essential, hence the care in the keeping of the genealogical records and the distrust of one whose mother had been captured in war. The high priest had to abstain from ritual defilement and he may marry only an Israelite virgin. In Ezekiel 44,22 this restriction is extended to all kohanim, according to Josephus, birth on foreign soil was not a disqualification, but the disqualifications of Leviticus 21,17 et seq. applied to the high priest as well as to other priests. The Torah provides for specific vestments to be worn by the priests when they are ministering in the Tabernacle, And you shall make holy garments for Aaron your brother, for dignity and these garments are described in detail in Exodus 28, Exodus 39 and Leviticus 8. The high priest wore eight holy garments, of these, four were of the same type worn by all priests, and four were unique to the Kohen Gadol. That of the High Priest was embroidered, those of the priests were plain, Priestly sash, that of the High Priest was of fine linen with embroidered work in blue and purple and scarlet, those worn by the priests were of white, twined linen. It was fastened to the Ephod On the front of the turban was a golden plate inscribed with the words, the High Priest, like all priests, would minister barefoot when he was serving in the Temple
Kohen Gadol
–
Jewish high priest and
Levite in
ancient Judah (the depictions of the
Menorah,
Table of Showbread and
trumpets are inspired by the
Arch of Titus).
Kohen Gadol
–
High Priest in the Holy Place.
Kohen Gadol
–
A traditional list of the Jewish High Priests.
24.
Animal sacrifice
–
Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of an animal to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Such forms of sacrifice are practised within many religions around the world, all or only part of a sacrificial animal may be offered, especially in the context of ritual slaughter. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until Late Antiquity, the Minoan settlement of Phaistos in ancient Crete reveals basins for animal sacrifice dating to the period 2000 to 1700 BC. The most common usages are animal sacrifice, zevah shelamim and olah, a qorban was an animal sacrifice, such as a bull, sheep, goat, deer or a dove that underwent shechita. Sacrifices could also consist grain, meal, wine, or incense, the Hebrew Bible says that Yahweh commanded the Israelites to offer offerings and sacrifices on various altars. The sacrifices were only to be offered by the hands of the Kohanim, before building the Temple in Jerusalem, when the Israelites were in the desert, sacrifices were offered only in the Tabernacle. After building Solomons Temple, sacrifices were allowed only there, after the Temple was destroyed, sacrifices was resumed when the Second Temple was built until it was also destroyed in 70 CE. After the destruction of the Second Temple sacrifices were prohibited because there was no longer a Temple, offering of sacrifices was briefly reinstated during the Jewish–Roman wars of the second century CE and was continued in certain communities thereafter. The Samaritans, a group related to the Jews, practice animal sacrifice in accordance with the Law of Moses. References to animal sacrifice appear in the New Testament, such as the parents of Jesus sacrificing two doves and the Apostle Paul performing a Nazirite vow even after the death of Christ. Christ is referred to by his apostles as the Lamb of God, some villages in Greece sacrifice animals to Orthodox saints in a practice known as kourbania. Sacrifice of a lamb, or less commonly a rooster, is a practice in Armenian Church. This tradition, called matagh, is believed to stem from pre-Christian pagan rituals, Animal sacrifice was instituted in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a minor Latter Day Saint faction founded by James J. Strang in 1844. Strangs Book of the Law of the Lord deals with the topic of animal sacrifice in chapters 7 and 40, given the prohibition on sacrifices for sin contained in III Nephi 9, 19-20, Strang did not require sin offerings. Rather, he focused on sacrifice as an element of religious celebrations, especially the commemoration of his own coronation as king over his church, which occurred on July 8,1850. The head of house, from the king to his lowest subject, was to offer a heifer, or a lamb. Every man a clean beast, or a clean fowl, according to his household, while the killing of sacrifices was a prerogative of Strangite priests, female priests were specifically barred from participating in this aspect of the priestly office. Firstfruits offerings were also demanded of all Strangite agricultural harvests, Animal sacrifices are no longer practiced by the Strangite organization, though belief in their correctness is still required
Animal sacrifice
–
Sacrifice of a young boar in ancient Greece (
tondo from an
Attic red-figure cup, 510–500 BC, by the Epidromos Painter, collections of the
Louvre)
Animal sacrifice
–
Preparation of an animal sacrifice; marble, fragment of an architectural
relief, first quarter of the 2nd century AD; from Rome, Italy
Animal sacrifice
–
Matagh of a rooster at the entrance of a monastery church (Alaverdi, Armenia, 2009), with inset of bloody steps.
Animal sacrifice
–
A water buffalo about to be sacrificed by a villager in the
Durga Puja festival
25.
Sodom and Gomorrah
–
Sodom and Gomorrah were cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis and throughout the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament and in the deuterocanonical books, as well as in the Quran and the hadith. According to the Torah, the kingdoms of Sodom and Gomorrah were allied with the cities of Admah, Zeboim and these five cities, also known as the cities of the plain, were situated on the Jordan River plain in the southern region of the land of Canaan. The plain, which corresponds to the area just north of the modern-day Dead Sea, was compared to the garden of Eden as being well-watered and green, suitable for grazing livestock. Divine judgment by God was then passed upon Sodom and Gomorrah, neighboring Zoar was the only city to be spared. In Abrahamic religions, Sodom and Gomorrah have become synonymous with impenitent sin, Sodom and Gomorrah have been used as metaphors for vice and homosexuality viewed as a deviation. The story has given rise to words in several languages. These include the English word sodomy, used in laws to describe sexual crimes against nature, namely anal or oral sex. Some Islamic societies incorporate punishments associated with Sodom and Gomorrah into sharia, the etymology of both names is uncertain. The exact original meanings of the names are also uncertain, of the five cities of the plain, only Bela, modern Zoara, is securely identified, and remained a settlement long after the biblical period. The ancient Greek historiographer Strabo states that locals living near Moasada say that there were once thirteen inhabited cities in that region of which Sodom was the metropolis. Strabo identifies a limestone and salt hill at the western tip of the Dead Sea. However, Sayce later mentions that the more closely resembles the doom of Sennacheribs host. The names si-da-mu and ì-ma-ar were identified as representing Sodom and Gomorrah, today, the scholarly consensus is that Ebla has no bearing on. If the cities existed, they might have been destroyed as the result of a natural disaster. One theory says that the Dead Sea was devastated by an earthquake between 2100 and 1900 BCE, which could have unleashed showers of steaming tar. It is possible that the towns were destroyed by an earthquake in the region, especially if the towns lay along a major fault, However, there is a lack of contemporary accounts of seismic activity within the necessary timeframe to corroborate this theory. Other possibilities also include Numeira, al-Safi, Feifa, and Khanazir, all sites were near the Dead Sea, with evidence of burning and traces of sulfur. However, according to Schaub, who dug at Bab edh-Dhra, Numeira was destroyed at a different time period from Bab edh-Dhra, Archaeological remains excavated from Bab edh-Dhra are currently displayed in Karak Archaeological Museum, Amman Citadel Museum, and the British Museum
Sodom and Gomorrah
–
The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah,
John Martin, 1852
Sodom and Gomorrah
–
Sodom and Gomorrah being destroyed in the background of
Lucas van Leyden 's 1520 painting Lot and his Daughters
Sodom and Gomorrah
–
Painting from
William Francis Lynch book The Narrative of the United States Expedition of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. Published in 1849
26.
Esau
–
Esau, in the Hebrew Bible, is the older son of Isaac. He is mentioned in the Book of Genesis, and by the prophets, Obadiah, the New Testament of the Christian Bible alludes to him in the Epistle to the Romans and in the Epistle to the Hebrews. According to the Hebrew Bible, Esau is the progenitor of the Edomites and the twin brother of Jacob. Esau and Jacob were the sons of Isaac and Rebekah, of the twins, Esau was the first to be born with Jacob following, holding his heel. Isaac was sixty years old and Rebekah is believed to have been younger when the boys were born, Esaus grandfather Abraham was still alive, being 160 years old at that time. Esau, a man of the field became a hunter who had rough qualities that distinguished him from his twin brother, among these distinguishing qualties were his red hair and noticeable hairiness. Jacob was a shy or simple man, depending on the translation of the Hebrew word Tam, throughout Genesis, Esau is frequently shown as being supplanted by his younger twin Jacob. Genesis 25,25 narrates Esaus birth, Now the first came forth, red all over like a hairy garment, the meaning of the word Esau is disputed, with some connecting it to the word ‘āsāh. The Targum Pseudo-Jonathan specifically connects the name Esau to this etymology, stating because he was fully completed, with hair of the head, beard, teeth. It could also be related to the Arabic root ġšw, meaning to cover, others have noted the similarity to Arabic ’a‘tay meaning stupid or šāv meaning worthless. In Hebrew, the word hairy is a wordplay on Seir, the name Edom is also attributed to Esau, meaning red, the same color describing Esaus skintone. Genesis parallels his redness to the red lentil pottage that he sold his birthright for, Esau became the progenitor of the Edomites in Seir. In Genesis, Esau returned to his twin brother Jacob, famished from the fields and he begs Jacob to give him some red pottage This, of course, refers to his red hair. Jacob offers Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for Esaus birthright. This is believed to be the origin of the English phrase for a mess of pottage, in Genesis 27, 1–40, Jacob uses deception, motivated by his mother Rebecca, to lay claim to his blind father Isaacs blessing that was inherently due to the firstborn, Esau. In Genesis 27, 5–7, Rebecca is listening while Isaac speaks to his son Esau, Jacob follows through with the plan to steal his brothers birthright by bringing the meal his father Isaac requested and pretending to be Esau. Jacob pulled off his disguise by covering himself in hairy lamb skin so that when his father went to touch him. Jacob successfully received his father Isaacs blessing, as a result, Jacob becomes the spiritual leader of the family after Isaacs death and the heir of the promises of Abraham
Esau
–
Matthias Stom, Esau [right] selling his birthright to
Jacob or The Lentil Stew, 17th century
Esau
–
Francesco Hayez: Esau and Jacob reconcile (1844)
27.
Pottage
–
Pottage is a thick soup or stew made by boiling vegetables, grains, and, if available, meat or fish. It was a food from neolithic times to the Middle Ages. The word pottage comes from the same Old French root as potage, the result was a dish that was constantly changing. Pottage consistently remained a staple of the diet throughout most of 9th to 17th-century Europe. When people of higher rank, such as nobles, ate pottage. The pottage that these people ate was much like modern day soups and this is similar to the Welsh cawl, which is a broth, soup or stew often cooked on and off for days at a time over the fire in a traditional inglenook. In Nigeria the words pottage and porridge are synonymous, and it is consumed as a main meal, nigerian yam pottage/porridge includes tomatoes and other culinary vegetables along with the yam. It may also have fish and/or other meat and it was often served, when possible, with bread. Brown soup Casserole Lancashire hotpot Lentil soup List of soups List of stews Mess of pottage Pease pudding Potted meat Food portal
Pottage
–
An example of pottage.
Pottage
–
Esau and the Mess of Pottage, by
Jan Victors (1619-1676)
28.
Lentil
–
The lentil is an edible pulse. It is an annual plant of the legume family, known for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about 40 cm tall, and the seeds grow in pods, in South Asian cuisine, split lentils are known as lentils. Usually eaten with rice or rotis, the lentil is a staple throughout regions of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. As a food crop, the majority of production comes from Canada. Lentils have been part of the diet since aceramic Neolithic times. Archeological evidence shows they were eaten 9,500 to 13,000 years ago, Lentil colors range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black. Lentils also vary in size, and are sold in forms, with or without the skins. Raw lentils are 8% water, 63% carbohydrates including 11% dietary fiber, 25% protein, lentils are a rich source of numerous essential nutrients, including folate, thiamin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, phosphorus, iron and zinc, among others. When lentils are cooked by boiling, protein content declines to 9% of total composition, lentils have the second-highest ratio of protein per calorie of any legume, after soybeans. The low levels of readily digestible starch, and high levels of slowly digested starch, the remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1. A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine, lentils also have anti-nutrient factors, such as trypsin inhibitors and a relatively high phytate content. Trypsin is an involved in digestion, and phytates reduce the bioavailability of dietary minerals. The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting, lentils are relatively tolerant to drought, and are grown throughout the world. FAOSTAT reported that the production of lentils for calendar year 2013 was 4,975,621 metric tons, primarily coming from Canada. About a quarter of the production of lentils is from India. Canada is the largest export producer of lentils in the world, Statistics Canada estimates that Canadian lentil production for the 2009/10 year was a record 1.5 million metric tons. The most commonly grown type is the Laird lentil, the Palouse region of eastern Washington and the Idaho panhandle, with its commercial center at Pullman, Washington, constitute the most important lentil-producing region in the United States
Lentil
–
Lentil
Lentil
–
Lentil plants in the field before flowering
Lentil
–
Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885
Lentil
–
Red and brown comparison
29.
Summa Theologica
–
The Summa Theologiæ is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas. Although unfinished, the Summa is one of the classics of the history of philosophy and it was intended as an instructional guide for theology students, including seminarians and the literate laity. It was a compendium of all of the theological teachings of the Catholic Church. It presents the reasoning for almost all points of Christian theology in the West, the Summas topics follow a cycle, the existence of God, Creation, Man, Mans purpose, Christ, the Sacraments, and back to God. The Summa is Aquinas most perfect work, the fruit of his mature years, among non-scholars, the Summa is perhaps most famous for its five arguments for the existence of God, which are known as the five ways. The five ways, however, occupy under two pages of the Summas approximately 3,500 pages and he completed the Prima Pars in its entirety and circulated it in Italy before departing to take up his second regency as professor at the University of Paris. The Summa is composed of three parts, each of which deals with a major subsection of Christian theology. Each part contains several questions, each of which revolves around a more specific subtopic, each question contains several articles phrased as interrogative statements dealing with specific issues, such as Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this world. The Summa has a format for each article. A series of objections to the conclusion are given, one such objection, a short counter-statement, beginning with the phrase sed contra, is then given, this statement almost always references authoritative literature, such as the Bible, Aristotle, or the Church Fathers. The actual argument is made, this is generally a clarification of the issue. For example, Aquinas states that it was fitting for Christ to lead a life of poverty in this world for four distinct reasons, individual replies to the preceding objections are then given, if necessary. These replies range from one sentence to several paragraphs in length and this method of exposition is derived from Averroes, to whom Aquinas refers respectfully as the Commentator. The Summa makes many references to certain thinkers held in respect in Aquinass time. The arguments from authority, or sed contra arguments, are almost entirely based on citations from these authors, some were called by special names, The Apostle, Paul the Apostle. He wrote the majority of the New Testament canon after his conversion and he was considered the most astute philosopher – the one who had expressed the most truth up to that time. The main aim of the Scholastic theologians was to use his precise technical terms and he was among the foremost commentators on Aristotles works in Arabic, and his commentaries were often translated into Latin. Writer of the dominant theological text for the time, The Sentences The Theologian, considered the greatest theologian who had ever lived up to that time, Augustines works are frequently quoted by Aquinas
Summa Theologica
–
Summa theologica, Pars secunda, prima pars. (copy by Peter Schöffer, 1471)
Summa Theologica
–
Summa theologica, 1596
30.
Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans
Thomas Aquinas
–
An altarpiece in
Ascoli Piceno, Italy, by
Carlo Crivelli (15th century)
Thomas Aquinas
–
Detail from
Valle Romita Polyptych by
Gentile da Fabriano (circa 1400)
Thomas Aquinas
–
The Castle of
Monte San Giovanni Campano
Thomas Aquinas
–
Diego Velázquez, Aquinas is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his
proof of chastity
