1.
Headquarters of the United Nations
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The headquarters of the United Nations is a complex in New York City designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer. The complex has served as the headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River and its borders are First Avenue on the west, East 42nd Street to the south, East 48th Street on the north and the East River to the east. The term Turtle Bay is occasionally used as a metonym for the UN headquarters or for the United Nations as a whole, the United Nations has three additional, subsidiary, regional headquarters, or headquarters districts. These were opened in Geneva in 1946, Vienna in 1980 and they are technically extraterritorial through a treaty agreement with the U. S. government. However, in exchange for police, fire protection and other services, the United Nations agrees to acknowledge most local, state. The United Nations Headquarters complex was constructed in stages with the complex completed between 1948 and 1952. The US$8.5 million purchase was funded by his father, John D. Rockefeller. The Rockefeller family owned the Tudor City Apartments across First Avenue from the site, Wallace Harrison, the personal architectural adviser for the Rockefeller family and brother-in-law to a Rockefeller daughter, served as the Director of Planning for the United Nations Headquarters. His firm, Harrison and Abramovitz, oversaw the execution of the design, the property was originally a slaughterhouse before the donation took place, bordered on one side by the Rockefeller owned Tudor City Apartments. While the United Nations had dreamed of constructing an independent city for its new world capital, the diminutive site on the East River necessitated a Rockefeller Center-type vertical complex, thus, it was a given that the Secretariat would be housed in a tall office tower. During daily meetings from February to June 1947, the team produced at least 45 designs and variations. Rather than hold a competition for the design of the facilities for the headquarters, the American architect Wallace K. Harrison was named as Director of Planning, and a Board of Design Consultants was composed of architects, planners and engineers nominated by member governments. Niemeyer met with Corbusier at the latters request shortly after the arrived in New York City. Corbusier had already been lobbying hard to promote his own scheme 23, instead, he asked the younger architect to assist him with his project. Niemeyer began to absent himself from the meetings, only after Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz repeatedly pressed him to participate did Niemeyer agree to submit his own project. This would not split the site, but on the contrary, after much discussion, Harrison, who coordinated the meetings, determined that a design based on Niemeyers project 32 and Le Corbusiers project 23 would be developed for the final project. The complex as built, however, repositioned Niemeyers General Assembly building to the north of this tripartite composition and this plan included a public plaza as well
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Millennium Development Goals
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Critics of the MDGs complained of a lack of analysis and justification behind the chosen objectives, and the difficulty or lack of measurements for some goals and uneven progress, among others. As of 2013, progress towards the goals was uneven, some countries achieved many goals, while others were not on track to realize any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date and adopted a plan to achieve the eight goals by their target date. New commitments targeted womens and childrens health, and new initiatives in the battle against poverty, hunger. The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the MDGs in 2016, preparations for the 2000 Millennium Summit launched with the report of the Secretary-General entitled, We the people, The Role of the United Nations in the Twenty-First Century. Additional input was prepared by the Millennium Forum, which brought together representatives of over 1,000 non-governmental, the Forum met in May to conclude a two-year consultation process covering issues such as poverty eradication, environmental protection, human rights and protection of the vulnerable. MDGs derive from earlier development targets, where world leaders adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the approval of the Millennium Declaration was the main outcome of the Millennium Summit. The MDGs originated from the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the MDGs set concrete targets and indicators for poverty reduction in order to achieve the rights set forth in the Declaration. The Brahimi Report provided the basis of the goals in the area of peace, the Millennium Summit Declaration was, however, only part of the origins of the MDGs. More ideas came from Adam Figueroa, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, a series of UN‑led conferences in the 1990s focused on issues such as children, nutrition, human rights and women. The OECD criticized major donors for reducing their levels of Official Development Assistance, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan signed a report titled, We the Peoples, The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century. The OECD had formed its International Development Goals, the two efforts were combined for the World Banks 2001 meeting to form the MDGs. The MDGs emphasized three areas, human capital, infrastructure and human rights, with the intent of increasing living standards, human capital objectives include nutrition, healthcare and education. Human rights objectives include empowering women, reducing violence, increasing political voice, ensuring access to public services. The goals were intended to increase an individual’s human capabilities and advance the means to a productive life, the MDGs emphasize that each nations policies should be tailored to that countrys needs, therefore most policy suggestions are general. Thus developing nations ostensibly became partners with developed nations in the struggle to reduce world poverty, the MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets, and a series of health indicators. Target 1A, Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of living on less than $1
3.
Planning
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Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well, as such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. Also, planning has a process and is necessary for multiple occupations. In each field there are different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency, an important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future look like. Planning combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to them, Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is preparing a sequence of steps to achieve some specific goal. If a person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary time, when following a plan, a person can see how much they have progressed towards their project goal and how far they are from their destination. Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight and Extremely Low BirthWeight are at risk for various cognitive deficits including planning ability. There are a variety of tests which can be used to measure variance of planning ability between the subject and controls. Tower of Hanoi, a puzzle invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, there are different variations of the puzzle, the classic version consists of three rods and usually seven to nine discs of subsequently smaller size. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, no disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk. Tower of London is another test that was developed in 1992 specifically to detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe, test participants with damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits. In test participants with damage to the anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the frontal lobes showed no impairment. Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, in many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as planning and the professionals which operate the system are known as planners. It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity and it is an anticipatory decision making process that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives and it is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions
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Object (philosophy)
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An object is a technical term in modern philosophy often used in contrast to the term subject. A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed, metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects exist independently of their properties and, if so, in what way. The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity, the pyramids, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, in a strict sense it refers to any definite being. Objecthood is the state of being an object, one approach to defining it is in terms of objects properties and relations. Descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties, the philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the way to describe an apple is by describing its properties. Its properties may include its redness, its size and its composition, while its relations may include on the table, in the room, the notion of an object must address two problems, the change problems and the problems of substancess. Two leading theories about objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances are distinct from their properties, an attribute of an object is called a property if it can be experienced. Objects manifest themselves through their properties and these manifestations seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that thing is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change, because substances are only experienced through their properties a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance that cannot be seen or scientifically verified, according to bundle theory, the answer is, none, thus an object is merely its properties. Some philosophies include theories of bodies and minds. So the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms, by uncovering this paradox he then provides a solution that lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis. He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context, the validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them. In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus with the meaning to throw, or put before or against, from ob- and jacere, as such it is a root for several important words used to derive meaning, such as objectify, objective, and objectivism. Bertrand Russell updated the terminology with one more term, the fact
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Empirical research
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Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience, empiricism values such research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively, through quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected. Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated, in some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question which is tested through experimentation. Usually, a researcher has a theory regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this theory some statements, or hypotheses, will be proposed, from these hypotheses predictions about specific events are derived. These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment, depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not, or may need to be modified and then subjected to further testing. Later empiricism referred to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered using the senses. In scientific use the term refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories, the researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects, in other words, it describes the research that has not taken place before and their results. Several typologies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell, accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in scientific studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research. Statistical formulas such as regression, uncertainty coefficient, t-test, chi square, if empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research hypothesis is supported. If not, the hypothesis is supported, meaning no effect of the independent variable was observed on the dependent variable. It is important to understand that the outcome of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never proof and it can only support a hypothesis, reject it, or do neither. Among scientific researchers, empirical evidence refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer, for example, a thermometer will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it. Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well calibrated thermometer, is empirical evidence, by contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer. The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of experience or time
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Feedback
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Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself and this makes reasoning based upon cause and effect tricky, and it is necessary to analyze the system as a whole. This action of feeding back of the signal output to input gave rise to the use of the term feedback as a distinct word by 1920. Over the years there has been dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to Ashby, mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of circularity of action, for those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection. Object to the definition, pointing out that this would force them to say that feedback was present in the ordinary pendulum. Between its position and its momentum—a feedback that, from the point of view, is somewhat mystical. He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action, there are two types of feedback, positive feedback and negative feedback. As an example of feedback, the diagram might represent a cruise control system in a car, for example. The controlled system is the car, its input includes the combined torque from the engine, the cars speed is measured by a speedometer. The error signal is the departure of the speed as measured by the speedometer from the target speed and this measured error is interpreted by the controller to adjust the accelerator, commanding the fuel flow to the engine. The resulting change in torque, the feedback, combines with the torque exerted by the changing road grade to reduce the error in speed. The terms positive and negative were first applied to prior to WWII. The idea of positive feedback was already current in the 1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit, harold Stephen Blacks classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers. According to Black, Positive feed-back increases the gain of the amplifier, according to Mindell confusion in the terms arose shortly after this. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when built on Black’s work. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition, the terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines. The altering of the gap between reference and actual values of a parameter, based on whether the gap is widening or narrowing
7.
Arousal
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Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when these systems are in action, the receiving neural areas become sensitive and responsive to incoming signals, producing alertness and cortical activity. Arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, alertness, and it is a crucial for motivating certain behaviours, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity. It is also important in emotion and has included in theories such as the James-Lange theory of emotion. According to Hans Eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be extraverts or introverts, the Yerkes-Dodson law states that an optimal level of arousal for performance exists, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. One interpretation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law is the Easterbrook cue-utilisation hypothesis, Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal decreases the number of cues that can be used. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness. The noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. The activation of the locus coeruleus and release of norepinephrine causes wakefulness, the neurons that project into the basal forebrain impact cholinergic neurons that results in a flood of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. The acetylcholinergic system has its neurons located in the pons and in the basal forebrain, stimulation of these neurons result in cortical activity, shown from EEG records, and alertness. All of the other four neurotransmitters play a role in activating the acetylcholine neurons, another arousal system, the dopaminergic system, releases dopamine produced by the substantia nigra. The neurons arise in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain, and projects to the nucleus accumbens, the forebrain, limbic system. The limbic system is important for control of mood, and the nucleus accumbens signal excitement, the path terminating in the prefrontal cortex is important in regulating motor movements, especially reward oriented movements. The serotonergic system has almost all of its serotonergic neurons originating in the raphe nuclei and this system projects to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. Stimulation of these axons and release of serotonin causes cortical arousal and impacts locomotion, the neurons of the histamergenic system are in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons send pathways to the cortex, thalamus, and the basal forebrain. All of these systems are linked and show similar redundancy, the pathways described are ascending pathways, but there also arousal pathways that descend. One example is the preoptic area, which release GABA reuptake inhibitors
8.
Coaching
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Coaching is a form of development in which a person called a coach supports a learner or client in achieving a specific personal or professional goal by providing training, advice and guidance. The learner is sometimes called a coachee, the first use of the term coach in connection with an instructor or trainer arose around 1830 in Oxford University slang for a tutor who carried a student through an exam. The word coaching thus identified a process used to people from where they are to where they want to be. The first use of the term in relation to sports came in 1861, professional coaching uses a range of communication skills to help clients shift their perspectives and thereby discover different approaches to achieve their goals. These skills can be used in almost all types of coaching, there may be some overlap between certain types of coaching activities. The concept of ADHD coaching was first introduced in 1994 by psychiatrists Edward M. Hallowell, ADHD coaching is a specialized type of life coaching that uses specific techniques designed to assist individuals with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The goal of ADHD coaching is to mitigate the effects of executive function deficit, Coaches work with clients to help them better manage time, organize, set goals and complete projects. Unlike psychologists or psychotherapists, ADHD coaches do not provide any therapy or treatment, their focus is only on daily functioning and behaviour aspects of the disorder. The ultimate goal of ADHD coaching is to help develop an inner coach. A2010 study from Wayne State University evaluated the effectiveness of ADHD coaching on 110 students with ADHD, the research team concluded that the coaching was highly effective in helping students improve executive functioning and related skills as measured by the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory. Yet, not every ADHD person needs a coach and not everyone can benefit from using a coach, business coaching is a type of human resource development for business leaders. It provides positive support, feedback and advice on an individual or group basis to improve personal effectiveness in the business setting, business coaching is also called executive coaching, corporate coaching or leadership coaching. Coaches help their clients advance towards specific professional goals, an industrial organizational psychologist is one example of executive coach. Business coaching is not restricted to external experts or providers, research studies suggest that executive coaching has a positive impact on workplace performance. In some countries, there is no certification or licensing required to be a business or executive coach, further, standards and methods of training coaches can vary widely between coaching organizations. Many business coaches refer to themselves as consultants, a business relationship than one which exclusively involves coaching. Career coaching focuses on work and career and is similar to career counseling, career coaching is not to be confused with life coaching, which concentrates on personal development. Another common term for a coach is career guide
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Personal life
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Personal life is the course of an individuals life, especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices contributing to ones personal identity. In ancient past, most peoples time was limited by the need to meet such as food and shelter. People identified with their role in their community, and engaged in jobs based on necessity rather than personal choice. Privacy in such communities was rare, the modern conception of personal life is an offshoot of modern Western society. A modern person tends to distinguish work from ones personal life. It is a persons choices and preferences outside of work that define personal life, including choice of hobbies, cultural interests, manner of dress. In particular, what activities one engages in during leisure-time defines a persons personal life, for instance, a typical American has about five hours of leisure time per day, more than half of which is spent on watching TV. People in Western countries, such as the United States, tend to value privacy, humans needed survival skills for the sake of both themselves and their community, food needed to be harvested and shelters needed to be maintained. There was little privacy in a community, and people identified one another according to their social role, jobs were assigned out of necessity rather than personal choice. People in such cultures found their identity not through their individual choices—indeed, such individuals, if asked to describe themselves, would speak of the collective of which they were part, the tribe, the Church, the nation. Even in the 21st century, survival issues dominate in many countries and societies, for example, the continents of Africa and Asia are still largely mired in poverty and third-world conditions, without technology, secure shelter, or reliable food sources. In such places, the concepts of a life, self-actualization, personal fulfillment. The English philosopher John Locke figures among the pioneers in discussing the concept of individual rights, in the 17th century he promoted the natural rights of the individual to life, liberty, and property, and included the pursuit of happiness as one of the individuals goals. The notion of a life, as currently understood, is in part an artifact of modern Western society. People in the United States of America, especially, place a value on privacy. Since the colonial period, commentators have noted Americans individualism and their pursuit of self-definition, indeed, the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution explicitly raise the pursuit of happiness and the expectation of privacy to the level of rights. George Lakoff sees the metaphor of life as a journey as a noteworthy structuring idea in our culture, in modern times, many people have come to think of their personal lives as separate from their work. This paradigm regards work and recreation as distinct, one is either on the job or not, employees have certain hours they are bound to work, and work during recreational time is rare
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Mission statement
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A mission statement, a type of statement of purpose, is a statement which is used to communicate the purpose of an organization. Mission statements are normally short and simple statements which outline what the purpose is and are related to the specific sector an organization operates in. Other designations of the concept may include company mission, corporate mission. The mission statement should guide the actions of an organization, spell out its goal, provide a path. It provides the framework or context within which the companys strategies are formulated and it is like a goal for what a company wants to do for the world. According to Chris Bart, a mission statement consists of three essential components, Key market, Who is your target client or customer. Contribution, What product or service do you provide to that client, distinction, What makes your product or service unique, so that the client would choose you. A personal mission statement is developed in much the way that an organizational mission statement is created. A personal mission statement is a description of what an individual wants to focus on, wants to accomplish. It is a way to energy, actions, behaviors. Moreover, it can be a part of a personal statement that an individual makes when applying for a university or a job. The sole purpose of a statement is to serve as your companys goal/agenda. Some generic examples of mission statements would be, To provide the best service possible within the sector for our customers. Or To provide the best experience for all of our customers and it is important that a mission statement is not confused with a vision statement. The reason why it is important that a statement and vision statement are not confused is because they both serve different purposes. Vision statements tend to be related to strategic planning and lean more towards discussing where a company aims to be in the future. Provides direction, Mission statements are a way to direct a business into the right path, clear purpose, Having a clear purpose can remove any potential ambiguities that can surround the existence of a business. The benefit of having a simple and clear mission statement is that it can be beneficial in different ways
11.
Motivation
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Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reason for actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as ones direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior, a motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, Motivation is a word that is part of the culture as few other psychological concepts are. Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases, Natural vs. Rational, content vs. Process, based on whether the focus is on the content motivates vs process motivation takes place. This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia, activated seeking behavior, such as locomotor activity is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and in micro dialysis reveals dopamine release during anticipation of a reward. The wanting behavior associated with a stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure, however outside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire, furthermore, depletion or inhibition of DA in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule and that is, subjects were willing to go to greater lengths to obtain a reward. Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, the idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research has significantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality, the field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents. Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze ones capacity, to observe and it is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior, in these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is an element in cognitive, social. Students who are motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills. The employee has the motivation to gain more knowledge
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Desire
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Desire is a sense of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. The same sense is expressed by such as craving. When a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long noted by philosophers. Marketing and advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. The theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, the theme of desire is also used in other literary genres, such as gothic novels. Poets ranging from Homer to Toni Morrison have dealt with the themes of desire in their work, in philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since Antiquity. In The Republic, Plato argues that individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher ideal. In De Anima, Aristotle claims that desire is implicated in animal interactions, Hobbes proposed the concept of psychological hedonism, which asserts that the fundamental motivation of all human action is the desire for pleasure. Baruch Spinoza had a view which contrasted with Hobbes, in that he saw natural desires as a form of bondage that are not chosen by a person of their own free will. David Hume claimed that desires and passions are noncognitive, automatic bodily responses, immanuel Kant called any action based on desires a hypothetical imperative, meaning by this that it is a command of reason that applies only if one desires the goal in question. Kant also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in Critique of Judgment, georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel claimed that self-consciousness is desire. Because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has called one of the causes of woe for mankind. Within the teachings of Buddhism, craving is thought to be the cause of all suffering that one experiences in human existence, the eradication of craving leads one to ultimate happiness, or Nirvana. However, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and enhancing, in Hinduism, the Rig Vedas creation myth Nasadiya Sukta states regarding the one spirit, In the beginning there was Desire that was first seed of mind. Poets found the bond of being in non-being in their hearts thought, according to the early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha stated that monks should generate desire for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful ones. There is a message here between what Buddha said, that desire must be created, and what some monks propose to their followers. Dr. Oscar R. Gómez holds that teachings imparted privately by H. H. 14th Dalai Lama are meant for leaders to be able to choose a desire consciously by creating it previously from the inside
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Guilt (emotion)
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It is closely related to the concept of remorse. Guilt is an important factor in perpetuating obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms, Guilt and its associated causes, merits, and demerits are common themes in psychology and psychiatry. Both in specialized and in language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done. It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting. Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness, while removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. For his later explicator, Lacan, guilt was the companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order. This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called the disease of false guilt. At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must be true, if you feel guilty, you must be guilty. The philosopher Martin Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on conflicts, and existential guilt, based on actual harm done to others. Guilt is often associated with anxiety, in mania, according to Otto Fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation. re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings. In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of ones personality. The methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple and they include, Repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself. If the defence fails, then one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time, projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. Alternatively, not the guilt, but the agency itself, may be projected onto other people. Feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior, people who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint, avoid self-indulgence, and exhibit less prejudice. Guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders, people appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended. Individuals high in psychopathy lack any sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others. Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright, a person with psychopathy has a tendency to be harmful to his or herself and to others. They have little ability to plan ahead for the future, an individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation
14.
Belief
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Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case, with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief, pistis and doxa, simplified, we may say that pistis refers to trust and confidence, while doxa refers to opinion and acceptance. The English word orthodoxy derives from doxa, Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the belief to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas. However, belief does not require active introspection and circumspection, for example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise, since belief is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks, how a physical organism can have beliefs. Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. Plato dismisses this possibility of a relation between belief and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule. Among American epistemologists, Gettier and Goldman, have questioned the true belief definition. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation, philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject and an object of belief, Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs and dispositional beliefs. For example, if asked do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas, a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief, if the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Jerry Fodor is one of the defenders of this point of view. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this understanding of belief. In these cases science hasnt provided us with a detailed account of these theories
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Emotion
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Emotion, generally speaking, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition, Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion and those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation, other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency, extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the force behind motivation, positive or negative. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components, Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components, the different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, a similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels, expressive body actions, the numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate, in addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a pattern of physiological activity. Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes, the original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of humans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events, the word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means to stir up. The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion, according to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, on the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild and to states that are not directed at anything. One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language
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Tripartite model of subjective well-being
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Subjective well-being refers to how people experience the quality of their lives and includes both emotional reactions and cognitive judgments. Psychologists have defined happiness as a combination of life satisfaction and the frequency of positive and negative affect. SWB therefore encompasses moods and emotions as well as evaluations of ones satisfaction with general, concepts encompassed by SWB include positive and negative affect, happiness, and life satisfaction. Positive psychology is concerned with the study of SWB. SWB tends to be stable over time and is related to personality traits. Diener et al. argued that the components of SWB represent distinct constructs that need to be understood separately. Hence, SWB may be considered an area of scientific interest rather than a single specific construct. High positive affect and low negative affect are often highly correlated, there are two components of SWB. One is Affect Balance and the other is Life Satisfaction, an individuals scores on the two measures are summed to produce a total SWB score. In some cases, these scores are kept separate, Affect balance refers to the emotions, moods, and feelings a person has. These can be all positive, all negative, or a combination of positive and negative. Some research shows also that feelings of reward are separate from positive and negative affect, Life satisfaction and satisfaction with specific life domains are considered cognitive components of SWB. Life satisfaction can also be known as the component in ones life. Affective concepts of SWB can be considered in terms of emotional states as well as in terms of longer-term moods. Life satisfaction and in some research happiness are typically considered over long durations, quality of life has also been studied as a conceptualization of SWB. Although its exact definition varies, it is measured as an aggregation of well-being across several life domains. Life satisfaction and Affect balance are generally measured separately and independently, Life satisfaction is generally measured using a self-report method. A common measurement for life satisfaction is questionnaires, Affect balance is also generally measured using a self-report method
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True Self
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True Self is the fourth album by the Chicago metal band Soil. It was released in the US on May 2,2006 and this is the bands first album with new vocalist AJ Cavalier, formerly of World In Pain and Diesel Machine, and their last album to feature rhythm guitarist Shaun Glass. True Self was leaked onto P2P and BitTorrent sites on March 4, the album sold 4,000 copies in the US during its first week of release. A music video was filmed for Give It Up and released shortly before the album, in promotion of the album, Soil did a European/USA tour with Staind, USA tours with Sevendust,10 Years and Godsmack, as well as numerous UK and European festival and headline tours. Soil ended the cycle with the summer 2007 True Rock Tour, all tracks were recorded at Bombshelter Studios in Los Angeles, California, unless otherwise noted. Bell††Recorded at Glenwood Studios, Burbank, California, USA
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Self-determination theory
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Self-determination theory is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns peoples inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It is concerned with the motivation behind choices people make without external influence and interference, SDT focuses on the degree to which an individuals behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. Research applying SDT to different areas in psychology has increased considerably since the 2000s. Key studies that led to emergence of SDT included research on intrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation refers to initiating an activity for its own sake because it is interesting and satisfying in itself, as opposed to doing an activity to obtain an external goal. Different types of motivations have been described based on the degree they have been internalized, internalization refers to the active attempt to transform an extrinsic motive into personally endorsed values and thus assimilate behavioural regulations that were originally external. Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan later expanded on the early work differentiating between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and proposed three main intrinsic needs involved in self-determination. According to Deci and Ryan, the three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate behavior and specify nutriments that are essential for psychological health and these needs are said to be universal, innate and psychological and include the need for competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness. People also have innate needs that are the basis for self-motivation. If this happens there are positive consequences but if not, there are negative consequences, so SDT emphasises humans natural growth toward positive motivation, however, this is thwarted if their basic needs are not fulfilled. SDT supports three basic psychological needs that must be satisfied to foster well-being and health and these needs can be universally applied. However, some may be more salient than others at times and are expressed differently based on time, culture. SDT makes distinctions between different types of motivation and the consequences of them, intrinsic motivation is the natural, inherent drive to seek out challenges and new possibilities that SDT associates with cognitive and social development. CET focuses on the needs of competence and autonomy, claiming social context events like feedback on work or rewards lead to feelings of competence and so enhance intrinsic motivations. Deci found positive feedback enhanced intrinsic motivations and negative feedback diminished it, vallerand and Reid went further and found that these effects were being mediated by perceived control. Autonomy, however, must accompany competence for people to see their behaviours as self determined by intrinsic motivation, for this to happen there must be immediate contextual support for both needs or inner resources based on prior development support for both needs. CET and intrinsic motivation is also linked to relatedness through the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation flourishes if linked with a sense of security, grolnick and Ryan found lower intrinsic motivation in children who believed their teachers to be uncaring or cold and so not fulfilling their relatedness needs. Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources, Deci and Ryan developed Organismic Integration Theory, as a sub-theory of SDT, to explain the different ways extrinsically motivated behaviour is regulated. OIT details the different forms of motivation and the contexts in which they come about
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Organization
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An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
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Team
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A team is a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Human teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks, a group does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize their strengths. Teams can be broken down into from a team or one big group of people. Thus teams of players can form to practise their craft/sport. Transport logistics executives can select teams of horses, dogs, or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods, the concept was introduced into business in the late 20th century, which was followed by a popularization of the concept of constructing teams. Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of new management fad. Some see team as a word, overused and under-useful. Others see it as a panacea that realizes the human-relations movements desire to integrate what that movement perceives as best for workers, however, Hackman argued that team effectiveness should not be viewed only in terms of performance. While performance is an important outcome, an effective team will contribute to the personal well-being. Compare the more structured/skilled concept of a crew, the advantages of formal and informal partnerships, or the well-defined -, Team size and team composition affect team processes and team outcomes. The optimal size of teams is debated and will vary depending on the task at hand, at least one study of problem-solving in groups showed an optimal size of groups at four members. Other works estimate the size between 5-12 members or a number of members that can consume two pizzas. The following extract is taken from Chong, The interest in teams gained momentum in the 1980s with the publication of Belbin’s work on successful teams, the research into teams and teamwork followed two lines of inquiry. Writers such as Belbin, Woodcock, Margerison and McCann, Davis et al, parker, and Spencer and Pruss focused on team roles and how these affected team performance. These studies suggested that team performance was a function of the number, the number of roles for optimal performance varied from 15 to four. This variation has been attributed to how roles were defined, personality traits, on the other hand, were internally driven and relatively stable over time and across situations. These traits affected behavioural patterns in ways and, in varying degrees
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Commerce
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Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially on a large scale. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that are in operation in any country or internationally, commerce is derived from the Latin commercium, from cum, together, and merx, merchandise. Some commentators trace the origins of commerce to the start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart from traditional self-sufficiency, trading became a facility of prehistoric people. Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In historic times, the introduction of currency as a money, facilitated a wider exchange of goods. Numismatists have collections of these tokens, which include coins from some Ancient World large-scale societies. For example, if a man who makes pots for a living needs a new house, he/she may wish to hire someone to build it for him/her. But he/she cannot make an equivalent number of pots to equal this service done for him/her, because if the builder could build the house. During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs, wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries, hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities. Today commerce includes as a subset a complex system of companies which try to maximize their profits by offering products and services to the market at the lowest production cost
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System
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A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex or intricate whole. Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Alternatively, and usually in the context of social systems. The term system comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, whole compounded of several parts or members, system, according to Marshall McLuhan, System means something to look at. You must have a high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no system, in the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the substance in steam engines. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, in 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the systems theory. Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, in the 1980s John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute. Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary, this means choosing which entities are inside the system, one can make simplified representations of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system, Natural and human-made systems There are natural and human-made systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposefull by an observer, human-made systems are made to satisfy an identified and stated need with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of wanted outputs. Their parts must be related, they must be designed to work as a coherent entity – otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems, Theoretical framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems, like a car, a coffeemaker, a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment, like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment, a theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Inputs are consumed, outputs are produced, the concept of input and output here is very broad
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Profit (economics)
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Profit or normal profit is a component of costs and not a component of business profit at all. It represents the opportunity cost, as the time that the owner spends running the firm could be spent on running a different firm. In other words, the cost of normal profit varies both within and across industries, it is commensurate with the associated with each type of investment. Only normal profits arise in circumstances of perfect competition when long-run economic equilibrium is reached, the same is likewise true of the long run equilibria of monopolistically competitive industries and, more generally, any market which is held to be contestable. Normally, a firm that introduces a differentiated product can initially secure a temporary power for a short while. At this stage, the price the consumer must pay for the product is high. When this finally occurs, all monopoly associated with producing and selling the product disappears. Profit can, however, occur in competitive and contestable markets in the short run, economic profit is, however, much more prevalent in uncompetitive markets such as in a perfect monopoly or oligopoly situation. This allows the firm to set a price which is higher than that which would be found in a similar but more competitive industry, allowing them economic profit in both the long and short run. In a single-goods case, an economic profit happens when the firms average cost is less than the price of the product or service at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity of output multiplied by the difference between the average cost and the price, often, governments will try to intervene in uncompetitive markets to make them more competitive. Antitrust or competition laws were created to prevent powerful firms from using their power to artificially create the barriers to entry they need to protect their economic profits. This includes the use of predatory pricing toward smaller competitors, with lower barriers, new firms can enter the market again, making the long run equilibrium much more like that of a competitive industry, with no economic profit for firms. For example, the old AT&T monopoly, which existed before the courts ordered its breakup, had to get government approval to raise its prices. Though a regulated firm will not have a profit as large as it would in an unregulated situation. The social profit from a firms activities is the normal profit plus or minus any externalities or consumer surpluses that occur in its activity, a firm may report relatively large monetary profits, but by creating negative externalities their social profit could be relatively small. Profitability is a term of economic efficiency, mathematically it is a relative index – a fraction with profit as numerator and generating profit flows or assets as denominator. It is a standard economic assumption that, other things being equal, given that profit is defined as the difference in total revenue and total cost, a firm achieves a maximum by operating at the point where the difference between the two is at its greatest
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Goods
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In economics, goods are materials that satisfy human wants and provide utility, for example, to a consumer making a purchase of a satisfying product. A common distinction is made between goods that are property, and services, which are non-physical. A good is an item that is useful to people but scarce in relation to its demand. In contrast, free goods, such as air, are naturally in abundant supply, commodities may be used as a synonym for economic goods but often refer to marketable raw materials and primary products. Although in economic theory all goods are considered tangible, in reality certain classes of goods, such as information, only take intangible forms. For example, among other goods an apple is an object, while news belongs to an intangible class of goods. Goods may increase or decrease their utility directly or indirectly and may be described as having marginal utility, some things are useful, but not scarce enough to have monetary value, such as the Earths atmosphere, these are referred to as free goods. In economics, a bad is the opposite of a good, Goods diversity allows for their classification into different categories based on distinctive characteristics, such as tangibility and relative elasticity. A tangible good like an apple differs from a good like information due to the impossibility of a person to physically hold the latter. Intangible goods differ from services in that goods are transferable and can be traded. Price elasticity also differentiates types of goods, an inelastic good is one for which there are few or no substitutes, such as tickets to major sporting events, original works by famous artists, and prescription medicine such as insulin. Complementary goods are generally more inelastic than goods in a family of substitutes and this is because hamburger buns and beef are complementary goods. It is important to note that goods considered complements or substitutes are relative associations, the following chart illustrates the classification of goods according to their exclusivity and competitiveness. Goods are capable of being delivered to a consumer. Goods that are economic intangibles can only be stored, delivered, Goods, both tangibles and intangibles, may involve the transfer of product ownership to the consumer. Services do not normally involve transfer of ownership of the service itself, for example, distributing electricity among consumers is a service provided by an electric utility company. While the service is a process that remains in its entirety in the ownership of the service provider. The consumer becomes electric energy owner by purchase and may use it for any lawful purposes just like any other goods, fast-moving consumer goods Final goods Intangible asset Intangible good List of economics topics Goods and services Service Tangible property Bannock, Graham et al
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Service (economics)
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In economics, a service is a transaction in which no physical goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer. The benefits of such a service are held to be demonstrated by the willingness to make the exchange. Public services are those that society as a whole pays for, using resources, skill, ingenuity, and experience, service providers benefit service consumers. Services can be described in terms of their key characteristics, sometimes called the Five Is of Services and they are not manufactured, transported or stocked. Services cannot be stored for a future use and they are produced and consumed simultaneously. Services are perishable in two regards, Service-relevant resources, processes and systems are assigned for delivery during a specific period in time. If the service consumer does not request and consume the service during this period, from the perspective of the service provider, this is a lost business opportunity if no other use for those resources is available. Examples, A hairdresser serves another client, an empty seat on an airplane cannot be filled after departure. When the service has been rendered to the consumer, this particular service irreversibly vanishes. Example, a passenger has been transported to the destination and the flight is over, the service provider must deliver the service at the time of service consumption. The service is not manifested in an object that is independent of the provider. The service consumer is also inseparable from service delivery, examples, The service consumer must sit in the hairdressers chair, or in the airplane seat. Correspondingly, the hairdresser or the pilot must be in the shop or plane, respectively, many services are regarded as heterogeneous and are typically modified for each service consumer or each service context. Another and more common term for this is heterogeneity, both service provider and service consumer participate in the service provision. Mass generation and delivery of services must be mastered for a provider to expand. This can be seen as a problem of service quality, both inputs and outputs to the processes involved providing services are highly variable, as are the relationships between these processes, making it difficult to maintain consistent service quality. Many services involve variable human activity, rather than a precisely determined process, the human factor is often the key success factor in service provision. Demand can vary by season, time of day, business cycle, consistency is necessary to create enduring business relationships
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Cost
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In production, research, retail, and accounting, a cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something, and hence is not available for use anymore. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing, usually, the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production. More generalized in the field of economics, cost is a metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision, hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes. Costs are often further described based on their timing or their applicability, in accounting, costs are the monetary value of expenditures for supplies, services, labor, products, equipment and other items purchased for use by a business or other accounting entity. It is the amount denoted on invoices as the price and recorded in bookkeeping records as an expense or asset cost basis. Opportunity cost, also referred to as economic cost is the value of the best alternative that was not chosen in order to pursue the current endeavor—i. e, what could have been accomplished with the resources expended in the undertaking. In theoretical economics, cost used without qualification often means opportunity cost, when a transaction takes place, it typically involves both private costs and external costs. Private costs are the costs that the buyer of a good or service pays the seller and this can also be described as the costs internal to the firms production function. External costs, in contrast, are the costs that people other than the buyer are forced to pay as a result of the transaction, the bearers of such costs can be either particular individuals or society at large. Note that external costs are often both non-monetary and problematic to quantify for comparison with monetary values. They include things like pollution, things that society will likely have to pay for in some way or at time in the future. Social costs are the sum of private costs and external costs, for example, the manufacturing cost of a car reflects the private cost for the manufacturer. The polluted waters or polluted air also created as part of the process of producing the car is an external cost borne by those who are affected by the pollution or who value unpolluted air or water. Because the manufacturer does not pay for this external cost, and does not include this cost in the price of the car, the air pollution from driving the car is also an externality produced by the car user in the process of using his good. The driver does not compensate for the damage caused by using the car. When developing a plan for a new or existing company, product, or project. This is done in both business and government, costs are often underestimated, resulting in cost overrun during execution
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Time management
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Time management is the process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity. Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects. Initially, time management referred to just business or work activities, a time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Time management is usually a necessity in any project development as it determines the project completion time, the related process of reduction of time spent on non-priorities Incentives to modify behavior to ensure compliance with time-related deadlines. Time Management has also identified as one of the core functions identified in project management. Attention management, Attention Management relates to the management of cognitive resources, organizational Time Management is the science of identifying, valuing and reducing wasted time within organizations. Some time-management literature stresses tasks related to the creation of an environment conducive to real effectiveness. g, Procrastination Writers on creating an environment for effectiveness refer to such matters as having a tidy office or home for unleashing creativity, and the need to protect prime time. Literature also focuses on overcoming chronic psychological issues such as procrastination, excessive and chronic inability to manage time effectively may result from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or Attention Deficit Disorder. Diagnostic criteria include a sense of underachievement, difficulty getting organized, trouble getting started, many projects going simultaneously, some authors focus on the prefrontal cortex which is the most recently evolved part of the brain. It controls the functions of attention-span, impulse-control, organization, learning from experience, some authors argue that changing the way the prefrontal cortex works is possible and offer a solution. Time management strategies are associated with the recommendation to set personal goals. For individual tasks or for goals, a rating may be established, deadlines may be set. This process results in a plan with a task list or a schedule or calendar of activities, authors may recommend a daily, weekly, monthly or other planning periods associated with different scope of planning or review. This is done in ways, as follows. A technique that has used in business management for a long time is the categorization of large data into groups. These groups are often marked A, B, and C—hence the name, activities are ranked by these general criteria, A – Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and important, B – Tasks that are important but not urgent, C – Tasks that are unimportant. Each group is then rank-ordered by priority, to further refine the prioritization, some individuals choose to then force-rank all B items as either A or C. ABC analysis can incorporate more than three groups, ABC analysis is frequently combined with Pareto analysis
