1.
Automotive industry
–
The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
2.
Glas
–
Hans Glas GmbH is a former German automotive company, which was based in Dingolfing. Originally a maker of farm machinery, Glas evolved first into a producer of motor scooters and it was purchased by BMW in 1966, mainly to gain access to Glass patents, they were the first to use a timing belt with an overhead camshaft in an automotive application. Its limited model range was phased out by its new parent. Mechanic Andreas Glas founded a company for agricultural machines at 1895 in Pilsting. He named the company Andreas Glas, Reparaturwerkstätte für landwirtschaftliche Maschinen mit Dampfbetrieb, during the summer periods about 16 people worked for him. In 1905 Andreas Glas company built their first sewing machines and he then had sufficient work to employ all his employees during the winters. Since 1905 Glas had a office in Dingolfing. He started to produce in Dingolfing in 1908 with 150 sewing machines per year, the production count rose each year. After World War II, the market for sewing machines was declining, Glas were known for small cars like the Goggomobil. However, in 1964 the company introduced the Glas 1300GT coupe, the body was designed by Pietro Frua. However competition, mostly from British cars, was tough and in 1966 they released the 2600GT powered by a SOHC V8 engine, however this didnt help and later the same year the company was sold to BMW. The Glas models were kept in production by BMW, but fitted with BMW engines, the Glas 1300 GT coupe was fitted with a 1. 6-litre BMW engine and renamed BMW1600 GT. BMW also fitted a 3-litre engine and named it 3000 GT and this model kept the Glas name, but had a BMW logo in the front and rear. In 1968 BMW created their own large coupe, the BMW2500 CS,277 copies of 2600 GT was made and 389 of the 3000 GT. In 1951 Andreas Glas saw the Vespa scooter from Piaggio in Verona and he was so enthused that he began production of motorscooters that July. The scooter debuted with a 125 cc motor, increased time to 150 cc and 200 cc. Until 195646,181 motor scooters were built, production of scooters stopped because of the Goggomobil cars. From 1953 on, load-carrying scooters were built as well, with the 200 cc engine and 9.5 bhp, they had a load capacity of 200 kg
3.
BMW
–
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, usually known under its abbreviation BMW, is a German luxury vehicle, motorcycle, and engine manufacturing company founded in 1916. It is one of the luxury automakers in the world. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, BMW owns Mini cars and is the parent company of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. BMW was established as a business entity following a restructuring of the Rapp Motorenwerke aircraft manufacturing firm in 1912 named Aerowerke Gustav Otto, after the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. The company consequently shifted to production as the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted in 1923. BMWs first significant aircraft engine, and commercial product of any sort, was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, known for good fuel economy, with German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour, foreign civilians, prisoners of war, the few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km/h. The first-ever four-engine jet aircraft flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance-bomber. Through 1944 the 003s reliability improved, making it a power plant for air frame designs competing for the Jägernotprogramms light fighter production contract. Which was won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz design, the BMW003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944–45, as the GT101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built. By the year 1958, the division of BMW was in financial difficulties. It was decided to carry on by trying to cash in on the current economy car boom exploited so successfully by German ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt, BMW bought the rights to manufacture the Italian Iso Isetta. BMWs version of the cars were to be powered by a modified form of BMWs motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet, since 1959, the controlling majority shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft has been the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float, BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. However, this factory was outmoded and BMWs biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, the Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW
4.
Car classification
–
Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
5.
Microcar
–
A microcar is the smallest automobile classification, usually applied to very small cars. Such small cars were referred to as cyclecars until the 1940s. More recent models are called bubble cars due to their bubble-shaped appearance. The definition of a microcar has varied considerably in different countries, since there are usually tax and/or licensing advantages to the classification, multiple restrictions are often imposed, starting with engine size. The Bruce Weiner Microcar Museum says Engine sizes of 700cc and less and 2 doors or less, may have all gears operable in reverse as well as in forward gear such as the Messerschmitt KR200. Fitted with lifting bodywork instead of doors, less than 85 cubic feet/2400 litres interior volume. There are also a variety of trucks, usually of the forward control or van style to provide more cargo room. These might be used for local deliveries on narrow streets where standard small pickup trucks would be inconvenient, a motorised quadricycle is a four-wheeled vehicle that can be registered as a motorcycle. They are analogous to mopeds or light motorcycles rather than cars, consequently, they can be driven by underage drivers or in some cases even without a license, and they are free of car taxes. Their speed is limited to ca.45 km/h either through a speed or power limit. The economy of operating such a car has also often been helped by three-wheeled microcars or cars with very small engines being treated as motorcycles for tax. In some countries, drivers of microcars are exempt from licensing conditions, the microcars may have a special category or may be considered motorcycles and therefore no car driving licence is needed. This assures a certain market among people who do not want to stand for, or who cannot pass an auto drivers licence test. More negatively, at least in Austria, Belgium and France, also, motorized quadricycles may be forbidden from motorways. In some European countries, taxes formerly depended on engine displacement and this has given rise to names of such cars as Citroën 2CV and Renault 4CV. Reduced global warming from carbon dioxide emission has now added to this list. In the UK before October 2000, a person who passed a motorcycle test was automatically granted a full sub-category B1 licence as an additional entitlement with the full Category A licence, since 2000 a provisional car licence has to be requested. Another advantage is the ease of parking, some microcars can be parked perpendicular, where other cars park parallel, or lifted by hand, like a motor scooter, to get into a tight spot
6.
Automobile layout
–
In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
7.
Rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
–
In automotive design, an RR, or Rear-engine, Rear-wheel-drive layout places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. In contrast to the RMR layout, the center of mass of the engine is between the axle and the rear bumper. Most of the traits of the RR configuration are shared with the mid-engine rear-wheel-drive, the front-engine front-wheel-drive layout also has this advantage. The farther back the engine, the greater the bias, typical weight bias for an FR, is 55/45 front/rear, for MR, 45/55, for RR, 35/65. Rear weight bias reduces forward weight transfer under braking, and increases rear weight transfer under acceleration, the former means that traction is more evenly distributed among all four wheels under braking, resulting in shorter stopping times and distances. The latter means that the wheels have increased traction when accelerating, allowing them to put more power on the ground. The disadvantage to a weight bias is that the car can become unstable. When this happens, rotational inertia dictates that the added weight away from the axis of rotation will be likely to maintain the spin. This is an inherent instability in the design, making it easier to induce, all cars, regardless of drivetrain layout, obey the same laws of physics and can do this, but it is much easier to do and harder to correct in MR and RR vehicles. When not braking, the weight over the front wheels means less traction, resulting in the car having a tendency to understeer. To counteract this, it is necessary to induce forward weight transfer to increase front grip, but this significantly destabilizes the car and can be hard to do properly, that is, without spinning. In these respects, an RR can be considered to be an exaggeration of MR - harder braking, faster and earlier acceleration, and increased oversteer, in off road and low-traction situations, the RR layout has some advantages compared to other 2WD layouts. The weight is biased towards the driven wheels- as with FF vehicles and this both improves drive-wheel traction and reduces the tendency for the undriven wheels to dig in. In addition, the driving and steering requirements are split between front and rear- as with FR vehicles- making it likely for either to lose traction. Many dune buggies successfully use a Volkswagen beetle as the car for this reason. The relative simplicity and light compared to 4WD can therefore sometimes outweigh the disadvantage of only having two driven wheels. Where RR differs from MR is in that the engine is located outside the wheelbase, the major advantage of MR - low moment of inertia - is negated somewhat, and there is more room for passengers and cargo. Furthermore, because both axles are on the side of the engine, it is technically more straightforward to drive all four wheels
8.
Sedan (automobile)
–
A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
9.
Convertible
–
A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
10.
Van
–
A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. Depending on the type of van it can be bigger or smaller than a truck and SUV, there is some varying in the scope of the word across the different English-speaking countries. The smallest vans, microvans, are used for transporting goods or people in tiny quantities. Mini MPVs, Compact MPVs, and MPVs are all small vans usually used for transporting people in small quantities, larger vans with passenger seats are used for institutional purposes, such as transporting students. Larger vans with only front seats are used for business purposes, to carry goods. Specially-equipped vans are used by television stations as mobile studios, Postal services and courier companies use large step vans to deliver packages. Van meaning a type of vehicle arose as a contraction of the word caravan, the early records of van as a vehicle in English are in the mid 19th century meaning a covered wagon for transporting goods. Caravan with the meaning has records since the 1670s. A caravan, meaning one wagon, had arisen as an extension or corruption of caravan meaning a convoy of multiple wagons, the word van has slightly different, but overlapping, meanings in different forms of English. While the word now applies to boxy cargo vans, other applications are found to a greater or lesser extent in the different English-speaking countries. In Australian English, the van is commonly used to describe a minivan. A full-size van used for commercial purposes is known as a van, however. Finally, the van can sometimes be used interchangeably with caravan. The British term people mover is used in Australian English to describe a passenger van. The American usage of van to mean a cargo box trailer or semi-trailer is used rarely, if ever, early Japanese vans include the Kurogane Baby, Mazda Bongo and the Toyota LiteAce van. Microvans, vans that fulfill kei car regulations, are popular for small business. The term is used to describe full-fledged station wagons and even hatchbacks with a basic trim package intended for commercial use. These are sometimes referred to as Light Vans, in British English, the word van refers to vehicles that carry goods only, on both roads and rails
11.
Pickup truck
–
A pickup truck is a light duty truck having an enclosed cab and an open cargo area with low sides and tailgate. Today in North America, the pickup is used like a passenger car. The term pickup is of unknown origin and it was used by Studebaker in 1913 and by the 1930s pick-up had become the standard term. In Australia and New Zealand ute, short for utility, is used for both pickups and coupé utilities, in South Africa people of all language groups use the term bakkie, a diminutive of bak, Afrikaans for bowl. In the early days of automobile manufacturing, vehicles were sold as a chassis only, and third parties added bodies on top. In 1913 the Galion Allsteel Body Company, a developer of the pickup and dump truck, built and installed hauling boxes on slightly modified Ford Model T chassis. Seeking part of market share, Dodge introduced a 3/4-ton pickup with cab. In 1925 Ford followed up with a Model T-based steel-bodied, half-ton with an adjustable tailgate, billed as the Ford Model T Runabout with Pickup Body, it sold for US$281. In 1928 it was replaced by the Model A which had a closed-cab, safety glass windshield, roll-up side windows, in 1931 Chevrolet produced its first factory-assembled pickup. Ford Australia produced the first Australian ute in 1932, during the Second World War, the United States government halted the production of privately owned pickup trucks. In the 1950s consumers began purchasing pickups for lifestyle rather than utilitarian reasons, car-like smooth-sided fenderless trucks were introduced, such as the Chevrolet Fleetside, the Chevrolet El Camino, the Dodge Sweptline and in 1957, Fords purpose-built Styleside. Pickups began to feature comfort items like power options and air conditioning, trucks became more passenger oriented with the introduction of crew cabs in the Toyota Stout and the Hino Briska, was introduced in 1962. Dodge followed with a cab in 1963, Ford in 1965. Over the intervening years, Detroit lobbied to protect the light-truck tariff, thereby reducing pressure on Detroit to introduce vehicles that polluted less, the US governments 1973 Corporate Average Fuel Economy policy sets higher fuel economy requirements for cars than pickups. CAFE led to the replacement of the wagon by the minivan. Eventually, this idea led to the promotion of the SUV. Pickups, unhindered by the emissions regulations on cars, began to replace muscle cars as the performance vehicle of choice. The Dodge Warlock appeared in Dodges adult toys line, along with the Macho Power Wagon, the gas guzzler tax, which taxed fuel-inefficient cars while exempting pickup trucks, further distorted the market in favour of pickups
12.
Roadster (automobile)
–
A roadster, sometimes referred to as a spider or spyder, is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a car with no weather protection. The roadster is also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500 and this type of racing car was superseded by mid-engined cars. In the nineteenth century, the word denoted a horse suitable for traveling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as and it may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck. Additional seating in the deck was known as a rumble seat or a dickey seat. The main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car, Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard. The earliest roadster automobiles had only basic bodies without doors, windshields, by the 1920s they were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains. When roadsters of this era were equipped with seats, the seats folded into the body when not in use. They are popular with collectors, often valued over other open styles, the term roadster as applied to automobiles is American in origin, before World War II, the British equivalent was a two-seat tourer. By the 1970s, the roadster was applied to open two-seat cars of sporting appearance or character. Roadsters had become almost as well-equipped as convertibles, including side windows that retract into the doors, Roadsters of that time included the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB, and Triumph TR4. A roadster is still defined as a car with two seats, with some roadsters having power tops or retractable hardtops. A few manufacturers and fabricators still offer roadsters that meet the older definitions and these include Morgan, with the windowless Roadster, Caterham, with the doorless Seven, and Ariel, with the bodyless Atom. The American hot rod is based on pre–World War II roadsters, late run Model Ts and 1932 Fords were the most popular starting points. The term roadster applies to front-engined AAA/USAC Championship cars, associated with the Indianapolis 500, the roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks, one story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a roadster is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500
13.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
14.
Two-stroke engine
–
A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
15.
Straight-twin engine
–
Compared to V-twins and flat-twins, straight-twins are more compact, simpler, and usually cheaper to make, but may generate more vibration during operation. Straight-twin engines have been used in motorcycles, but are also used in automobiles. Automobiles with straight-twin engines are very small and include city cars. Recent examples of cars with straight-twin engines include the Tata Nano, powersports applications include use in outboard motors, personal water craft, all-terrain vehicles, snowmobiles, and ultralight aircraft. Different crankshaft angles are used in four-stroke straight-twins to achieve different characteristics of firing intervals and engine balance, affecting vibrations, the traditional British parallel twin had 360° crankshafts, while some larger Japanese twins of the 1960s adopted the 180° crankshaft. In the 1990s, new engines appeared with a 270° crankshaft, straight-twins have the advantage of being more compact, relatively simple, and cheaper to make in comparison to V- or flat-twins. They may be prone to vibration, either because of the irregular firing interval present in 180° crank engines or the large uncountered reciprocating mass in 360° crank engines, inline-twins also suffer further from torsional torque reactions and vibration. Unlike V-twins, straight-twin engines do not use a crank pin for both connecting rods, each cylinder has its own crank pin. Honda straight-twin engines, which began appearing in the late 1950s, had four main bearings, subsequent engines had four or occasionally three main bearings, ball bearings being better than shell bearings for this engine configuration. In motorcycles, as cars and other vehicles, the terms parallel-twin, vertical-twin and inline-twin are used. The term parallel twin has also used to refer specifically to a four-stroke straight-two engine with 360° crankshaft causing the pistons to travel parallel to each other. Other times, parallel-twin, inline-twin and the variants have been used interchangeably. The first production motorcycle using a motor was the Hildebrand & Wolfmuller of 1894. Its cylinders lay flat and forward-facing, its pistons connected directly to the wheel with a locomotive-style connecting rod. Approximately 2000 were produced through 1897, the second production motorcycle to use a straight twin design, this time a parallel twin with vertical cylinders akin to the later British type, was the Werner of 1903. It used cast-iron cylinders with integral heads, and side valves, the most famous example of the straight-twin engine was produced by Triumph from 1937 onwards, the 5T Speed Twin. Experiments with this type began as designer Edward Turner and his supervisor. From the experiments, it was shown that a 360° crank angle was better suited to the use of a single carburettor than a 180° crank angle
16.
Transmission (mechanics)
–
A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
17.
Wheelbase
–
In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
18.
Bavaria
–
Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
19.
Dingolfing
–
Dingolfing is a town in Southern Bavaria, Germany. It is the seat of the Landkreis Dingolfing-Landau, the area now called Dingolfing was first mentioned in Tinguluinga in the year 833. In the year 1251 the duke of Bavaria, Otto II awarded municipal rights to the town, the Lower City, around the church of St. Johns, was an older settlement belonging to the Prince-Bishopric of Regensburg. By treaty of 1265 between Duke and Bishop, both cities were united, dingolfings large growth took place during the years of about 1315 to 1600. During this time the city prospered mostly through trade, fishing, leather craft, the duke promoted these works, causing Dingolfing to prosper even more. The war of Austrian succession caused very heavy damage to the city, the city became nothing more than debris and ash on May 16,1743 after being fired upon by Austrian troops. Greater parts of the city were burnt in a large fire, many of the towns records were destroyed in this fire. Between 1802 and 1803 the local courts were dissolved, between 1816 and 1817 there were many economic and harvest failures. There was also a period of price increases. This period is thought to be the lowest point in the history of the city. A railroad track leading from Munich to Prague and many new roads were built in the mid-19th century, many new industries formed in Dingolfing around this time too. The region began to paint a new picture of itself, in 1905 a new machine shop opened to repair broken farming equipment. After the Second World War this shop changed its business and began producing scooters, in the 1950s this plant began producing automobiles under the Glas car company. Bavarian Motor Works, from which the city prospers greatly today, after 1945 and especially since the 1970s Dingolfing intensified its investments in its urban infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, and housing for the elderly. Dingolfing is located on the Isar river, Dingolfing is about 100 km northeast of Munich, the capital of the German state of Bavaria, and about 30 km east of Landshut and 25 km south of Straubing. Parish church St. Josef, a hall church planned by Robert Vorhoelzer. Dingolfing is home to BMWs largest production facility which produces around 270,000 cars each year, marco Sturm, former NHL forward, was born in Dingolfing on September 8,1978. Johann Sziklai, poet Peter Högl, SS officer in World War II Joseph Wolfgang Eberl, Dingolfing 1856 online Official website BMW Plant Dingolfing Dingolfing, History of the coat-of-arms
20.
Car platform
–
It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
21.
Preselector gearbox
–
A preselector or self-changing gearbox is a type of manual gearbox used on a variety of vehicles, most commonly in the 1930s. Most pre-selector transmissions avoid a driver-controlled clutch entirely, some use one solely for starting off. Preselector gearboxes are not automatic gearboxes, although they may have internal similarities, a fully automatic gearbox is able to select the ratio used, with a preselector gearbox this remains the drivers decision. There are several radically different mechanical designs of preselector gearbox, the best known is the Wilson design. Some gearboxes, such as the Cotal, shift gear immediately the control is moved and these are termed self-changing gearboxes, but were considered under the same overall heading. In recent years, a role is carried out by the increasing number of Tiptronic or paddle shift gearboxes, using manual selection. For the driver, there are two advantages, Fast shifting, with only a single operation and this requires less skill to learn than techniques like double declutching and it offers faster shifts when racing. Ability to handle far more power, with a lighter mechanism. In engineering terms, some designs of pre-selector gearbox may offer particular advantages, the Wilson gearbox offers these, although theyre also shared by some of the other designs, even though the designs are quite different, Their friction components are brakes, rather than clutches. These are simpler to engineer, as the components can be arranged to not also be rotating parts. The friction wear components can be mounted on the outside of the mechanism and this makes maintenance and regular adjustment easier. They were common on Daimler cars and commercial vehicles, Maybach, Alvis, Talbot-Lago, Lagonda Rapier and they have also been used in racing cars, such as the 1935 ERA R4D, and hillclimbing cars such as Auto Union Silver Arrows. Military applications began in 1929 and later included tanks such as the German Tiger I and Tiger II in World War II, many pre-selector designs made use of a series of epicyclic gearboxes. The Wilson pre-selector gearbox is the best known design and is the archetype generally meant when the term pre-selector gearbox is used without further qualification, major W. G. Wilson was rewarded as one of the major co-inventors of the tank after World War I. He had mainly been involved with the development of transmissions for tanks and he had become an advocate for the benefits of the epicyclic gearbox, which allowed large torques to be transmitted whilst still being controllable through a small input force. In 1917, Wilson designed the Mark V tank, which incorporated his epicyclic steering gear and this was the first of the heavy tanks that could be driven by a single driver, without requiring him to signal orders inside to others working the secondary gear levers. Since 1900, the Lanchester Motor Company had built cars with manually controlled epicyclic gearboxes, first with a cone clutch and these formed the ratio-changing gearbox of the transmission. In 1918, an experimental tank Lanchester Gearbox Machine or Experimental Machine K was tested, fitted with an epicyclic gearbox built by Lanchester, after the War, Wilson had a considerable reputation as an engineer of genius, particularly for gearbox design
22.
Getrag
–
Getrag is the worlds largest supplier of transmission systems for passenger cars and commercial vehicles. The company was founded on 1 May 1935, in Ludwigsburg, Germany, by Hermann Hagenmeyer, in 2011, the company had a turnover of three billion euros. The company has three joint ventures, Getrag Ford Transmissions headquartered in Cologne with Ford Motor Company, Getrag Transmission Co. Ltd. with Jiangling Motors Corporation, Ltd. and Dongfeng Getrag Transmission with Dongfeng Motor Corporation. In addition, Getrag supplies transmissions to a variety of manufacturers, including BMW, Daimler AG, Ferrari, Mitsubishi, Porsche, Qoros, Renault, Volkswagen Group. BorgWarner, Graziano Trasmissioni and ZF Friedrichshafen. 3-16,2. 5-16, C124 AMG3. com official website
23.
Clutch
–
A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially from driving shaft to driven shaft. In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts, in these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit while the other shaft provides output power for work. While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible, in a torque-controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so they may be locked together and spin at the speed, locked together but spinning at different speeds, or unlocked. This type of clutch has protruding circular edge and a hole for them that engages and disengages during operation and this type is less effective since human foot or hand power on clutching reaches about 10 KN or 1,000 kg. The vast majority of clutches ultimately rely on frictional forces for their operation, the purpose of friction clutches is to connect a moving member to another that is moving at a different speed or stationary, often to synchronize the speeds, and/or to transmit power. Usually, as little slippage as possible between the two members is desired, various materials have been used for the disc-friction facings, including asbestos in the past. Modern clutches typically use an organic resin with copper wire facing or a ceramic material. Ceramic materials are used in heavy applications such as racing or heavy-duty hauling, though the harder ceramic materials increase flywheel. In the case of wet clutches, composite materials are very common. Since these wet clutches typically use an oil bath or flow-through cooling method for keeping the disc pack lubricated and cooled, friction-disc clutches generally are classified as push type or pull type depending on the location of the pressure plate fulcrum points. In a pull-type clutch, the action of pressing the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulling on the spring and disengaging the vehicle drive. The opposite is true with a type, the release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the vehicle drive. In this instance, the bearing can be known as a thrust bearing. A clutch damper is a device that softens the response of the clutch engagement/disengagement, in automotive applications, this is often provided by a mechanism in the clutch disc centres. In addition to the damped disc centres, which reduce driveline vibration and these weaker springs are compressed solely by the radial vibrations of an idling engine. They are fully compressed and no longer in use once the main damper springs take up drive, mercedes truck examples, A clamp load of 33 kN is normal for a single plate 430. The 400 Twin application offers a clamp load of a mere 23 kN, bursts speeds are typically around 5,000 rpm with the weakest point being the facing rivet
24.
Air-cooled engine
–
Air-cooled engines rely on the circulation of air directly over hot parts of the engine to cool them. Thus, while they are not ultimately cooled by the liquid, in contrast, heat generated by an air-cooled engine is released directly into the air. Typically this is facilitated with metal covering the outside of the Cylinder Head. Air may be fed with the use of a fan. In all combustion engines, a percentage of the heat generated escapes through the exhaust. About 8% of the heat energy finds its way into the oil, many motorcycles use air cooling for the sake of reducing weight and complexity. Few current production automobiles have air-cooled engines, but historically it was common for many high-volume vehicles, volkswagen Type 4 Chevrolet Corvair Citroën 2CV. Citroën GS and GSA Honda 1300 NSU Prinz Royal Enfield Motorcycles, while water cooled engines were widely used from the early days of flight, air cooled engines were the dominant choice in aircraft. Following the Second World War, turbojets and jet powered aircraft have come to dominate flight regimes where water cooled piston engines offered a drag advantage. Thus today, piston engines are used in slower general aviation aircraft where low weight is an advantage. Therefore, most aero engines produced today are of the air cooled variety, today, most of the engines currently manufactured by Lycoming and Continental and used by major manufacturers of light aircraft Cirrus, Cessna and so on. Notable exceptions have included the Allison V-1710 and Rolls-Royce series of liquid-cooled V12 engines which powered P-51 Mustangs, Avro Lancasters, other engine manufactures using air-cooled engine technology are ULPower and Jabiru, more active in the Light-Sport Aircraft and ultralight aircraft market. Rotax uses a combination of air-cooled cylinders and liquid-cooled cylinder heads, some small diesel engines, e. g. those made by Deutz AG and Lister Petter are air-cooled. Probably the only big Euro 5 truck air-cooled engine is being produced by Tatra, stationary or portable engines were commercially introduced early in the 1900s. The first commercial production was by the New Way Motor Company of Lansing, Michigan, the company produced air-cooled engines in single and twin cylinders in both horizontal and vertical cylinder format. Subsequent to their production which was exported worldwide, other companies took up the advantages of this cooling method. Applications include mowers, generators, outboard motors, pump sets, saw benches, sloan, Alfred P. McDonald, John, ed. My Years with General Motors, Garden City, NY, USA, Doubleday, LCCN64011306, republished in 1990 with a new introduction by Peter Drucker
25.
Suicide door
–
A suicide door is the slang term for an automobile door hinged at its rear rather than the front. Such doors were used on horse-drawn carriages, but are rarely found on modern vehicles due primarily to safety concerns. Suicide doors were common on cars manufactured in the first half of the 20th century, the nickname is mainly due to the designs propensity to seriously injure anyone exiting or entering the offside of the car if the door is hit by a passing vehicle. After World War II, the use of doors was mostly limited to rear doors of four-door sedans. The best-known use of doors on post-World War II American automobiles was the Lincoln Continental 4 door convertibles and sedans. The British Rover P4 cars also used rear suicide doors until their demise in 1964, due to increasing safety concerns, the last mass-produced car model with independently opening suicide doors sold in the United States was the Ford Thunderbird four-door sedan from 1967 to 1971. Similarly, the last mass-produced pickup truck with such doors was the Toyota Tundra from 2000 to 2002, in 2003, the new Rolls-Royce Phantom reintroduced independent suicide doors in luxury vehicle applications. Other luxury models with suicide doors include the Spyker D8. However, the most recent mass-produced model with such doors has been the Rolls-Royce Phantom Series II introduced in 2012, rear passenger suicide doors had long been used on Austin FX4 hackney carriages. Their successor, the TX1, lacks them, the Kia Naimo, an electric concept car, also has rear suicide doors. Other car manufacturers which have produced models with suicide doors include Citroën, Lancia, Opel, Panhard, Rover, Saab, Saturn, Škoda, and Volkswagen. Rear-hinged doors make entering and exiting a vehicle easier, allowing a passenger to enter by turning to sit and exit by stepping forward, in combination with traditional front doors, they allow chauffeurs easier access to the rear door. In Austin FX4 taxis, drivers were able to reach the door handle through the drivers window without getting out of the vehicle. However, the most recent MPV with such doors has been the Opel Meriva B introduced in 2010. When front doors are adjacent to rear suicide doors, exiting and entering the vehicle can be awkward if people try to use the front. In 1969, Consumer Reports reported this problem on a Subaru 360, in recent years, car companies have addressed these hazards with such safety features as seat belts, and locks requiring front-hinged doors be open before permitting rear-hinged doors to open. Butterfly doors Canopy doors Gull-wing doors List of cars with non-standard door designs Scissor doors Sliding doors
26.
Sports car
–
A sports car is a small, usually two seater, two door automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term was in 1928, Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and minimum weight are requisite. The basis for the car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a remarkable 75 hp DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry, capable of 150 km/h, at most, one hundred were built in four years and this was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio, duerkopps Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925, by the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3. Benz introduced the powerful SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, hispano-Suizas Alfonso XIII is considered the first sportcar developed between 1911 and 1914. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars, Austin with the Seven, the drive train and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is common to cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette, more specifically, many such sports cars have a FMR layout, with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used, the RMR layout is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis, and powers only the rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout, Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The motors distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic driving aids to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, however, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had added a lot of weight
27.
Sydney
–
Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
28.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
29.
Sunbeam Alpine
–
The Sunbeam Alpine is a two-seater sports drophead coupé produced by Rootes Group from 1953 to 1955, and then 1959 to 1968. The name was used on a two-door fastback from 1969 to 1975. The Alpine was derived from the Sunbeam-Talbot 90 Saloon, and has become known as the Talbot Alpine. It was a sports roadster initially developed for a one-off rally car by Bournemouth Sunbeam-Talbot dealer George Hartnell. It had its beginnings as a 1952 Sunbeam-Talbot drophead coupé, announced in March 1953 it received its name following Sunbeam-Talbot saloons successes in the Alpine Rally during the early 1950s. The car has a four-cylinder 2,267 cc engine from the saloon, however, since it was developed from the saloon platform, it suffered from rigidity compromises despite extra side members in the chassis. The gearbox ratios were changed, and from 1954 an overdrive unit became standard, a true open 2-seater there were no external door handles or wind-up windows. Very few of these cars are seen on the big screen. However, a sapphire blue Alpine featured prominently in the 1955 Alfred Hitchcock film To Catch a Thief starring Cary Grant, more recently, the American PBS show History Detectives tried to verify that an Alpine roadster owned by a private individual was the actual car used in that movie. The first open 2-seater Alpines were based on the Hillman 14, Rootes replaced them with a softer new smaller 2-seater sports convertible coupé based on the current Hillman Minx and its variants. Kenneth Howes and Jeff Crompton were tasked with doing a complete redesign in 1956, ken Howes contributed some 80 per cent of the overall design work, he had worked at Ford before joining Rootes. The Alpine was produced in four subsequent revisions until 1968, production stopped shortly after the Chrysler takeover of the Rootes Group. The Series Alpine started production in 1959, one of the original prototypes still survives and was raced by British Touring car champion Bernard Unett. The car made use of components from other Rootes Group vehicles and was built on a modified floorpan from the Hillman Husky estate car. The running gear came mainly from the Sunbeam Rapier, but with front disc brakes replacing the saloon cars drums, an overdrive unit and wire wheels were optional. The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs and at the rear had a live axle, the Girling-manufactured brakes used 9.5 in discs at the front and 9 in drums at the rear. Coupé versions of the post-1959 version were built by Thomas Harrington Ltd, after the Le Mans Index of Efficiency success of 1961, Harrington sold replicas as the Harrington Le Mans, using a fastback body and an engine tuned to 104 hp. Unlike the Le Mans racers, these cars had an integrated rear roofline and were without the tail fins of the roadsters
30.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
City car
–
A city car is a small car designed to be used primarily in urban areas and conurbations. The term is used along with terms for small cars including subcompact in North America. The Euro NCAP calls all small cars superminis, the European Commission refers to A-segment. In Japan, the kei car is a type of small car. The original concept for the city car came about as a result of the market for entry level vehicles in the 1920s and 1930s. The great depression caused the market for large, luxurious vehicles to collapse, as a result, manufactures had no choice but to build small, cheap vehicles that people could afford, similar to early 20th century runabouts. However, these vehicles were not specifically branded as vehicles to use in cities or congested areas and they were purely for use as peoples cars, cars designed to be cheap, sell a large number of units, and put people who had not owned cars on wheels. A number of small, cheap cars were sold before the war, including the 1920s Austin 7, 1930s Fiat 500 Topolino. However, these early microcars werent true city cars, most were designed, built, with the exception of a few examples, these were also not designed for specific use in cities. As the European economy improved, Fiat launched the new 500 in 1957 and in 1959, BMC would introduce its well-known city car, there were other new projects from 1969 through 1972. While many of these cars can be considered city cars today, exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the 1957 Fiat 500 and 126. They were in the region of 3.0 metres in length, in the 1970s the Citroën LNA and related three-door Peugeot 104 offered compact city sized cars of around 3.3 m, and the Fiat Panda followed in 1980. In Japan, regulations defining kei cars were established on 8 July 1949, production of compliant vehicles started around 1955–1958 by Daihatsu, Mitsubishi, Subaru, and Suzuki. In the late 1980s, superminis had physically grown so much that many buyers wanted even smaller four-seat cars, combined with an original exterior and interior design, it quickly became a best-seller, although it was not officially imported to right-hand drive markets including the United Kingdom. However, the Fiat Cinquecento, launched towards the end of 1991, was made for right-hand drive markets, in 1996, the Ford Ka was presented with its radical New Edge design. Its egg-shaped body did not leave much room in the rear seats and it was especially popular with British buyers. During the second half of the 1990s, South Korean brands Daewoo and Hyundai introduced their city car entries, both for the Asian and European markets. The Hyundai Atos, launched in 1997, was 3,500 millimetres long and 1,600 millimetres high and its boxy shape provoked mixed reactions
32.
Supermini
–
Supermini is a class of automobile larger than a city car but smaller than a small family car. Superminis are usually available in hatchback body styles, the term subcompact car is used for similar cars in North America. The term supermini developed in the U. K. in the 1970s as car manufacturers sought a new design to surpass the influential Mini, launched in 1959, while manufacturers produced new designs, the term was adopted as an informal categorisation. By 1977, the term supermini was used regularly by the British newspaper The Times and that year, two modern superminis - the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Chevette - featured among Britains 10 best selling cars. A new British car launch that year was the Chrysler Sunbeam supermini, also selling well were the Fiat 127, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Polo, as well as the Japanese built Datsun Cherry and the Peugeot 206. In October 1984, the Consumers Association used the term in its annual Car Buying Guide and it gave an explanation at the start of a section entitled Small Hatchbacks. It said small hatchbacks were known popularly as superminis and while similar to the Mini they were more spacious inside and this definition made clear that a supermini was something larger than a Mini yet smaller than a typical car of the time. In its 1984 report, it included such cars as the Austin Metro, Vauxhall Nova, the Fiat Uno, launched during the first half of 1983, was widely praised for its high roof which set new standards for interior space and practicality in this size of car. The Peugeot 205, also launched in 1983, won plaudits for its styling and excellent ride. By the mid-80s, the term had become established as a car classification term. After the arrival of the hugely popular Fiat Uno and Peugeot 205 in 1983, launched as replacement for the strong-selling, long-running Renault 5. The Fiat Punto, which replaced the Uno at the beginning of 1994, both the Clio and Punto were European Car of the Year award winners. The Peugeot 205 was gradually phased out following the launch of the smaller 106 in 1991 and the larger 306 in 1993, finally ceasing production in 1998 on the launch of the Peugeot 206. The Mk2 Nissan Micra, built by the Japanese carmaker at its facility near Sunderland. The Fiat 500, launched in 2007 on the 50th anniversary of the original model, a-segment C-segment Economy car Kei car Micro car / Bubble car Mini MPV Mini SUV Vehicle size class
33.
Glas Isar
–
The Glas Isar is a small two door four seater car produced by Hans Glas GmbH at their Dingolfing plant. The car was first presented as the Goggomobil T600 in September 1957 at the Frankfurt Motor Show, initially Glas described it simply as a “big Goggomobil”, but in Autumn 1959 it was rebranded as the Glas Isar. At the same time a kombi version joined the range, a minor facelift occurred in August 1960 and the Isar continued in production till the end of Summer 1965. The car that appeared at the 1957 Frankfurt Motor Show was a prototype which in the event differed significantly from the car entered production the next year. Setting the engine back in relation to the front wheels would have involved a level of re-engineering for which neither time nor money were available. The decision was taken to switch to a rear wheel drive configuration. For the driver, this rise to a back to front gear change, with first and third speed gear level positions nearer the driver and second. Series production of the Goggomobil T600 began on 12 June 1958, the new two door four seater incorporated several then fashionable transatlantic styling features including an eye-catching wrap-around windscreen, small tailfins and a two-tone paint finish. The tail lights followed the silhouette of a small key and were said to resemble those on the stylish Opel Kapitän. The front wheels were sprung and the rear suspension followed the usual pattern of the time. The 584 cc boxer motor developed a power output of 15 kW at 5,000 rpm. The car weighed only about 650 kg and was able to reach an indicated 100 km/h in 61 seconds. By the time production commenced in August 1958, the T600 had been joined by the more powerful T700. In this car the 688 cc boxer motor developed a power output of 22 kW at 4,900 rpm. The “Goggomobil T600” became the “Glas Isar T600” and the “Goggomobil T700” became the “Glas Isar T700”, the name change was accompanied by the appearance of a 3-door station wagon variant which was branded as the Glas Isar K600 or Glas Isar K700 according to engine size. Early “big Goggomobils” suffered from reliability issues, suggesting an excessively rushed development schedule. The aluminium castings that formed the motor housings deformed at high operating temperatures leading to a doubling of the fuel consumption, teething troubles on the early T600 and T700 models burdened the manufacturer with high warranty costs and severely damaged the reputation of Glas cars in the market place. The only significant facelift was revealed in August 1960, the cars grew an extra 25 mm in length, apparently to accommodate the slightly more prominent rear lights
34.
Compact car
–
The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
35.
Glas 1004
–
The Glas 1004 is a small two-door, four-seater automobile produced by Hans Glas GmbH at Dingolfing. It was first exhibited in public, in form, at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1961. Volume production of the 1004 coupé started in May 1962, and in January 1963 saloon/sedan, September 1965 saw a yet more powerful variant, the Glas 1304. In September 1966, a fastback Kombilimousine was added, the 04s were produced at least until December 1967, and new cars were listed for sale through much of 1968. In 1960 the company’s research workshop came up with an engine used an unconventional camshaft drive. The 992 cc engine provided an output of 31 kW at 5,000 rpm. During 1961 the company added a modern coupé body using the chassis of the Glas Isar which for this application had been lengthened by 10 cm, the result was the 1004 prototype which appeared at the Motor Show in September of that year. Volume production began in May 1962 and the first cars were delivered in August, the car retained the water cooled 992 cc engine of the prototype which at this stage still delivered a claimed 31 kW of maximum power at 5,000 rpm. Drive was to the wheels via a four-speed manual transmission incorporating – still slightly unusually for this size of car – synchromesh on all four forward speeds. The S1004 came with a monocoque steel body strengthened, from the start on this model. Front suspension used trailing arms and independent springs in combination, while at the back a rigid “swing” axle was supported by leaf springs, both at the front and at the back the suspension was enhanced with “rubber air-filled hollow springs”. The hydraulically controlled drum brakes operated on all four wheels while the hand brake operated via a linkage to the rear wheels. Steering was of the common worm and roller type. The 2+2 coupé, commended in the publicity for its “convincingly simple lines” was advertised at 5,595 DM. From January 1963 the cabriolet was offered, priced at a recommended 6,500. The Glas 1004 had the smallest engine in the range, a still unusual optional extra from August 1963 was disc brakes on the front wheels, fitted for an extra 195 DM. The larger engined car was offered as a coupé and as a cabriolet. In November 1963 Glas added twin carburettor versions of both the 992 cc and 1,189 cc engined cars which were branded as the Glas 1004 TS and the Glas 1204 TS
36.
Family car
–
A family car is a car classification used in Europe to describe normally-sized cars. The name comes from the suitability of these cars to carry a whole family locally or on vacations, most family cars are hatchbacks or sedans, although there are MPVs, estates and cabriolets with the same structure as with the other body style. The term covers two types of family cars, small family cars are between 4.30 m and 4.45 m long if they are hatchbacks, or between 4.40 m and 4.70 m if they are saloon or estate models. Since the 1990s there have been multi-purpose vehicle based on them, called compact MPVs like the Citroën C4 Picasso/Xsara Picasso and the Renault Scénic. Large family cars were usually around 4.50 m in length by the early 1990s, examples of large family cars include the Ford Mondeo, Opel/Vauxhall Insignia, Peugeot 508, and Volkswagen Passat. Large family cars can also be such as the Citroen C5, Honda Accord, Mazda6, Mitsubishi Galant. Equivalently sized cars in North America are usually called mid-size cars, examples of cars in that class include the Ford Fusion, Chevrolet Malibu and the Toyota Camry
37.
Glas 1700
–
The Glas 1700 is a middle class four door saloon produced by Hans Glas GmbH at Dingolfing. The prototype was first presented in September 1963 at the Frankfurt Motor Show, later versions of the coupé and cabriolet bodied Glas GT were also powered, in some cases, by the same engine as the saloon. Frua had at this stage recently worked for the northern company Borgward to develop a successor for the company’s Goliath 1100, the Hansa 1300 project was a success for Frua even though, followed the bankruptcy of the Borgward business, the Hansa 1300 never entered volume production. The car which Frua now developed for Glas was very similar to the still-born Hansa 1300, both cars featured the Hofmeister kink which was gaining wider notability as a striking feature of new BMW designs in the 1960s and subsequently. Not for the first time with a new model from Glas and it became clear that the performance available from the 1489 cc unit was insufficient for a middle-weight saloon with sporting aspirations. A maximum speed of 150 km/h was quoted, and the option of automatic transmission was advertised, by now series production had started, in August 1964, following the annual holiday shutdown, although volumes were still constrained by lack of cash for investment. A year later, in September 1965, claimed power from the engine increased further to 62.5 kW at 4900 rpm. The 1965 Frankfurt Motor Show also saw the introduction of the faster Glas 1700 TS, engine capacity for the version was unchanged at 1682cc, but the standard car’s single carburetor was replaced with twin carburetors. For the 1700 TS maximum power was quoted as 74 kW at 5,500 rpm, the Glas 1700 competed directly with BMW’s own BMW1800 which was already being produced and sold in far greater volumes than Glas had achieved. But BMW saw no reason to nurture the low volume product developed by the Glas business, by December 1967 the last Glas 1700 was produced. These cars were branded as the BMW1800 GL and BMW 2000GL and they were subsequently rebadged as the BMW1804 and BMW2004 and continued to be sold in South Africa in 1973 and 1974, with new cars still available in late 1975. The Glas 1700 was also assembled in Rhodesia as the BMW Cheetah, hanns-Peter Rosellen, Vom Goggomobil zum Glas V8. This entry is based on information from the German Wikipedia Glas 1700 article
38.
Glas GT
–
The Glas GT is a sports coupé produced by Hans Glas GmbH at Dingolfing. The car was first presented as the Glas 1300 GT in September 1963 at the Frankfurt Motor Show, the much rarer cabriolet version appeared in May 1965 and a larger engined 1700 GT in May 1965. Deliveries of the Glas 1300GT began in March 1964, the body was designed by the Piedmontese firm Frua of Moncalieri. The body shells were built in Moncalierei by coach builders Maggiora, the 1,290 cc engine was a bored-out version of the modern unit that had powered the manufacturer’s 1004 model since 1962, with an overhead camshaft. Claimed power output at this point was 55 kW which provided a top speed of 170 km/h, in September 1965 maximum power was increased to 62.5 kW. The car was fitted with wheels and the top speed rose to 175 km/h. From September 1965 the cars could be ordered with the 1,682 cc engine from the newly-introduced Glas 1700 TS sedan, which had a power output of 74 kW. The longer stroke of the 1,682 cc engine made the slightly taller than the smaller engine fitted in the 1300 GT which necessitated a ridge along the center of the bonnet/hood. Matters were simplified by specifying the same bonnet/hood ridge for all GT models regardless of size from the September 1965. The 1700 GT was also homologated for sale in the US, with the BMW acquisition of the Glas business, the GT was refitted to accommodate the 1,573 cc BMW engine already fitted in the BMW1600. By using the BMW engine the car acquired a further increase in power output. Between June 1967 and August 1968 a further 1,259 BMW badged cars were produced
39.
Glas V8
–
The Glas V8 is a V8-engined coupé produced by Hans Glas GmbH at Dingolfing. The car was first presented in September 1965 at the Frankfurt Motor Show, the manufacturer took the decision in 1964 to build on the popularity of the existing Glas GT and produce a 6 cylinder GT coupé. The intention was later to add a sports saloon to the range based on the new coupé, the engine had two overhead camshafts – one for each bank of cylinders – and these were driven using two cam belts. The resulting design therefore featured, among its many “borrowed” components headlights from a Setra bus, window winder mechanisms from a Mercedes-Benz 230SL and the door locks of a Porsche 911. The design presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1965 was seen as sensational, following a familiar pattern with Glas new model launches, it was nearly a year later, in July 1966, that new V8s started to emerge from the Glas plant at Dingolfing. Thanks to the hydraulic struts developed by Boge this was the first production car in Germany to feature self levelling suspension, failure to match the targeted 200 km/h maximum speed were attributed to “problems” involving the carburetors. By February 1966 Glas were running a prototype V8 with the engine bored out to 2, 982cc and this version offered maximum power output of 118 kW and according to some sources now managed to top the 200 km/h maximum specified in the original brief for the car. The 3.2 litre Glas V8 never entered production, with the Glas model range now under the control of BMW, the Glas company’s former rivals, production of the 2600 V8 Glas was ended in August 1967. Production of this model ended in May 1968, however, in contrast with their treatment of the smaller Glas GT, BMW resisted any temptation to give the BMW branded BMW-Glas 3000-V8 a BMW style “twin kidney” grill. When the car first appeared at the 1965 motor show, the price was a sensationally low 18,000 DM. By the time cars were available for sale, in 1966, in terms of volumes, sources differ, according to Werner Oswald the company produced 277 of the smaller engined 2600 V8s and 389 of the more powerful 3000 V8s. Hanns-Peter Rosellen, Vom Goggomobil zum Glas V8 and this entry is based on information from the German Wikipedia Glas V8 article
40.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
_ret-kl.JPG)
_Heck.jpg)
