1.
Gnosticism
–
Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish milieus in the first and second century CE. This Divine spark could be liberated by gnosis of this Divine spark, the Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in Mediterranean in the second century CE, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. In the Persian Empire Gnosticism spread as far as China with Manicheism, a major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion. The word Gnosticism is a construction, from the Greek word gnosis. Gnosis refers to knowledge based on experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this knowledge of the divine. It is a knowing, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus. With gnosis comes a fuller insight, and gives an understanding of the deeper meanings of doctrines, scriptures. The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is learned or intellectual, platos use of learned is fairly typical of Classical texts. By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria speaks of the learned Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus, some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean intellectual, whereas his mention of the intellectual sect is a specific designation. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos by St. Irenaeus to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis the heresy called Learned, the Syrian-Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons, the Demiurg, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements fall into the realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within is obtained. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the radical dualist systems of Manicheanism to the dualism of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other, in qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice
Gnosticism
–
Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in
Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho,
Tarim Basin.
Gnosticism
–
Irenaeus, who first used "gnostic" to describe heresies
Gnosticism
–
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in
Bernard de Montfaucon 's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf.
Mithraic Zervan Akarana
2.
Revelation
–
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Some religions have religious texts which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired, for instance, Orthodox Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that the Torah was received from Yahweh on biblical Mount Sinai. Most Christians believe that both the Old Testament and the New Testament were inspired by God, Muslims believe the Quran was revealed by God to Muhammad word by word through the angel Gabriel. In Hinduism, some Vedas are considered apauruṣeya, not human compositions, and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti, what is heard. The 15,000 handwritten pages produced by the mystic Maria Valtorta were represented as direct dictations from Jesus, aleister Crowley stated that The Book of the Law had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself Aiwass. A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a vision, direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity, or physical marks such as stigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint Juan Diego, the Roman Catholic concept of interior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient. In the Abrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by which God reveals knowledge of himself, his will, in secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, prophecy, and other divine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays an important role in some other religious traditions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Revelation may be defined as the communication of truth by God to a rational creature through means which are beyond the ordinary course of nature. George Joyce draws a distinction between revelation and inspiration, with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, beginning about the mid-17th century, the development of rationalism, materialism and atheism, the concept of supernatural revelation itself faced skepticism. In The Age of Reason, Thomas Paine develops the theology of deism, rejecting the possibility of miracles, Thomas Aquinas believed in two types of individual revelation from God, general revelation and special revelation. In general revelation, God reveals himself through his creation, such that at least some truths about God can be learned by the study of nature, physics, cosmology. Special revelation is the knowledge of God and spiritual matters which can be discovered through supernatural means, such as scripture or miracles, direct revelation refers to communication from God to someone in particular. Though one may deduce the existence of God and some of Gods attributes through general revelation, Aquinas believed that special revelation is equivalent to the revelation of God in Jesus. The major theological components of Christianity, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings of the church, special revelation and natural revelation are complementary rather than contradictory in nature. Continuous revelation is a term for the position that God continues to reveal divine principles or commandments to humanity. In the 20th century, religious existentialists proposed that revelation held no content in and of itself, Revelation is a human response that records how we respond to God
Revelation
–
Illumination from
Liber Scivias, showing
Hildegard of Bingen receiving a vision, dictating to her scribe and sketching on a wax tablet.
Revelation
–
The mass-revelation at the
Mount Horeb in an illustration from a Christian Bible card published by the Providence Lithograph Company, 1907
Revelation
–
'Revelation writing': The first draft of a tablet of
Bahá'u'lláh
Revelation
–
An 1893 engraving of
Joseph Smith receiving the
golden plates and other artifacts from the
angel Moroni.
3.
Bodhi
–
Bodhi in Buddhism is the understanding possessed by a Buddha regarding the true nature of things. It is traditionally translated into English with the enlightenment, although its literal meaning is closer to awakening. The verbal root budh means to awaken, Bodhi is presented in the Nikayas as knowledge of the causal mechanism by which beings incarnate into material form and experience suffering. Although its most common usage is in the context of Buddhism, Bodhi is an abstract noun formed from the verbal root *budh- corresponding to the verbs bujjhati and bodhati or budhyate. The feminine Sanskrit noun of *budh- is buddhi, the soteriological goal of Indian religions is liberation or moksha. Liberation is simultaneously freedom from suffering and the round of existences. According to the Buddha the path to liberation is one of progressively coming out of delusion and this path is therefore regarded as a path of awakening. Progressing along the path towards Nirvana one gains insight into the nature of things. A Buddha is one who has attained liberation and an understanding of the mechanism by means of which sentient beings come into existence. This mechanism is called pratitya samutpada or dependent origination, the knowledge or understanding of this is called bodhi. In the suttapitaka, the Buddhist canon as preserved in the Theravada-tradition, in the Vanapattha Sutta the Buddha describes life in the jungle, and the attainment of awakening. The monk has. attained the unattained supreme security from bondage, awakening is also described as synonymous with Nirvana, the extinction of the passions whereby suffering is ended and no more rebirths take place. The insight arises that this liberation is certain, Knowledge arose in me, and insight, my freedom is certain, this is my last birth, now there is no rebirth. So awakening is insight into karma and rebirth, insight into the Four Noble Truths, the extinction of the passions whereby Nirvana is reached, the Buddhist tradition gives a wide variety of descriptions of the Buddhist Path to liberation. Tradition describes the Buddhas awakening, and the descriptions of the path given in the Sutta Pitaka, by following this path Buddhahood can be attained. Following this path dissolves the ten fetters and terminates volitional actions that bind a human being to the wheel of samsara, the Theravada-tradition follows the Path to purification described by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga. It features four progressive stages culminating in full enlightenment, the four stages are Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami and Arahat. Three types of buddha are recognized, Arhat, those who reach Nirvana by following the teachings of the Buddha, the term bodhi acquired a variety of meanings and connotations during the development of Buddhist thoughts in the various schools
Bodhi
–
Sculpture of the
buddha meditating under the
mahabodhi tree
4.
Simon Magus
–
Simon the Sorcerer or Simon the Magician, in Latin Simon Magus, is a religious figure whose confrontation with Peter is recorded in Acts 8, 9–24. Accounts of Simon by writers of the second century exist, but are not considered verifiable, according to Acts, Simon was a Samaritan magus or religious figure of the 1st century AD and a convert to Christianity, baptised by Philip the Evangelist. The sin of simony, or paying for position and influence in the church, is named after Simon, the Apostolic Constitutions also accuses him of lawlessness. According to Recognitions, Simons parents were named Antonius and Rachel, surviving traditions about Simon appear in orthodox texts, such as those of Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius, where he is often regarded as the source of all heresies. Justin wrote that all the Samaritans in his time were adherents of a certain Simon of Gitta. According to Josephus, Gitta was settled by the tribe of Dan, Irenaeus held him as being one of the founders of Gnosticism and the sect of the Simonians. Hippolytus quotes from a work he attributes to Simon or his followers the Simonians, Apophasis Megale, Simon was later crucified, possibly even flayed. In apocryphal works including the Acts of Peter, Pseudo-Clementines, the different sources for information on Simon contain quite different pictures of him, so much so that it has been questioned whether they all refer to the same person. And to him they had regard, because that of time he had bewitched them with sorceries. But when they believed Philip preaching the things concerning the kingdom of God, then Simon himself believed also, and when he was baptized, he continued with Philip, and wondered, beholding the miracles and signs which were done. But Peter said unto him, Thy money perish with thee, thou hast neither part nor lot in this matter, for thy heart is not right in the sight of God. Repent therefore of this thy wickedness, and pray God, if perhaps the thought of thine heart may be forgiven thee, for I perceive that thou art in the gall of bitterness, and in the bond of iniquity. Then answered Simon, and said, Pray ye to the Lord for me, some scholars have considered the two to be identical, although this is not generally accepted, as the Simon of Josephus is a Jew rather than a Samaritan. Justin and Irenaeus are the first to recount the myth of Simon and Helen, Epiphanius of Salamis also makes Simon speak in the first person in several places in his Panarion, and the Implication is that he is quoting from a version of it, though perhaps not verbatim. In the beginning God had his first thought, his Ennoia, which was female, the First Thought then descended into the lower regions and created the angels. But the angels rebelled against her out of jealousy and created the world as her prison, thereafter, she was reincarnated many times, each time being shamed. Her many reincarnations included Helen of Troy, among others, and she finally was reincarnated as Helen, God then descended in the form of Simon Magus, to rescue his Ennoia, and to confer salvation upon men through knowledge of himself. And on her account, he says, did I come down, for works were not just by nature, but only by convention, in accordance with the enactments of the world-creating angels, who by precepts of this kind sought to bring men into slavery
Simon Magus
–
Peter's conflict with Simon Magus by
Avanzino Nucci, 1620. Simon is on the right, dressed in black.
Simon Magus
–
Illustration of the Simonian philosophy
Simon Magus
–
The death of Simon Magus, from the
Nuremberg Chronicle
5.
Simonians
–
The Simonians were a Gnostic sect of the 2nd century which regarded Simon Magus as its founder and traced its doctrines, known as Simonianism, back to him. The sect flourished in Syria, in districts of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century remnants of it existed, which survived until the 4th century. Justin Martyr wrote in his Apology that the sect of the Simonians appeared to have been formidable, as he speaks four times of their founder, Simon. The Simonians are mentioned by Hegesippus, their doctrines are quoted and opposed in connection with Simon Magus by Irenaeus, by the Philosophumena, origen also mentions that some of the sect were called Heleniani. According to John D. Turner, the Simonians originated as a local Jewish cult in the first century CE and this early cult was syncretistic, but not Gnostic. In the second century Simon was transformed into a Gnostic saviour, influence of Greek philosophy resulted in a Gnostic monistic theogony. According to Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot of John the Baptist, One offshoot was in turn headed by Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander. It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels and their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and lead to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome. The Samaritan leaders were viewed as the embodiment of Gods power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of true knowledge. Dositheus, a Samaritan who died from starvation, is said to have originally been the Standing One, or leader, of John the Baptists sect, origen, who was ordained priest in AD231, speaks of Dositheus, and also mentions Simon Magus. As late as the beginning of the 7th century, Eulogius of Alexandria opposed Dositheans, like Simon, Menander, who was a pupil and, after Simons death, his most important successor, also proclaimed himself to be the one sent of God, the Messias. In the same way he taught the creation of the world by angels who were sent by the Ennoia and he asserted that men received immortality and the resurrection by his baptism and practiced magical arts. The sect named after him, the Menandrians, continued to exist for a length of time. Carpocrates practised in the tradition of Basildes, and his own follower, Marcellina, in the Philosophumena of Hippolytus, Simons doctrine is recorded according to his reputed work, The Great Declaration, as it existed in the 2nd century. As Hippolytus himself in more than one place out, it is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine. The whole book is a mixture of Hellenism and Hebraism, in which the method of allegory is applied to Homer. Starting from the assertion of Moses that God is a devouring fire and this first principle he denominated a Boundless Power, and he declared it to dwell in the sons of men, beings born of flesh and blood
Simonians
6.
Basilideans
–
The Basilidians or Basilideans were a Gnostic sect founded by Basilides of Alexandria in the 2nd century. Basilides claimed to have taught his doctrines by Glaucus, a disciple of St. Peter. The sect had three grades – material, intellectual and spiritual – and possessed two allegorical statues, male and female, the sects doctrines were often similar to those of the Ophites and later Jewish Kabbalism. Basilidianism survived until the end of the 4th century as Epiphanius knew of Basilidians living in the Nile Delta and it was however almost exclusively limited to Egypt, though according to Sulpicius Severus it seems to have found an entrance into Spain through a certain Mark from Memphis. St. Jerome states that the Priscillianists were infected with it, the descriptions of the Basilidian system given by our chief informants, Irenaeus and Hippolytus, are so strongly divergent that they seem to many quite irreconcilable. According to Hippolytus, Basilides was apparently a pantheistic evolutionist, and according to Irenaeus, a dualist, historians such as Philip Shaff have the opinion that Irenaeus described a form of Basilidianism which was not the original, but a later corruption of the system. The fundamental theme of the Basilidian system is the question concerning the origin of evil and their whole system, says Clement, is a confusion of the Panspermia with the Phylokrinesis and the return of things thus confused to their own places. According to Hippolytus, Basilides asserted the beginning of all things to have been pure nothing and he uses every device of language to express absolute nonentity. Nothing then being in existence, not-being God willed to make a world out of not-being things. This not-being world was only a single seed containing within itself all the seed-mass of the world, within this seed-mass were three parts, or sonships, and were consubstantial with the not-being God. This was the one origin of all future growths, these future growths did not use pre-existing matter, the first part of the seed-mass burst through and ascended to the not-being God. The second part of the seed-mass to burst forth could not mount up of itself, but it took to itself as a wing of the Holy Spirit, each bearing up the other with mutual benefit. But when it came near the place of the first part of the seed-mass, there the Holy Spirit remained, as a firmament dividing things above the world from the world itself below. From the third part of the seed-mass burst forth into being the Great Archon, the head of the world and he too ascended until he reached the firmament which he supposed to be the upward end of all things. There he made to himself and begat out of the things below a son far better and wiser than himself, then he became wiser and every way better than all other cosmical things except the seed-mass left below. Smitten with wonder at his sons beauty, he set him at his right hand and this is what they call the Ogdoad, where the Great Archon is sitting. Then all the heavenly or ethereal creation, as far down as the moon, was made by the Great Archon and this region is called the Hebdomad. On the other hand, all events occurred according to the plan of the not-being God
Basilideans
–
Fra Angelico's Baptism of Christ. Sonship, or
divine filiation, is the condition of being a child of God.
Basilideans
–
In the account given by Irenaeus, but contradicted by Hippolytus, it was
Simon of Cyrene who was crucified in Jesus' stead.
7.
Valentinianism
–
Valentinianism is a Gnostic Christian movement that was founded by Valentinus in the second century AD. Valentinianism was one of the major Gnostic movements and its influence was extremely widespread, not just within Rome, but also from Northwest Africa to Egypt through to Asia Minor and Syria in the east. Later in the history it broke into two schools, an Eastern school and a Western school. Disciples of Valentinus continued to be active into the 4th century AD, Gnostics were condemned as heretics, and prominent Church fathers such as Irenaeus of Lyons and Hippolytus of Rome wrote against Gnosticism. Most evidence for the Valentinian theory comes from its critics and detractors, most notably Irenaeus, Valentinus was born in approximately 100 AD and died in Alexandria in approximately AD180. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, a Christian scholar, he was born in Egypt, clement of Alexandria, another Christian scholar and teacher, reports that Valentinus was taught by Theudas, a disciple of the apostle Paul. It is reputed that he was an eloquent man who possessed a great deal of charisma and had an innate ability to attract people. He went to Rome some time between AD136 and 140, in the time of Pope Hyginus, and had risen to the peak of his career between AD150 and 155, during the time of Pius. Valentinus is said to have been a successful teacher, and for some time in the mid-2nd century he was even a prominent. At one point during his career he had hoped to attain the office of bishop. Most scholars also believe that Valentinus wrote the Gospel of Truth, notable Valentinians included Heracleon, Ptolemy, Florinus, Axionicus and Theodotus. The theology that Irenaeus attributed to Valentinus is extremely complicated and difficult to follow, according to Irenaeus, the Valentinians believed that at the beginning there was a Pleroma. Sophia’s weakness, curiosity and passion led to her fall from the Pleroma, Valentinians identified the God of the Old Testament as the Demiurge, the imperfect creator of the material world. Man, the highest being in this world, participates in both the spiritual and the material nature. The work of redemption consists in freeing the former from the latter, one needed to recognize the Father, the depth of all being, as the true source of divine power in order to achieve gnosis. Clement wrote that the Valentinians regarded Catholic Christians “as simple people to whom they attributed faith, through the excellent seed that is to be found in them, they are by nature redeemed, and their gnosis is as far removed from faith as the spiritual from the physical”. The superstructure of the system, the celestial world of Aeons, is here developed in the most complicated way. These Aeons belong to the ideal, noumenal, intelligible, or supersensible world, they are immaterial
Valentinianism
–
Plérome de Valentin, from Histoire critique du Gnosticisme; Jacques Matter, 1826, Vol. II, Plate II.
8.
Marcion of Sinope
–
Marcion of Sinope was an important leader in early Christianity. His theology rejected the deity described in the Hebrew Scriptures and in distinction affirmed the Father of Christ as the true God, the Church Fathers denounced Marcion, and he chose to separate himself from the proto-orthodox church. He published the earliest extant fixed collection of New Testament books, Epiphanius records in his Panarion that Marcion was born the son of a bishop in Pontus. His near-contemporaries Rhodo and Tertullian described him as a mariner and a ship-master, Marcion made a donation of 200,000 sesterces to the church in Rome. Conflicts with the church of Rome arose and he was eventually excommunicated, after his excommunication, he returned to Asia Minor, where he continued to lead his many church congregations and teach the Christian gospel in its Marcionite version. According to anti-Marcionite sources, Marcions teacher was the Simonian Cerdo, in 394, Epiphanius claimed that after beginnings as an ascetic, Marcion seduced a virgin and was accordingly excommunicated by his father, prompting him to leave his home town. This account has been doubted by scholars, who consider it malicious gossip. More recently, Bart D. Ehrman suggests that this seduction of a virgin was a metaphor for his corruption of the Christian Church, Marcion responded by developing a ditheistic system of belief around the year 144. In contrast to other leaders of the nascent Christian church, however, Marcion declared that Christianity was in complete discontinuity with Judaism, Marcion did not claim that the Jewish scriptures were false. Instead, Marcion asserted that they were to be read in a literal manner. Contrastingly, the god that Jesus professed is a different being. Marcion also produced his Antitheses contrasting the Demiurge of the Old Testament with the Heavenly Father of the New Testament, Marcion was the first to introduce an early Christian canon. The gospel used by Marcion does not contain elements relating to Jesus birth and childhood, although it does contain elements of Judaism. Marcion is sometimes described as a Gnostic philosopher, in some essential respects, Marcion proposed ideas which would have aligned well with Gnostic thought. Like the Gnostics, he argued that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit appearing to human beings in the shape of a human form, however, Marcionism conceptualizes God in a way which cannot be reconciled with broader Gnostic thought. For Gnostics, some human beings are born with a piece of Gods soul lodged within his/her spirit. God is thus connected to and part of his creation. Salvation lies in turning away from the world and embracing the God-like qualities within yourself
Marcion of Sinope
–
Apostle John (left) and Marcion of Sinope (right), from
Morgan Library MS 748, 11th century
9.
Manichaeism
–
Manichaeism was a major religious movement that was founded by the Iranian prophet Mani in the Sasanian Empire. Manichaeism taught a dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which takes place in history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light. Its beliefs were based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements, Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through the Aramaic-Syriac speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world, Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was briefly the main rival to Christianity in the competition to replace classical paganism, while most of Manichaeisms original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. An adherent of Manichaeism is called, especially in older sources, Mani, an Arsacid Persian by birth, was born 216 AD in Mesopotamia, which was ruled by Persia, then within the Sassanid Empire province of Asuristan. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Manis parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites, Mani composed seven writings, six of which were written in Syriac Aramaic. The seventh, the Shabuhragan, was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented by him to the contemporary King of Sassanid Persia, Shapur I, in the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism, while Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such as Zoroastrianism were still popular and Christianity was gaining social and political influence. Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures, with the assistance of the Persian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. The date of his death is estimated at AD 276–277, Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the Religion of Light. Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was 12 and again when he was 24, with the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in a Jewish-Christian baptism sect, the Elcesaites, and was influenced by their writings as well. It taught him truths which he developed into a religion and his divine Twin or true Self brought Mani to self-realization. He claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth, as promised in the New Testament, Manichaeisms views on Jesus are described by historians, Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate identities, Jesus the Luminous, Jesus the Messiah and Jesus patibilis. Jesus the Messiah was a historical being who was the prophet of the Jews, however, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly divine. He never experienced human birth as notions of physical conception and birth filled the Manichaeans with horror, since he was the light of the world, where was this light, they asked, when he was in the womb of the Virgin. Jesus the Messiah was truly born at his baptism as it was on occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship
Manichaeism
–
Manichaean priests, writing at their desks. Manuscript from
Gaochang (Khocho),
Tarim Basin, China.
Manichaeism
–
10th century Manichaean Electae in
Gaochang (Khocho), China.
Manichaeism
–
The spread of Manichaeism (a.d. 300–500). World History Atlas, Dorling Kindersly.
10.
Chinese Manichaeism
–
Chinese Manichaeism is the form of Manichaeism transmitted and practiced in China. Manichaeism was introduced into China in the Tang dynasty, through Central Asian communities and it never rose to prominence, and was officially banned and persecuted through the suppression of non-Chinese religions started by the Emperor Wuzong of Tang. Since its introduction, Manichaeism was deeply sinicised in its style, after the Tang, Manichaeism survived among the population and had a profound influence on the tradition of the Chinese folk religious sects integrating with the Maitreyan beliefs. In modern China, Manichaean groups are active in southern provinces, especially in Quanzhou and around the Caoan. There is a Chinese Manichaean Council with representatives in Tibet and Beijing, Chinese Manichaeism identifies as a teaching with the purpose of awakening, and it is a monotheism worshipping the universal God. Creation is the Living Spirit of God, of whom there have been many manifestations in human form, Chinese salvationist religions Chinese Buddhism Religion in China Wearring, Andrew. Manichaean Studies in the 21st Century, through a Glass Darkly, Reflections on the Sacred
Chinese Manichaeism
–
Cao'an ("Thatched Hut") in
Jinjiang,
Quanzhou,
Fujian.
11.
Mandaeism
–
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism, Arabic, مندائية Mandāʼīyah) is a gnostic religion with a strongly dualistic worldview. Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist, the Aramaic manda means knowledge, as does Greek gnosis. According to most scholars, Mandaeaism originated sometime in the first three centuries AD, with the Mandaen people migrating from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and they are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. There is a theory that they may be related to the Nabateans who were pre-Islamic pagan Arabs whose territory extended into southern Iraq, there are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide. Until the 2003 Iraq war, almost all of them lived in Iraq, by 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000. The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private, and British cultural anthropologist Lady E. S. Drower. An Anglican vicar, Rev. Peter Owen-Jones, included a segment on a Mandaean group in Sydney, Australia, in his BBC series. The term Mandaeism comes from Classical Mandaic Mandaiia and appears in Neo-Mandaic as Mandeyānā, on the basis of cognates in other Aramaic dialects, Semiticists such as Mark Lidzbarski and Rudolf Macuch have translated the term manda, from which Mandaiia derives, as knowledge. This etymology suggests that the Mandaeans may well be the only sect surviving from late Antiquity to identify themselves explicitly as Gnostics, other scholars derive the term mandaiia from Mandā d-Heyyi or from the word mandi, which is the cultic hut in which many Mandaean ceremonies are performed. This last term is possibly to be derived from Pahlavi m’nd mānd, within the Middle East, but outside of their community, the Mandaeans are more commonly known as the Ṣubba. The term Ṣubba is derived from the Aramaic root related to baptism, in Islam, the term Sabians is used as a blanket term for adherents of a number of religions, including that of the Mandaeans, in reference to the Sabians of the Quran. Occasionally, Mandaeans are called Christians of Saint John, based upon reports made by members of the Discalced Carmelite mission in Basra during the 16th century. A mandī is a place of worship for followers of Mandaeism, a mandī must be built beside a river in order to perform maṣbattah because water is an essential element in the Mandaeic faith. Modern mandīs sometimes have a bath inside a building instead, the evidence about Mandaean history has been almost entirely confined to some of the Mandaean religious literature. While some scholars, as well as the Mandeans themselves, believe that Mandaeism formed in pre-Christian times, arab sources of early Quranic times make some references to Sabians. They are counted among the Ahl al-Kitāb, and several hadith feature them, the Sabians believed they belong to the prophet Noah, similarly, the Mandaeans claim direct descent from Noah. The earliest account we have about the Mandaeans is that of the Assyrian writer Theodore Bar Konai, in the Fihrist of Arabic scholar Al-Nadim, the Mogtasilah are counted among the followers of El-Hasaih. Called a sect of Sabians, they are located in southern Mesopotamia, Mogtasilah may thus have been Al-Nadims term for the Mandaeans, but they may just as well have been a related group which does not exist anymore today
Mandaeism
–
Image of
Abatur from Diwan Abatur
Mandaeism
–
Image of Abatur at the scales from Diwan Abatur
12.
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish milieus in the first and second century CE. This Divine spark could be liberated by gnosis of this Divine spark, the Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in Mediterranean in the second century CE, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. In the Persian Empire Gnosticism spread as far as China with Manicheism, a major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion. The word Gnosticism is a construction, from the Greek word gnosis. Gnosis refers to knowledge based on experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this knowledge of the divine. It is a knowing, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus. With gnosis comes a fuller insight, and gives an understanding of the deeper meanings of doctrines, scriptures. The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is learned or intellectual, platos use of learned is fairly typical of Classical texts. By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria speaks of the learned Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus, some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean intellectual, whereas his mention of the intellectual sect is a specific designation. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos by St. Irenaeus to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis the heresy called Learned, the Syrian-Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons, the Demiurg, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements fall into the realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within is obtained. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the radical dualist systems of Manicheanism to the dualism of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other, in qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
St. Paul, Valentin de Boulogne
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
The resurrection of the dead by
Michelangelo Buonarroti
13.
Codex
–
A codex is a book constructed of a number of sheets of paper, vellum, papyrus, or similar materials, with hand-written contents. The book is bound by stacking the pages and fixing one edge. Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, the alternative to paged codex format for a long document is the continuous scroll. Examples of folded codices include the Maya codices, sometimes people use the term for a book-style format, including modern printed books but excluding folded books. The Romans developed the form from wooden writing tablets, the codexs gradual replacement of the scroll—the dominant book form in the ancient world—has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of printing. The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that lasted for centuries, the spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of Christianity, which adopted the format for use with the Bible early on. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible, the codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented. In Egypt, by the century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature, technically, even modern paperbacks are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for manuscript books produced from Late antiquity until the Middle Ages. The scholarly study of manuscripts from the point of view of the bookbinding craft is called codicology. The study of ancient documents in general is called paleography, the Romans used precursors made of reusable wax-covered tablets of wood for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient polyptychs, a pentatych and octotych, excavated at Herculaneum used a connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords. Julius Caesar may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to pages in the form of a note-book. At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called pugillares membranei in Latin became commonly used for writing in the Roman Empire, theodore Cressy Skeat theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East. Codices are described in works by the Classical Latin poet. He wrote a series of five couplets meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of Saturnalia. ”Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have widely used as personal notebooks. The parchment notebook pages were commonly washed or scraped for re-use and consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal, as early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians. In the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, however, in the Nag Hammadi library, hidden about AD390, all texts are codices
Codex
–
The
Codex Gigas, 13th century, Bohemia.
Codex
–
Codices largely replaced scrolls similar to this.
Codex
–
Reproduced Roman-style
wax tablet, from which the codex evolved
Codex
–
Early medieval bookcase containing about ten codices depicted in the
Codex Amiatinus (ca. 700)
14.
Codex Tchacos
–
The Codex Tchacos is important, because it contains the first known surviving copy of the Gospel of Judas, a text that was rejected as heresy by the early Christian church and lost for 1700 years. The Gospel of Judas was mentioned and summarized by the Church Father Irenaeus of Lyons in his work Against Heresies and this would make the Gospel of Judas older than the codex. The codex was rediscovered near El Minya, Egypt during the 1970s, one stored it in a safe deposit box and another actually froze the documents, causing a unique and difficult kind of decay that makes the papyrus appear sandblasted. She named it in honor of her father, Dimaratos Tchacos, According to National Geographics website, fragments purported to be from the codex may also be part of an Ohio antiquities dealers estate. In April 2006, a translation of the text, with extensive footnotes, was released by the National Geographic Society. A special issue of the magazine was devoted to the Gospel of Judas. The team also hopes to look at the cartonnage in order to find clues about who made the codex, most notably, she points out that the first National Geographic translation omitted a not, reversing the meaning of the text. In an opinion piece in the New York Times, she wrote, According to the National Geographic translation, but it’s clear from the transcription that the scholars altered the Coptic original, which eliminated a negative from the original sentence. In fact, the states that Judas will not ascend to the holy generation. The importance of the Codex Tchacos is not in doubt, but work has begun in understanding its true influence. Bethge, Codex Tchacos, Texte und Analysen, frequently Asked Questions, from National Geographic. Gospel of Judas April D. DeConick, Gospel Truth, the New York Times, December 1,2007
Codex Tchacos
–
First page of the
Gospel of Judas (p. 33)
15.
Merkabah mysticism
–
For the modern Israeli main battle tank see Merkava. Merkabah/Merkavah mysticism is a school of early Jewish mysticism, c, a major text in this tradition is the Maaseh Merkabah. The noun merkabah thing to ride in, cart is derived from the consonantal root r-k-b with the meaning to ride. However, when left untranslated, in English the Hebrew term merkabah relates to the throne-chariot of God in prophetic visions. It is most closely associated with the vision in Ezekiel chapter 1 of the vehicle driven by four hayyot, each of which has four wings and the four faces of a man, lion, ox. According to the verses in Ezekiel and its attendant commentaries, his vision consists of a made of many heavenly beings driven by the Likeness of a Man. The base structure of the chariot is composed of four beings and these beings are called the living creatures. The bodies of the creatures are like that of a human being, the faces are that of a man, a lion, an ox and an eagle. Since there are four angels and each has four faces, there are a total of sixteen faces, each Hayyot angel also has four wings. Two of these wings spread across the length of the chariot and this creates a sort of box of wings that forms the perimeter of the chariot. With the remaining two wings, each angel covers its own body, below, but not attached to, the feet of the Hayyot angels are other angels that are shaped like wheels. These wheel angels, which are described as a wheel inside of a wheel, are called Ophanim אופנים and these wheels are not directly under the chariot but are nearby and along its perimeter. The angel with the face of the man is always on the east side, the Likeness of a Man sits on a throne made of sapphire. The Bible later makes mention of a type of angel found in the Merkabah called Seraphim angels. These angels appear like flashes of fire continuously ascending and descending and these Seraphim angels power the movement of the chariot. In the hierarchy of angels, Seraphim are the highest, that is, closest to God, followed by the Hayyot. The chariot is in a constant state of motion, and the energy behind this movement runs according to this hierarchy, the movement of the Ophanim is controlled by the Living creatures, or Hayyot, while the movement of the Hayyot is controlled by the Seraphim. The movement of all the angels of the chariot is controlled by the Likeness of a Man on the Throne
Merkabah mysticism
–
Copy of
Matthäus Merian 's engraving of
Ezekiel 's vision (1670).
Merkabah mysticism
–
Ezekiel's Wheel in St. John the Baptist Church in
Kratovo,
Macedonia. Fresco from the 19th century.
Merkabah mysticism
–
Jewish mysticism
Merkabah mysticism
–
Tomb of Rabbi
Yohanan ben Zakai in
Tiberias
16.
Apocalyptic literature
–
Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. Apocalypse is a Greek word meaning revelation, an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known, as a genre, apocalyptic literature details the authors visions of the end times as revealed by an angel or other heavenly messenger. The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, Apocalyptic elements can be detected in the prophetical books of Joel and Zechariah, while Isaiah chapters 24–27 and 33 present well-developed apocalypses. The Book of Daniel offers a fully matured and classic example of genre of literature. The non-fulfillment of prophecies served to popularize the methods of apocalyptic in comparison with the non-fulfillment of the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Some believe that the Messianic kingdom was not necessarily predicted to occur at the end of the seventy years of the Babylonian exile, but at some unspecified time in the future. The only thing for certain that was predicted is the return of the Jews to their land, thus, the fulfillment of the Messianic kingdom remained in the future for the Jews. This period was approximately 70 years, as prophesied by Jeremiah, the Book of Enoch, however, was not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, so that any failed prophecy in it is of no consequence to the Jewish faith. The Greek empire of the East was overthrown by Rome, the fourth and last empire was declared to be Roman by the Apocalypse of Baruch chapters 36–40 and 4 Ezra 10, 60–12,35. Again, these two books were not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, and thus were not authoritative on matters of prophecy, thus, it might be interpreted that Daniel was saying that Rome would be the last world power before the kingdom of God. Such ideas as those of the day of Yahweh and the new heavens, thus the inner development of Jewish apocalyptic was conditioned by the historical experiences of the nation. But the prophecies found in Jewish scriptures, which have not changed over time, another source of apocalyptic thought was primitive mythological and cosmological traditions, in which the eye of the seer could see the secrets of the future. Thus the six days of the creation, followed by a seventh of rest, were regarded as at once a history of the past. The object of literature in general was to square the righteousness of God with the suffering condition of His righteous servants on earth. Early Old Testament prophecy taught the need of personal and national righteousness, later prophecy incorporated an idea of future vindication of present evils, often including the idea of an afterlife. Apocalyptic prophets sketched in outline the history of the world and mankind, the origin of evil and its course, and the final consummation of all things. The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, either via an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessedness here and eternal blessedness hereafter. Neither the prophets nor the authors are without conflict between their messages, however, and there are significant similarities between prophecy and apocalyptic writings
Apocalyptic literature
–
Jewish mysticism
17.
Messiah
–
In Abrahamic religions, the Messiah, is the one chosen to lead the world and thereby save it. The term also appears in the forms Messias, Christ, or Al-Masih, the concepts of the Messiah, Messianism, and the Messianic Age grew from Isaiahs writings during the latter half of the 8th century BCE. The term comes from the Hebrew verb meaning to apply oil to, to anoint, in the Hebrew Bible, Israels kings were sometimes called Gods messiah -- Gods anointed one. A messiah could also be a high priest or prophet. Messiahs did not even need to descend from Jacob, as the Hebrew Bible refers to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, as a messiah for his decree to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple. In Judaism, the Jewish Messiah, often referred to as King Messiah, is expected to descend from King David, the Jerusalem Temples rebuilding will usher in a Messianic Age of global peace. In Christianity, the Messiah is called the Christ, from Ancient Greek, χριστός, the concept of the Messiah in Christianity originated from the Messiah in Judaism. However, unlike the concept of the Messiah in Judaism and Islam, in Chabad messianism, Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, sixth Rebbe of Chabad Lubavitch, and Menachem Mendel Schneerson, seventh Rebbe of Chabad, are Messiah claimants. Resembling early Christianity, the deceased Menachem Mendel Schneerson is believed to be the Messiah among adherents of the Chabad movement, in Hebrew, the Messiah is often referred to as מלך המשיח (Meleḵ ha-Mašīaḥ in the Tiberian vocalization, pronounced, literally meaning the Anointed King. The Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament renders all thirty-nine instances of the Hebrew word for anointed as Χριστός, the New Testament records the Greek transliteration Μεσσίας, Messias twice in John. Al-Masīḥ is the Arabic word for messiah, in modern Arabic, it is used as one of the many titles of Jesus. Masīḥ is used by Arab Christians as well as Muslims, and is written as Yasūʿ al-Masih by Arab Christians or ʿĪsā al-Masīḥ by Muslims, the word al-Masīḥ literally means the anointed, the traveller, or the one who cures by caressing. In Quranic scripture, Jesus is mentioned as having been sent down by Allah, strengthened by the spirit, and hence, anointed with the task of being a prophet. The Israelites, to whom Isa was sent, had a practice of anointing their kings with oil. An Imam Bukhari hadith describes Jesus as having wet hair that looked as if water was dripping from it, Muslims believe that this is just one of the many signs that proves that Jesus is the Messiah. The literal translation of the Hebrew word mashiach is anointed, which refers to a ritual of consecrating someone or something by putting holy oil upon it, in Judaism, the Messiah is not considered to be God or a pre-existent divine Son of God. He is considered to be a political leader that has descended from King David. That is why he is referred to as Messiah ben David, the messiah, in Judaism, is considered to be a great, charismatic leader that is well oriented with the laws that are followed in Judaism
Messiah
–
Samuel anoints David,
Dura Europos,
Syria, Date: 3rd century CE.
Messiah
–
The
Last Judgment, by
Jean Cousin the Younger (c. late 16th century)
Messiah
–
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the
Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, considered by
Ahmadis to be the Promised Messiah of the latter days
18.
Philo
–
Philo of Alexandria, also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. Philo used philosophical allegory to attempt to fuse and harmonize Greek philosophy with Jewish philosophy and his method followed the practices of both Jewish exegesis and Stoic philosophy. His allegorical exegesis was important for several Christian Church Fathers, and he believed that literal interpretations of the Hebrew Bible would stifle humanitys view and perception of a God too complex and marvelous to be understood in literal human terms. Some scholars hold that his concept of the Logos as Gods creative principle influenced early Christology, other scholars, however, deny direct influence but say both Philo and Early Christianity borrow from a common source. The few biographical details known about Philo are found in his own works, the only event in his life that can be decisively dated is his participation in the embassy to Rome in 40 CE. He represented the Alexandrian Jews before Roman Emperor Caligula because of civil strife between the Alexandrian Jewish and Greek communities, Philo was probably born with the name Julius Philo. His ancestors and family were contemporaries to the rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although the names of his parents are unknown, Philo came from a family which was noble, honourable and wealthy. It was either his father or paternal grandfather who was granted Roman citizenship from Roman dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, Philo had two brothers, Alexander the Alabarch and Lysimachus. His ancestors and family had social ties and connections to the priesthood in Judea, the Hasmonean Dynasty, the Herodian Dynasty, Philo visited the Temple in Jerusalem at least once in his lifetime. Philo would have been a contemporary to Jesus of Nazareth and his Apostles, Philo along with his brothers received a thorough education. Philo, through his brother Alexander, had two nephews Tiberius Julius Alexander and Marcus Julius Alexander, Marcus Julius Alexander was the first husband of the Herodian Princess Berenice. We find a reference to Philo by the 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus. In Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus tells of Philos selection by the Alexandrian Jewish community as their principal representative before the Roman emperor Gaius Caligula. He says that Philo agreed to represent the Alexandrian Jews in regard to civil disorder that had developed between the Jews and the Greeks in Alexandria, Egypt. Josephus also tells us that Philo was skilled in philosophy, according to Josephus, Philo and the larger Jewish community refused to treat the emperor as a god, to erect statues in honor of the emperor, and to build altars and temples to the emperor. Josephus says Philo believed that God actively supported this refusal, many of these severe things were said by Apion, by which he hoped to provoke Gaius to anger at the Jews, as he was likely to be. Our remaining information about Philo is based upon his own writings, Philo himself claims in his Embassy to Gaius to have been part of an embassy sent by the Alexandrian Jews to the Roman Emperor Caligula. Philo says he was carrying a petition which described the sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews, Philo says he was regarded by his people as having unusual prudence, due to his age, education, and knowledge
Philo
–
1584 European depiction of Philo
19.
Middle Platonism
–
Middle Platonism absorbed many doctrines from the rival Peripatetic and Stoic schools. The pre-eminent philosopher in this period, Plutarch, defended the freedom of the will and the immortality of the soul. He sought to show that God, in creating the world, had transformed matter, as the receptacle of evil, into the soul of the world. God is a transcendent being, which operates through divine intermediaries, numenius of Apamea combined Platonism with Neopythagoreanism and other eastern philosophies, in a move which would prefigure the development of Neoplatonism. Antiochus of Ascalon, was the pupil of Philo of Larissa, through his influence, Platonism made the transition from New Academy Scepticism to Eclecticism. Whereas Philo had still adhered to the doctrine that there is nothing absolutely certain, among other objections to Scepticism, was the consideration that without firm convictions no rational content of life is possible. He expounded the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic systems in such a way as to show that three schools deviate from one another only in minor points. He himself was interested in ethics, in which he tried to find a middle way between Zeno, Aristotle and Plato. For instance, he said that virtue suffices for happiness, but for the highest grade of happiness bodily and this eclectic tendency was favoured by the lack of dogmatic works by Plato. Middle Platonism was promoted by the necessity of considering the main theories of the schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic. In so far as it was subject in this to the influence of Neopythagoreanism, the most important of the Middle Platonists was Plutarch, who also won fame as an historian. In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism, he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato, nevertheless, he adopted a second principle in order to explain the constitution of the physical world. Thus it was transformed into the soul of the world. He elevated God above the world, but he believed that God comes to our aid by direct revelations. The gods of popular religion are merely different names for one and the same divine Being, daemons were for him agents of Gods influence on the world. Plutarch defended freedom of the will and the immortality of the soul, platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans. Among later Middle Platonists there were Theon of Smyrna, who wrote an introduction to Plato. His pupil, Albinus, wrote an account of his lectures, around the same time, Alcinous wrote an extant treatise on Platonism, in which he postulated three principles, the first God, the ideas, which are regarded as thoughts of this first God, and matter
Middle Platonism
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
20.
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist, also known as John the Baptizer, was a Jewish itinerant preacher in the early first century AD. John is revered as a religious figure in Christianity, Islam, the Baháí Faith. He is called a prophet by all of these traditions, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian traditions, John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament of his messianic movement. Most scholars agree that John baptized Jesus, scholars generally believe Jesus was a follower or disciple of John and several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus early followers had previously been followers of John. John the Baptist is also mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, according to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself. Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus, John is also identified with the prophet Elijah. John the Baptist is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes, the Synoptic Gospels describe John baptising Jesus, in the Gospel of John it is implied in John 1, 32-34. The Gospel of Mark introduces John as a fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah about a messenger being sent ahead, John is described as wearing clothes of camels hair, living on locusts and wild honey. John proclaims baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sin, and says another will come after him who will not baptize with water, Jesus comes to John, and is baptized by him in the river Jordan. The account describes how, as he emerges from the water, the heavens open, a voice from heaven then says, You are my Son, the Beloved, with you I am well pleased. Later in the gospel there is an account of Johns death and it is introduced by an incident where the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, hearing stories about Jesus, imagines that this is John the Baptist raised from the dead. It then explains that John had rebuked Herod for marrying Herodias, Herodias demands his execution, but Herod, who liked to listen to John, is reluctant to do so because he fears him, knowing he is a righteous and holy man. The account then describes how Herods daughter Herodias dances before Herod, when the girl asks her mother what she should request, she is told to demand the head of John the Baptist. Reluctantly, Herod orders the beheading of John, and his head is delivered to her, at her request, Johns disciples take the body away and bury it in a tomb. There are a number of difficulties with this passage, the Gospel wrongly identifies Antipas as King and the ex-husband of Herodias is named as Philip, but he is known to have been called Herod. Although the wording clearly implies the girl was the daughter of Herodias, many texts describe her as Herods daughter, Herodias. Since these texts are early and significant and the reading is difficult, many see this as the original version, corrected in later versions and in Matthew. Josephus says that Herodias had a daughter by the name of Salome, scholars have speculated about the origins of the story
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist Preaching in the Wilderness by
Anton Raphael Mengs, 1760
John the Baptist
–
The Preaching of St. John the Baptist by
Pieter Bruegel the Elder
John the Baptist
–
St. John the Baptist Preaching, c. 1665, by
Mattia Preti
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist (right) with
child Jesus, painting by
Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo
21.
Early Christianity
–
Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
Early Christianity
–
St. Clement I was an Apostolic Father.
Early Christianity
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
22.
Christology
–
Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature and person of Jesus as recorded in the canonical Gospels and the epistles of the New Testament. Primary considerations include the relationship of Jesus nature and person with the nature, as such, Christology is concerned with the details of Jesus ministry, his acts and teachings, to arrive at a clearer understanding of who he is in his person, and his role in salvation. The views of Paul the Apostle provided a major component of the Christology of the Apostolic Age, Pauls central themes included the notion of the pre-existence of Christ and the worship of Christ as Kyrios. The pre-existence of Christ became a theme of Christology. Proponents of Christs deity argue the Old Testament has many cases of Christophany, Christophany is often considered a more accurate term than the term theophany due to the belief that all the visible manifestations of God are in fact the preincarnate Christ. Many argue that the appearances of the Angel of the Lord in the Old Testament were the preincarnate Christ, many understand the angel of the Lord as a true theophany. From the time of Justin on, the figure has been regarded as the preincarnate Logos, following the Apostolic Age, the early church engaged in fierce and often politicized debate on many interrelated issues. Christology became a focus of these debates, and every one of the first seven ecumenical councils addressed Christological issues. The second through fourth of these councils are generally entitled Christological councils, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the being of Christ — that of two natures, one human and one divine, united with neither confusion nor division. Chalcedonian Christianity - Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and many Protestant Christians - continue to advocate this doctrine of the hypostatic union, due to politically-charged differences in the 4th century, schisms developed, and the first denominations formed. In the 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues, in his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christs human attributes. The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the image of Jesus as a friend. Over the centuries, a number of terms and concepts have been developed within the framework of Christology to address the seemingly simple questions, a good deal of theological debate has ensued and significant schisms within Christian denominations took place in the process of providing answers to these questions. After the Middle Ages, systematic approaches to Christology were developed, the term Christology from above refers to approaches that begin with the divinity and pre-existence of Christ as the Logos, as expressed in the prologue to the Gospel of John. These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity, Christology from above was emphasized in the ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of Antioch in the second century. The term Christology from below, on the hand, refers to approaches that begin with the human aspects and the ministry of Jesus and move towards his divinity. The concept of Cosmic Christology, first elaborated by Saint Paul, the terms functional, ontological and soteriological have been used to refer to the perspectives that analyze the works, the being and the salvific standpoints of Christology. Some essential sub-topics within the field of Christology include the incarnation, the resurrection, the term monastic Christology has been used to describe spiritual approaches developed by Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux
Christology
–
Stained glass window of the
Confession of Peter in Luke 9:20: "But who do you say that I am?" Peter answered: "The Christ of God".
Christology
–
Saint Paul delivering the
Areopagus sermon in
Athens, by
Raphael, 1515
Christology
–
Christology
Christology
–
The
Four Evangelists, by
Pieter Soutman, 17th century
23.
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
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Gnosticism refers to a collection of religious groups originating in Jewish religiosity in Alexandria in the first few centuries CE. Neoplatonism was a school of Hellenistic philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century, based on the teachings of Plato, while Gnosticism was influenced by Middle Platonism, neo-Platonists from the third century rejected Gnosticism. Both Sethian Gnostics and the Valentinian Gnostics incorporated elements of Christianity and hellenistic philosophy as it grew, including elements from Plato, earlier Sethian texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being pre-Christian and focus on the Seth of the Jewish bible. It now seems clear that Sethian and Valentinian gnostics attempted an effort towards conciliation, by the third century Plotinus had shifted Platonist thought far enough that modern scholars consider the period a new movement called Neoplatonism. Gnostics borrow a lot of ideas and terms from Platonism, good examples include texts such as the Hypostasis of the Archons or Trimorphic Protennoia. Gnostics structured their world of transcendent being by ontological distinctions, the plenitude of the divine world emerges from a sole high deity by emanation, radiation, unfolding and mental self-reflection. Divine triads, tetrads, and ogdoads in Gnostic thought often are related to Neo-Pythagorean arithmology. There were some important philosophical differences, Gnostics were in conflict with the idea expressed by Plotinus that the approach to the infinite force, which is the One or Monad, can not be through knowing or not knowing. Although there has been dispute as to which gnostics Plotinus was referring to, in the third century CE both Christianity and neo-Platonism reject and turn against Gnosticism, with neo-Platonists as Plotinus, Porphyry and Amelius attacking the Sethians. John D. Turner believes that this attack led to Sethianism fragmentation into numerous smaller groups. Plotinus considered his Gnostic opponents heretics, imbeciles and blasphemers erroneously arriving at misotheism as the solution to the problem of evil, Plotinus main objection to the Gnostic teachings he encountered was to their rejection of the goodness of the demiurge and of the material world. He attacked the Gnostics for their vilification of Platos ontology of the universe as contained in the Timaeus, Plotinus accused Gnosticism of vilifying the demiurge or craftsman that shaped the material world, and so ultimately for perceiving the material world as evil, or as a prison. Plotinus set forth that the demiurge is the nous, which is the principle or mind. The First International Conference on Neoplatonism and Gnosticism at the University of Oklahoma in 1984 explored the relationship between Neoplatonism and Gnosticism, the conference also led to a book named Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. The books intent was to document the creation of a conference in the world exploring the relationship between late and middle Platonic philosophy and Gnosticism. Further discussions of the topics covered in the led to the formation of a new committee of scholars to once again translate Plotinus Enneads. Both Richard Wallis and A. H. Armstrong, the editors of the work, have died since the completion of the book. This conference was held to some of the controversies surrounding these issues
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
24.
Western esotericism
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Western esotericism is a scholarly term for a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements which have developed within Western society. They are largely distinct both from orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and from Enlightenment rationalism, the idea of categorising a wide range of Western traditions and philosophies together under the rubric that we now term esotericism developed in Europe during the late seventeenth century. Various academics have debated the definition of Western esotericism, with a number of different options proposed. One scholarly model adopts its definition of esotericism from certain esotericist schools of thought themselves, treating esotericism as a perennialist hidden, a second perspective sees esotericism as a category that encompasses world-views which seek to embrace an enchanted world-view in the face of increasing de-enchantment. The 19th century saw the emergence of new trends of thought that have come to be known as occultism. Prominent groups in this included the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Modern Paganism developed within occultism, and includes religious movements such as Wicca, Esoteric ideas permeated the counterculture of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, from which emerged the New Age movement in the 1970s. The academic study of Western esotericism only emerged in the late 20th-century, pioneered by scholars like Frances Yates, Esoteric ideas have meanwhile also exerted an influence in popular culture, appearing in art, literature, film, and music. The adjective esoteric first appeared in the second century CE as the Ancient Greek term esôterikós, the noun esotericism, in its French form of lésotérisme, was first used in 1828, by Jacques Matter in his book, Histoire du gnosticisme. The term was popularized by the French occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Lévi in the 1850s, Lévi also introduced the term loccultisme, a notion that he developed against the background of contemporary socialist and Catholic discourses. Esotericism and occultism were often employed as synonyms until being distinguished by later scholars, the concept of Western esotericism is a modern scholarly construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought. The first to do so was Ehregott Daniel Colberg, a German Lutheran who wrote Platonisch-Hermetisches Christianity, various academics have emphasised the idea that esotericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world, as Faivre stated, an empirical perspective would hold that esotericism is a Western notion. As scholars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there is no category of Eastern or Oriental esotericism. The emphasis on Western esotericism was nevertheless primarily devised to distinguish the field from a universal esotericism, Hanegraaff has characterised these as recognisable world views and approaches to knowledge that have played an important although always controversial role in the history of Western culture. This attitude was endorsed by Egil Asprem, nevertheless, esotericism itself remains a controversial term, with scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how it can best be defined. It subsequently became a popular approach within several esoteric movements, most notably Martinism and Traditionalism, within the academic field of religious studies, those who study different religions in search of an inner, universal dimension to them all are termed religionists. Such religionist ideas also exerted an influence on more recent scholars like Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, there are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism. The most significant is that is rests upon the conviction that there really is a universal, hidden, moreover, Hanegraaff noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it shows that they subscribe to the religious doctrines which are espoused by the very groups that they are studying
Western esotericism
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The
tree of life as represented in the Kabbalah, containing the
Sephiroth.
Western esotericism
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A colored version of the 1888
Flammarion engraving
Western esotericism
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A later illustration of Hermes Trismegistus
Western esotericism
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Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist
Richard Bergh, 1887
25.
Esoteric Christianity
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Early Christians used the Greek word μυστήριον to describe the Christian Mystery. The Old Testament versions use the word mysterion as an equivalent to the Hebrew sôd, the word mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning to conceal, and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning an initiate. In the Hellenistic world, mystical referred to religious rituals. The use of the word lacked any references to the transcendental. A mystikos was an initiate of a mystery religion, theologians give the name mystery to revealed truths that surpass the powers of natural reason, so, in a narrow sense, the Mystery is a truth that transcends the created intellect. Even though revealed and believed, the Mystery remains nevertheless obscure and veiled during the life, if the deciphering of the mysteries, made possible by esotericism. This esoteric knowledge would allow a deep comprehension of the Christian mysteries that otherwise would remain obscure, some modern scholars believe that in the early stages of Christianity, a nucleus of oral teachings were inherited from Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism. In the 4th century, it was believed to form the basis of an oral tradition which came to be called disciplina arcani. The mainstream theologians, however, believe that it contained liturgical details. Important influences on Esoteric Christianity are the Christian theologians Clement of Alexandria and Origen, Origen was a most prolific writer – according to Epiphanius of Salamis, he wrote about 6,000 books – making it a difficult task to define the central core of his teachings. Thus, it is unclear whether reincarnation and the pre-existence of souls formed part of Origens beliefs, while hypothetically considering a complex multiple-world transmigration scheme in De Principiis, Origen denies reincarnation in unmistakable terms in his work Against Celsus and elsewhere. Despite this apparent contradiction, most modern Esoteric Christian movements refer to Origens writings to validate these ideas as part of the Esoteric Christian tradition. In the later Middle Ages, forms of Western esotericism such as alchemy and astrology were constructed on Christian foundations, combining Christian theology, giovanni Pico della Mirandolas Apologia states that there are two types of magic, which are theurgy, and goetia. These disciplines were explained as the Operation of the Stars, just as alchemy was the Operation of the Sun, Kabbalah was also an active discipline. These spiritual traditions allegedly aided the esoteric to arise to higher forms of consciousness, and arise to an understanding of God, The Self. Esoteric Christians practice these forms or traditions, which they believe are all a part of the spiritual truth. The latter help to convey mystery knowledge, which can only be learned directly from spiritual experience via Theurgy, Kabbalah, in the 16th and 17th centuries, this was followed by the development of Theosophy and Rosicrucianism. Behmenism also evolved around this time, as did Freemasonry, many modern Esoteric Christian movements acknowledge reincarnation among their beliefs, as well as a complex energetic structure for the human being
Esoteric Christianity
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A 17th-century fresco from the
Cathedral of Living Pillar in Georgia depicting Jesus within the Zodiac circle.
Esoteric Christianity
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The Temple of the Rose Cross,
Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618.
Esoteric Christianity
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Greek mysticism influenced many early church theologians such as
Clement of Alexandria and
Origen.
Esoteric Christianity
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Selfportrait with Christ by
Martin von Feuerstein
26.
Theosophy
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Theosophy is considered part of Western esotericism, which believes that hidden knowledge or wisdom from the ancient past offers a path to enlightenment and salvation. Theosophy comes from the Greek theosophia, which combines theos, God and sophia, wisdom, Blavatskys major work, The Secret Doctrine, was one of the foundational works of modern theosophy. As of 2015, organizations descended from, or related to, Modern Theosophy has also given rise to, or influenced, the development of other mystical, philosophical, and religious movements. The term theosophia appeared in the works of early Church Fathers, as a synonym for theology, the derived term theosophy was originally also a synonym for theology, however, it acquired various other meanings throughout its history. Therefore, the terms were the opposite of the present-day meaning, in Jewish mysticism, the theosophical doctrinal system of Kabbalah emerged in late 12th-century southern France, spreading to 13th-century Spain. Kabbalah became the basis of later Jewish mystical development, the theosophical Kabbalah in Judaism was recast into its second version, Lurianic Kabbalah, in 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. Gershom Scholem, the founder of Jewish mysticism academia, saw Medieval and Lurianic Kabbalah as the incorporation into Judaism of Gnostic motifs, at the centre of Kabbalah are the 10 Sephirot powers in the divine realm, their unification being the task of man. In Lurianism, man redeems the sparks of holiness in materiality, by the 16th century the word theosophy was being used in at least one of its current meanings. Christian theosophy arose in Germany in the 16th century, inspired to a considerable extent by the works of Paracelsus, theosophy flourished in the works of Aegidius Gutmann, Valentin Weigel, Heinrich Khunrath, Johann Arndt, and Kaspar Schwenckfeld. The term had not yet reached a settled meaning, however, the work of the 17th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Boehme strongly contributed to spread the use of the word theosophy, even though Boehme rarely used the word in his writings. It is on account of the title of some of his works, moreover, Boehme gave the word theosophy a limited meaning, making it clear that he was not conflating nature with God. There were relatively few theosophers in the 17th century, but many of them were prolific, outside of Germany, there were also theosophers from Holland, England, and France. This group is represented by Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Fludd, John Pordage, Jane Leade, Henry More, Pierre Poiret, in the 18th century, the word theosophy came into more widespread use among some philosophers. Theosophers themselves used the word theosophy sparingly, at least up until the middle of the nineteenth century, Johann Jakob Brucker included a long chapter on theosophy in his monumental work Historia critica philosophia. He included theosophers alongside other currents in esotericism in what was then a reference in the history of philosophy. German philosophers produced major works of Christian theosophy during this period, Theophilosophia theoritica et practica. by Samuel Richter, other notable theosophers of the period include Johann George Gichtel, Gottfried Arnold, Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, William Law, and Dionysius Andreas Freher. The term theosophy is more reserved for the reverse process of contemplating the divine in order to discover the content of the concrete universe. In England, Robert Hindmarsh, a printer with a Methodist background, formed a Theosophical Society in 1783 and this society was renamed in 1785 as The British Society for the Propagation of the Doctrines of the New Church, consisting of Swedenborgian based beliefs
Theosophy
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The book
The Voice of the Silence presented by Blavatsky to Leo Tolstoy
27.
Carl Jung
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
Carl Jung
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A portrait of Jung, unknown date
Carl Jung
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The clergy house of Kleinhüningen, where Carl Gustav Jung grew up.
Carl Jung
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Group photo 1909 in front of
Clark University. Front row,
Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row,
Abraham Brill,
Ernest Jones,
Sándor Ferenczi.
Carl Jung
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Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910.
