1.
Soviet Navy
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The Soviet Navy was the naval arm of the Soviet Armed Forces. The influence of the Soviet Navy played a role in the Cold War. The Soviet Navy was divided into four major fleets, the Northern, Pacific, Black Sea, the Caspian Flotilla was a smaller force operating in the land-locked Caspian Sea. Main components of the Soviet Navy included Soviet Naval Aviation, Naval Infantry, most of the Soviet Navy was reformed into the Russian Navy after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, while some elements became the basis of the Ukrainian, Azerbaijani and Georgian navies. During the revolution, sailors deserted their ships at will and generally neglected their duties, the officers were dispersed and most of the sailors left their ships. Work stopped in the shipyards, where uncompleted ships deteriorated rapidly, the Black Sea Fleet fared no better than the Baltic. The Bolshevik revolution entirely disrupted its personnel, with murders of officers. At the end of April 1918, German troops entered Crimea, the more effective ships were moved from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk where, after an ultimatum from Germany, they were scuttled by Vladimir Lenins order. The ships remaining in Sevastopol were captured by the Germans and then, after November 1918, on 1 April 1919, when Red Army forces captured Crimea, the British squadron had to withdraw, but before leaving they damaged all the remaining battleships and sank thirteen new submarines. When the White Army captured Crimea in 1919, it rescued and reconditioned a few units, at the end of the civil war, Wrangels fleet, a White fleet, moved to Bizerta in French Tunisia, where it was interned. The first ship of the navy could be considered the rebellious Imperial Russian cruiser Aurora. Sailors of the Baltic fleet supplied the fighting force of the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution, some imperial vessels continued to serve after the revolution, albeit with different names. The Soviet Navy, established as the Workers and Peasants Red Fleet by a 1918 decree of the Soviet government, was less than service-ready during the interwar years, as the countrys attentions were largely directed internally, the Navy did not have much funding or training. The greater part of the old fleet was sold by the Soviet government to Germany for scrap, in the Baltic Sea there remained only three much-neglected battleships, two cruisers, some ten destroyers, and a few submarines. Despite this state of affairs, the Baltic Fleet remained a significant naval formation, there also existed some thirty minor-waterways combat flotillas. During the 1930s, as the industrialization of the Soviet Union proceeded, approved by the Labour and Defence Council in 1926, the Naval Shipbuilding Program included plans to construct twelve submarines, the first six were to become known as the Dekabrist class. Beginning 4 November 1926, Technical Bureau Nº4, under the leadership of B. M, malinin, managed the submarine construction works at the Baltic Shipyard. In subsequent years,133 submarines were built to designs developed during Malinins management, additional developments included the formation of the Pacific Fleet in 1932 and the Northern Fleet in 1933
2.
Korean People's Navy
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The Korean Peoples Navy, officially known as the Korean Peoples Army Naval Force, is the naval service branch of the Korean Peoples Army, which contains each branch of the North Korean armed forces. The KPN was established on June 5,1946, the navy strength during the 1990s was centered about 40,000 to 60,000 members en force, last projected strength is at about 60,000. There are some 810 vessels including 3 frigates and 70 submarines, the North Korean navy is considered a brown water navy and operates mainly within the 50 kilometer exclusion zone. The fleet consists of east and west coast squadrons, which support each other in the event of war with South Korea. The limited range of most of the means that, even in peacetime. The NKN is organized into two fleets, the East Coast Fleet, with eight operational commands, and the West Coast Fleet, the East Coast Fleet is headquartered at Toejo Dong, with major bases at Najin and Wonsan. The West Coast Fleet is headquartered at Nampo,39 with major bases at Pipagot, numerous smaller naval bases are located along both coasts. The fleets do not exchange vessels because geographical limitations make mutual support almost impossible, the NKN does not have a Marine Corps or naval aviation capabilities. Amphibious operations are conducted by SOF units in addition to naval personnel, according to South Koreas National Intelligence Service, The DPRK Navy is divided into East Sea and West Sea fleets with a total manpower of 148,000. North Koreas fleet consist of approximately 630 combat vessels,100 submarines, as with the ground forces, 60% of the vessels are stationed near the demarcation line. The Times puts the total in 2009 at 420 warships and 60 submarines, the annual report of North Koreas military capabilities by the U. S. The navys numerous amphibious craft and midget submarines are intended to clandestinely insert SOF units into the ROK, the DPRK also maintains coastal defense artillery and missile sites. Coastal defense artillery includes 122 mm,130 mm, and 152 mm systems, land-based coastal defense missiles include the SSC-2B SAMLET, CSSC-2 SILKWORM, and CSSC-3 SEERSUCKER. The NKNs most capable weapons systems are their approximately 43 guided-missile patrol boats equipped with the SS-N-2A STYX antiship missile, though their small size limits operations to coastal waters and calm seas, they have a capability to quickly respond to Combined Forces Command shipping approaching the coast. The missiles have a range of 25 NM and carry radar or infrared homing seekers. The largest part of the NKN consists of small combatants, including boats, patrol boats, patrol craft, fast attack craft. Of the approximately 200 torpedo boats, nearly half are DPRK-built, most are equipped with 25 mm to 37 mm guns. The DPRK built at least 62 CHAHO fire-support patrol units and this unique vessel has a multiple rocket launcher in the center of its deck to provide fire support to ground troops or attack surface ships
3.
People's Liberation Army Navy
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The PLAN can trace its lineage to naval units fighting during the Chinese Civil War and was established in September 1950. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s the Soviet Union provided assistance to the PLAN in the form of advisers and export of equipment. Until the late 1980s, the PLAN was largely a riverine and this led to the development of the Peoples Liberation Army Navy into a green-water navy by 2009. Before the 1990s the PLAN had traditionally played a role to the Peoples Liberation Army Ground Force. In 2008, General Qian Lihua confirmed that China plans to operate a fleet of aircraft carriers in the near future. As of 2013 PLA officials have also outlined plans to operate in the first, Chinese strategists term the development of the PLAN from a green-water navy into a regional blue-water defensive and offensive navy. The PLAN traces its lineage to units of the Republic of China Navy who defected to the Peoples Liberation Army towards the end of the Chinese Civil War, in 1949, Mao Zedong asserted that to oppose imperialist aggression, we must build a powerful navy. During the Landing Operation on Hainan Island, the used wooden junks fitted with mountain guns as both transport and warships against the Republic of China Navy. The Naval Academy was set up at Dalian on 22 November 1949, the navy was established in September 1950 by consolidating regional naval forces under Joint Staff Department command in Jiangyan, now in Taizhou, Jiangsu province. It then consisted of a collection of ships and boats acquired from the Kuomintang forces. The Naval Air Force was added two years later, by 1954 an estimated 2,500 Soviet naval advisers were in China—possibly one adviser to every thirty Chinese naval personnel—and the Soviet Union began providing modern ships. In shipbuilding the Soviets first assisted the Chinese, then the Chinese copied Soviet designs without assistance, eventually Soviet assistance progressed to the point that a joint Sino-Soviet Pacific Ocean fleet was under discussion. Through the upheavals of the late 1950s and 1960s the Navy remained relatively undisturbed, under the leadership of Minister of National Defense Lin Biao, large investments were made in naval construction during the frugal years immediately after the Great Leap Forward. In the 1970s, when approximately 20 percent of the budget was allocated to naval forces. The Navy also began development of attack submarines and nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines. In the 1980s, under the leadership of Chief Naval Commander Liu Huaqing, Liu Huaqing was an Army Officer who spent most of his career in administrative positions involving science and technology. It was not until 1988 that the Peoples Liberation Army Navy was led by a Naval Officer, Liu was also very close to Deng Xiaoping as his modernization efforts were very much in keeping with Dengs national policies. While under his leadership Naval construction yards produced fewer ships than the 1970s, greater emphasis was placed on technology, in 1982 the navy conducted a successful test of an underwater-launched ballistic missile
4.
Zulu-class submarine
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The Soviet Navys Project 611 were one of the first Soviet post-war attack submarines. They were roughly as capable as the American GUPPY fleet-boat conversions and they were a contemporary of the Whiskey-class submarines and shared a similar sonar arrangement. Like most conventional submarines designed 1946-60, their design was influenced by the German Type XXI U-boat of the World War II era. The first few boats of the class were equipped with twin 57mm and twin 25mm anti-aircraft guns and no snorkels, although the guns were removed and snorkels added soon after the boats entered service. Six were converted in 1956 to become the worlds first ballistic missile submarines, one armed with a single R-11FM Scud missile and they were designated as Project AV611 and received the NATO reporting name of Zulu V. The missiles were too long to be contained in the boats hull, to be fired, the submarine had to surface and raise the missile out of the sail. Soviet submarine B-67 successfully launched a missile on 16 September 1955, the Zulus were the basis for the very successful Foxtrot-class submarine, which lent their hull to the Golf class of ballistic missile submarine. Twenty-six boats were built overall, entering service from 1952 to 1957,8 of them in Leningrad and 18 in Severodvinsk and their names were initially B-61 through B-82 and B-88 through B-91, with most renamed in the 1970s or 1980s. The class received the NATO reporting names Zulu I through Zulu V and it is unclear from references how many of each subclass were built. Most were converted to non-combat uses and eventually scrapped, gardiner, Robert and Chumbley, Stephen, Conways all the worlds fighting ships 1947-1995, Naval Institute Press,1996. Globalsecurity. org article Deep storm article Zulu Class submarines - Complete Ship List
5.
Hotel-class submarine
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The Hotel class is the general NATO classification for a type of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine that was originally put into service by the Soviet Union around 1959. The Soviet designation was Project 658, development of the submarine, designed to carry the D-2 launch system and R-13 missiles, was approved on 26 August 1956. Work on the began in September 1956, the technical project was completed in the first quarter of 1957. The duties of the designer of Project 658 were originally assigned to the chief engineer of OKB-18. In February 1958 project management was transferred to I. V, mikhaylov, who in October 1958 had replaced S. N. From the outset the deputy of the designer was I. D. The Hotel design was based on the Project 627 November-class submarine and they were modified by adding the missile compartment from the Golf-class submarines. The D-2 launch system on the Hotels placed three R-13 missiles in vertical containers directly behind the sail, the submarine had to be surfaced to launch, but all three missiles could be fired within 12 minutes of surfacing. The first Hotel-class submarine, K-19, was laid down on 17 October 1958, the last of the eight Hotel submarines was launched 1 April 1962. All of them were built at Severodvinsk State Shipyard 402 (now known as the Northern Machine-Building Enterprise - SEVMASH - in Molotovsk shipyard Russia. Beginning in 1961 and ending in 1963, all Hotels but one were equipped with the new D-4 launch system, the modified submarines received the NATO reporting name Hotel II. They were armed with R-21 missiles, with a range of 1,200 km, the installation of the D-4 launching system required some structural changes of the submarine, before launch, the launch tube had to be flooded. The chief designer of the modification was S. N, from 1969 to 1970 K-145 was modified by Project 701 to test the R-29 missiles, receiving the NATO reporting name Hotel III. It was lengthened to 130 meters and its displacement increased to 5,500 tons surfaced and 6,400 tons submerged, the maximum speed was reduced to 18 kn on the surface and 22 kn submerged. Six launchers for R-29 missiles were placed in two compartments, each with three launchers, in 1976 K-145 returned to combat service. Page in Russian Language Page in English from FAS Hotel Class Submarines - Complete Ship List The Encyclopedia Of Warships, From World War Two To The Present Day, General Editor Robert Jackson
6.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
7.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
8.
Scud
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Scud is a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries, the term comes from the NATO reporting name Scud which was attached to the missile by Western intelligence agencies. The Russian names for the missile are the R-11, and the R-17 Elbrus, the name Scud has been widely used to refer to these missiles and the wide variety of derivative variants developed in other countries based on the Soviet design. The first use of the term Scud was in the NATO name SS-1b Scud-A, the earlier R-1 missile had carried the NATO name SS-1 Scunner, but was of a very different design, almost directly a copy of the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 used technology gained from the V-2 as well, but was a new design, smaller and differently shaped than the V-2, the R-11 was developed by the Korolyev OKB and entered service in 1957. The most revolutionary innovation in the R-11 was the engine, designed by A. M, far simpler than the V-2s multi-chamber design, and employing an anti-oscillation baffle to prevent chugging, it was a forerunner to the larger engines used in Soviet launch vehicles. The SS-1e Scud-D variant developed in the 1980s can deliver a terminally guided warhead capable of greater precision, all models are 11.35 m long and 0.88 m in diameter. They are propelled by a single rocket engine burning kerosene and corrosion inhibited red fuming nitric acid with UDMH. The missile reaches a speed of mach 5. The first of the Scud series, designated R-11 originated in a 1951 requirement for a missile with similar performance to the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 was developed by engineer Viktor Makeev, who was working in the OKB-1. It first flew on 18 April 1953, was fitted with an Isayev engine using kerosene, on 13 December 1953, a production order was passed with SKB-385 in Zlatoust, a factory dedicated to producing long-range rockets. In June 1955, Makeev was appointed chief designer of the SKB-385 to oversee the program and, in July, the definitive R-11M, designed to carry a nuclear warhead, was accepted officially into service on 1 April 1958. The launch system received the GRAU designation 8K11, the R-11M had a maximum range of 270 km, but when carrying a nuclear warhead, this was reduced to 150 km. A naval variant, the R-11FM was first tested in February 1955, while the initial design was done by Korolevs OKB-1, the program was transferred to Makeevs SKB-385 in August 1955. It became operational in 1959 and was deployed onboard Project 611, during its service,77 launches were conducted, of which 59 were successful. The successor to the R-11, the R-17, renamed R-300 in the 1970s, was the most prolific of the series and it served in 32 countries and four countries besides the Soviet Union manufactured copied versions. The first launch was conducted in 1961, and it entered service in 1964, the R-17 was an improved version of the R-11
9.
R-21 (missile)
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The R-21 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile in service with the Soviet Union between 1963 and 1989. It was the first Soviet nuclear missile that could be launched from a submerged submarine and it replaced the R-11FM and R-13 on many Golf and Hotel-class submarines, and was in turn superseded by the R-27 missile carried by Yankee-class submarines. Development of the R-15 and R-21 was initially assigned to Mikhail Yangels Yuzhnoye Design Office on 20 March 1958, the project was transferred to Viktor Makeyevs SKB-385 on 17 March 1959. It was intended for the Golf-class submarines, the missile system was called the D-4 weapon complex. Over the lifetime of the missile,193 out of 228 launches were successful, the R-21 was probably the basis for the design of the North Korean No Dong missile. Unlike Western designs, the R-21 used a cold launch solid rocket to eject the missile from the launch tube before the main motor ignited. This allowed missiles to be launched in a depth of 40-60m. The propulsion system used an IRFNA-amine fuel, AK-27I/TG-02, aK-27I was a mixture of 73% nitric acid, 27% nitrogen tetroxide, and an iodine passivant. The fuel was used in the Wasserfall rocket under the name TONKA-250 and consisted of 50% triethylamine. This gave the R-21 a range of 1,400 km, the Naval Institute Guide suggests that the range was initially 1300 km, and extended to 1650 km later in the life of the missile. There was a warhead of approximately 800 kilotons. The missiles replaced first-generation R-11FM and R-13 missiles on some Golf and Hotel class SSBNs and they were succeeded from 1967 by Yankee-class submarines carrying 2400 km-range R-27 missiles. Seven of the eight Hotel I subs were upgraded to Hotel II standard, which were retired by 1991
10.
Ballistic missile submarine
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A ballistic missile submarine is a submarine deploying submarine-launched ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. These submarines became a weapon system in the Cold War because of their nuclear deterrence capability. Their deployment has been dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union / Russia, with numbers in service with France, the United Kingdom, China. This submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955, five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational SSBs with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956-57. They were followed by a series of 23 specifically designed Project 629 SSBs completed 1958-62, the Polaris missile and the first US SSBNs were developed by a Special Project office under Rear Admiral W. F. Red Raborn, appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke, George Washington was redesigned and rebuilt early in construction from a Skipjack-class fast attack submarine, USS Scorpion, with a 130 ft missile compartment welded into the middle. Nuclear power was an advance, allowing a ballistic missile submarine to remain undetected at sea by remaining submerged or occasionally at periscope depth for an entire patrol. With more missiles on one US SSBN than on five Golf-class boats, the Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, the ill-fated K-19 of Project 658, commissioned in November 1960. However, this carried the same three-missile armament as the Golfs. The first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, with two rotating crews per SSBN, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed. A total of 43 Delta-class boats of all entered service 1972-90, with the SS-N-18 on the Delta III class. The new missiles had increased range and eventually Multiple Independently-targeted Re-entry Vehicles, the Delta-I class had 12 missiles each, the others have 16 missiles each. All Deltas have a superstructure to accommodate their large liquid-fueled missiles. Although the US did not commission any new SSBNs from 1967 through 1981, thirty-one of the 41 original US SSBNs were built with larger diameter launch tubes with future missiles in mind
11.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
12.
Foxtrot-class submarine
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The Foxtrot class was the NATO reporting name of a class of diesel-electric patrol submarines that were built in the Soviet Union. The Soviet designation of class was Project 641. The Foxtrot class was designed to replace the earlier Zulu class, the first Foxtrot keel was laid down in 1957 and commissioned in 1958 and the last was completed in 1983. A total of 58 were built for the Soviet Navy at the Sudomekh division of the Admiralty Shipyard, additional hulls were built for other countries. The Foxtrot class was comparable in performance and armament to most contemporary designs, however, its three screws made it noisier than most Western designs. Moreover, the Foxtrot class was one of the last designs introduced before the adoption of the teardrop hull, also, although the Foxtrot was larger than a Zulu Class Submarine, the Foxtrot Class had 2 of its 3 decks dedicated to batteries. This gave it an endurance of 10 days, but the weight of the batteries made the Foxtrots average speed a slow 2 knots at its maximum submerged time capability. Due to the taking up 2 decks, onboard conditions were crowded with space being relatively small even when compared to older submarines such as the much older American Balao-class submarine. The Foxtrot class was obsolete by the time the last submarine was launched. The Russian Navy retired its last Foxtrots between 1995 and 2000, units were scrapped and disposed of for museum purposes. The last known operational unit, Zaporizhzhia, served in the Ukrainian Naval Forces until it was surrendered to / captured by Russia on March 22,2014, Russia decided not to accept it due to its age and operational unsuitability. Foxtrots played a role in some of the most dramatic incidents of the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviet Navy deployed four Foxtrot submarines to Cuba, US Navy destroyers dropped practice depth charges near Foxtrot subs near Cuba in efforts to force them to surface and be identified. Three of the four Foxtrot submarines were forced to surface, one eluded US forces, following is a list of the 58 submarines built during the Soviet Project 641. Most saw service in the Soviet Navy, Foxtrots were also built for the Indian Navy, Libyan, and Cuban navies. Some Soviet Foxtrots later saw service in the Polish and Ukrainian navies, several Foxtrots are on display as museums around the world, including, B-39 at the Maritime Museum of San Diego in San Diego, California, United States. B-143 at the Seafront Maritime Theme Park in Zeebrugge, Belgium, b-427 at the RMS Queen Mary in Long Beach, California, United States. B-440 at Vytegra, a port on the Volga–Baltic Waterway in Russia, u-475 Black Widow at Strood, Kent, United Kingdom Indian Foxtrot submarine INS Kursura S20 at the Rama Krishna Beach, Visakhapatnam, India
13.
Rubin Design Bureau
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Rubin is the largest among the three Soviet/Russian submarine designer centers, having designed more than two-thirds of all nuclear submarines in the Russian Navy. Rubin is the Russian word for ruby, on January 4,1901 the Marine Ministry of Russia assigned the task of designing a combat submarine for the Russian Navy to three officers, Lieutenant M. N. Goryunov and Naval architect Senior Assistant I. G, Bubnov, an employee at the Ministrys Baltic Shipyard where the construction of the vessel was planned to take place. The men submitted their design to the Marine Ministry on May 3,1901, it was approved the following July, Bubnov was appointed Head of the Construction Commission for Submarines. It was this Construction Commission that after multiple transformations and name became the Rubin Central Design Bureau for Marine Engineering. Construction of the Dolphin was completed in 1903, and its success in subsequent tests was the impetus for the creation of newer, more advanced types of submarines. By 1918 seventy-three submarines of classes Kasatka, Minoga, Akula, Morzh, and Vepr had joined the Russian Navy, thirty-two of these were built to the designs of I. G. Bubnov, who had become Major General of the Naval Architect Corps, in 1926 the Construction Commission for Submarines became Technical Bureau No. 4, and six years later was renamed the Central Design Bureau for Special Shipbuilding No and he designed submarines of the Dekabrist-class, Leninets-class, and Shchuka-class. Experiments on this cycle implementation were carried out on board submarines of Series XII M-92, more change came in 1937, when the Bureau was given the new name Central Design Bureau No. 18, and furthermore became an independent economic organization directly subordinated to the Second Chief Department of People’s Commissariat of Defence Industry, by the beginning of World War II,206 submarines were built to 19 different TsKB-18 designs. 54 more submarines were constructed at the Bureau during the War, during the Siege of Leningrad TsKB-18 was evacuated from Leningrad to Gorkiy. Commissioned by the Navy in 1951, the 215 unit series built to Design 613 was the largest in the world, approximately 25 to 30 of the submarines were built in People’s Republic of China, and the design was handed over to Chinese technicians. Pustyntsev, who headed the Bureau from 1951 to 1974, created the design for Project 641,75 units of this class were commissioned to the Navy in 1963. The same year the Hotel class submarine, which had begun development in 1956 as Project 658, was redesigned to enable underwater launching of D-4 ballistic missiles, in 1965 the Lenin Prize was awarded for works related to the underwater launch of ballistic missiles. In 1963 technical design 667A, a nuclear missile submarine, was developed. Joining the Soviet fleet in 1967, the Project 667A submarine became the first ship of the largest series of nuclear missile submarines, later known as “nuclear missile submarine cruisers, ” improvements to the Yankee class submarines would include the installation of longer-range and multiple-warhead missiles. The success of submarine Projects 667A and 667B would be rewarded with Lenin Prizes in 1970 and 1974, the Yankee-based ballistic missile submarine family comprises, Project 667A Yankee, Project 667B Delta I, Project 667BD Delta II, Project 667BDR Delta III, and Project 667BDRM Delta IV
14.
Lazurite
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Lazurite is a tectosilicate mineral with sulfate, sulfur and chloride with formula,8. It is a feldspathoid and a member of the sodalite group, lazurite crystallizes in the isometric system although well formed crystals are rare. It is usually massive and forms the bulk of the lapis lazuli. Lazurite is a blue to greenish blue. The colour is due to the presence of S−3 anions and it has a Mohs hardness of 5.0 to 5.5 and a specific gravity of 2.4. It is translucent with an index of 1.50. It is fusible at 3.5 and soluble in HCl and it commonly contains or is associated with grains of pyrite. Lazurite is a product of metamorphism of limestone and typically is associated with calcite, pyrite, diopside, humite, forsterite, hauyne. Other blue minerals such as the carbonate azurite and the phosphate lazulite may be confused with lazurite, lazurite at one time was used as a synonym for azurite. Lazurite was first described in 1890 for an occurrence in the Sar-e-Sang District, Koksha Valley, Badakhshan Province and it has been mined for over 6,000 years in the lapis lazuli district of Badakhshan, Afghanistan. It has been used as a pigment in painting and cloth dyeing since at least the sixth or seventh century CE and it is also mined at Lake Baikal in Siberia, Mount Vesuvius, Burma, Canada, and the United States. The name is from the Persian lazward for blue, lazurite and hauyne seem to have the same structure and both are sulfate-dominant minerals. Lazurite is a pigment and has a blue streak. Many hauynes have a pale blue streak and are translucent. The difference might be a consequence of the redox state
15.
R-13 (missile)
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The R-13 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union starting around 1955. It was assigned the NATO reporting name SS-N-4 Sark and carried the GRAU index 4K50, development of the R-13 was authorised by the Soviet Supreme Council on 25 July 1955 for use on the Project 629 and Project 658 submarines. The design work was started by OKB-1 under Sergei Korolev before being transferred to CB Miasskoe engineering / Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau, final technical specifications was approved by 11 January 1956. Serial production was undertaken at Zlatoust Machinery Plant in 1959, the R-13 was a single-stage liquid-fuel rocket and entered service in 1961. This missile was similar in design to the R-11FM missile. The missiles were phased out from 1965 to 1975, during initial testing before the missiles were deployed,26 of 32 missiles were successfully launched. While the systems were deployed from 1961 to 1975,225 of 311 launches were successful
16.
Severodvinsk
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Severodvinsk is a city in the north of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located in the delta of the Northern Dvina River,35 kilometers west of Arkhangelsk, the administrative center of the oblast. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 192,353, due to the presence of important military shipyards, Severodvinsk is an access restricted town for foreign citizens. Vikings explored the territories around the North Dvina River - part of Bjarmaland - at the start of the first millennium. British and Norman ships came to these places for mining, fur and fishing before the 13th century, tradition states that Saint Euphemius, an Orthodox missionary in Karelia, founded this monastery. The abbey stood in ruins until 1471, when two sons of Marfa Boretskaya died in a storm, their bodies were recovered on the beach near the monastery twelve days later. At the urging of Boretskaya, the monastery was restored and her sons were buried there, on August 24,1553, a ship of Richard Chancellor reached the salt-mining settlement of Nyonoksa, which is still famous for its traditional wooden architecture. The British sailors visited the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery, where they were surprised to find a community of sailors in soutanes, in late 1613, during the Time of Troubles in Russia, Polish-Lithuanian vagabonds, the Lisowczycy, captured and looted Severodvinsk with the monastery. The Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery flourished after the establishment of the Muscovy Company, in August 1618 the harbour was visited by John Tradescant the elder, who conducted a survey of an island situated opposite the monastery. This island became known to the British as Rose Island, because it was there that Tradescant found a rare plant which he named Rosa moscovita. The surviving buildings of the monastery were constructed at the close of the Muscovite period, the five-domed cathedral of St. Nicholas was built between 1670 and 1674, preceded by the Assumption church, to which it is joined by a gallery. Several decades later, the walls and towers were built of timber, the Soviets transported the best-preserved of these towers to Kolomenskoye, Moscow, Severodvinsk is the second-largest city in Arkhangelsk Oblast. Its main industry remains defense-related — the construction and repair of submarines at the huge Northern Machine-building Enterprise SEVMASH, the Soviet Unions first nuclear submarine Leninsky Komsomol was built here in 1957. At the beginning of the 1980s the worlds largest submarine, a Typhoon class, was built here. The modern city of Severodvinsk developed in the Soviet period, as it began to be built it was called Sudostroy. It received town status in 1938 and until 1957 was named Molotovsk, on September 12,1957 it was renamed Severodvinsk. During World War II a significant portion of the materials delivered by the Arctic Convoys to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk for the Soviet Union were unloaded in Severodvinsk. For example, the Empire Elgar, a British heavy lift ship that arrived in Arkhangelsk with convoy PQ16, a Russian naval-base supports the sea trials of nuclear submarines from the major submarine construction- and repair-facilities located in the area. In Soviet times the 17th-century buildings of the Nikolo-Korelsky monastery, located on the territory of the shipyard, were adapted and used for shipbuilding purposes, in recent years the monastery buildings, specifically the main church, have been restored and re-consecrated
17.
Komsomolsk-on-Amur
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Komsomolsk-on-Amur is a city in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located on the left bank of the Amur River in the Russian Far East. It is located on the Baikal-Amur Mainline,356 kilometers northeast of Khabarovsk, the city and its suburbs stretch for over 30 kilometers along the left bank of the Amur River. The river at this point is up to 2.5 kilometers wide, the distance to Khabarovsk—the administrative center of the krai—is 356 kilometers, to the Pacific Ocean—about 300 kilometers. The nearest other major town is Amursk, about 45 kilometers south and it is about 3,900 miles east of Moscow, and lies at the eastern end of the BAM Railway. The village of Permskoye was established on the site of Komsomolsk in 1860 by migrant peasants from what is now Perm Krai. The government of the Russian SFSR announced in 1931 plans to construct a shipyard on the Amur at the present site of Komsomolsk, the town was largely built using volunteer labor from the Communist youth organization Komsomol, thus receiving the name Komsomolsk. However, the construction of the town was aided with the use of labour from the prison camps situated in the area. The suffix on Amur was added to differentiate from other towns with the same name and it was granted town status in 1933. By the end of the 1930s, the shipyards along with facilities for heavy industry had been completed. The city developed into a center for industries such as aircraft manufacturing, metallurgy, machinery, oil refining. At present, Komsomolsk-on-Amur is the center for the manufacture of Sukhoi military aircraft. The MiG-15bis and the Lisunov Li-2 were both manufactured in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, within the framework of administrative divisions, Komsomolsk-on-Amur serves as the administrative center of Komsomolsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of krai significance of Komsomolsk-na-Amure—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Komsomolsk-na-Amure is incorporated as Komsomolsk-na-Amure Urban Okrug, the city is administratively divided into 2 okrugs, coinciding with the historical parts, Leninsky and Central. In the Soviet period, the division of the city was different from the present. In accordance with the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of 19 October 1943 were formed Lenin, Stalin, stalinsky district included the territory of Railway Amurstali and residential community. In fact, each of the parts is a separate town, areas of the city are very different architectural appearance, Center Stalinist buildings dominated the 40-50s, Dzemgi is built up mainly typical panel apartment blocks. The sleeping area Dzemgi is not, as the majority of their residents work in enterprises located here, Komsomolsk-on-Amur has a humid continental climate
18.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
19.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
20.
North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
21.
Project Azorian
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Azorian was the code name for a U. S. Central Intelligence Agency project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129 from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974, the 1968 sinking of K-129 occurred approximately 1,560 nautical miles northwest of Hawaii. Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and they worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarines codebooks. The reasons this project was undertaken are likely to include the recovery of a nuclear missile. The USS Halibut submarine used the Fish, a towed, 12-foot, 2-short-ton collection of cameras, strobe lights, while the ship did recover a portion of K-129, a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery. In April 1968, Soviet Pacific Fleet surface and air assets were observed conducting a surge deployment to the North Pacific Ocean that involved some unusual search operations, the activity was evaluated by the Office of Naval Intelligence as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a known to be associated with Soviet Golf II Class SSB strategic ballistic missile diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three missiles in an extended sail/conning tower and routinely deployed to within missile range of the U. S. west coast. The American SOSUS hydrophone network in the northern Pacific was tasked with reviewing its recordings in the hope of detecting an implosion related to such a loss. Naval Facility Point Sur, south of Monterey, California, was able to isolate a sonic signature on its low frequency array recordings of an event that had occurred on March 8,1968. Using NavFac Point Surs date and time of the event, NavFac Adak, west Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the K-129 wreck to the vicinity of 40. 1° N latitude and 179. 9° E longitude. After weeks of search, the Soviets were unable to locate their sunken boat, in July 1968, the U. S. Navy initiated Operation Sand Dollar with the deployment of USS Halibut from Pearl Harbor to the wreck site. Sand Dollars objective was to find and photograph K-129, in 1965, Halibut had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, the only such specially-equipped submarine then in U. S. inventory. The search locus provided by SOCUS was 1,200 square miles, Halibut located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. The proposal was accepted by President Richard Nixon and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery, the ship was built at the Sun Shipbuilding yard near Philadelphia. K-129 was photographed at a depth of over 16,000 feet, on November 1,1972, work began on the 63, 000-short-ton, 619-foot-long Hughes Glomar Explorer. Hughes Glomar Explorer employed a mechanical claw, which Lockheed officially titled the Capture Vehicle
22.
Oahu
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Oʻahu or Oahu /oʊˈɑːhu/, known as The Gathering Place, is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to about two-thirds of the population of the U. S. state of Hawaii, the state capital, Honolulu, is on Oʻahus southeast coast. Along with the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Oahu is one of the largest and northernmost islands of Polynesia, in the greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles long and 30 miles across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles, the island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes, the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet above sea level, the island was home to the Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center from 1941 to 2012, it is now home to the National Security Agencys Hawaii Cryptologic Center. The island is home to 953,207 people in 2010, Oʻahu has for a long time been known as the Gathering Place. The term Oʻahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself, ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the names origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son, residents of Oʻahu refer to themselves as locals, no matter their ancestry. The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaiʻi—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the island of Oʻahu is in the Honolulu County, although as a place name. Well-known features found on Oʻahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, being roughly diamond-shaped, surrounded by ocean and divided by mountain ranges, directions on Oʻahu are not generally described with the compass directions found throughout the world. Locals instead use directions originally using Honolulu as the central point, to go ewa means traveling toward the western tip of the island, Diamond Head is toward the eastern tip, mauka is inland and makai toward the sea. Oʻahu is also known for having the longest rain shower in history, kaneohe Ranch, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi reported 247 straight days with rain from August 27,1993 to April 30,1994. The island has many one of them being rainbow state. This is because rainbows are a sight in Hawaiʻi due to the frequent rain showers. The average temperature in Oʻahu is around 70 to 85 degrees, the weather during the winter is cooler, but still warm with the average temperature of 68-78 degrees. The windward side is known for some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, lanikai Beach on the windward coast of Oʻahu has been consistently ranked among the best beaches in the world. The 300-year-old Kingdom of Oʻahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in all of the Hawaiian Islands, the first great king of Oʻahu was Mailikukahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by many generation of monarchs
23.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
24.
Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)
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In January 1968, the 15th Submarine Squadron was part of the 29th Ballistic Missile Division at Rybachiy, commanded by Admiral Viktor A. Dygalo. K-129s commander was Captain First Rank V. I, K-129 carried hull number 722 on her final deployment during which she sank on March 8,1968. It was one of four mysterious submarine disappearances in 1968, the others being the Israeli submarine INS Dakar, the French submarine Minerve, the Soviet Navy deployed a huge flotilla of ships to search for her but never found her wreck. The United States attempted to recover the boat in 1974 in a secret Cold War-era effort named Project Azorian, the vessels position 4.8 kilometres below the surface was the greatest depth from which an attempt had been made to raise a ship. The cover story used was that the vessel was engaged in commercial manganese nodule mining. Part of the submarine was recovered, K-129, having completed two 70-day ballistic-missile combat patrols in 1967, was tasked with her third patrol to commence 24 February 1968, with an expected completion date of 5 May 1968. Upon departure 24 February, K-129 reached deep water, conducted its test dive, returned to the surface to report by radio that all was well, and proceeded on patrol. No further communication was received from K-129, despite normal radio check-ins expected when the crossed the 180th meridian. By mid-March, Soviet naval authorities in Kamchatka became concerned that K-129 had missed two consecutive radio check-ins, First, K-129 was instructed by normal fleet broadcast to break radio silence and contact headquarters, later and more urgent communications all went unanswered. This unusual Soviet deployment in the Pacific was analysed by U. S. intelligence as probably in reaction to a submarine loss, U. S. SOSUS Naval Facilities in the North Pacific were alerted and requested to review recent acoustic records to identify any possible associated signal. One source characterized the acoustic signal as an isolated, single sound of an explosion or implosion, the acoustic event was reported to have originated near 40 N, 180th longitude. Soviet search efforts, lacking the equivalent of the U. S. SOSUS system, proved unable to locate K-129, K-129 was subsequently declared lost with all hands. American intelligence resources, with the aid of SOSUS triangulation, would locate the K-129 wreck, photograph it in situ at its 16, 000-foot depth. The wreck of K-129 was identified by the USS Halibut northwest of Oahu at a depth of 4,900 metres in early August 1968. It was surveyed in detail over the three weeks by Halibut -reportedly with over 20,000 close-up photos- and later also possibly by the bathyscaphe Trieste II. Given a unique opportunity to recover a Soviet SS-N-5 Serb nuclear missile without the knowledge of the Soviet Union, President Nixon authorized a salvage attempt after consideration by the Secretary of Defense and the White House. To ensure the salvage attempt remained black the CIA, rather than the Navy, was tasked to conduct the operation, the Hughes Glomar Explorer was designed and built under CIA contract solely for the purpose of conducting a clandestine salvage of K-129. The salvage operation, named Project Azorian, would be one of the most expensive, seymour Hersh of the New York Times uncovered some of the details of Project Azorian in 1974, but was kept from publication by the action of the Director of Central Intelligence, William Colby
25.
SOSUS
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The United States Navys initial intent for the system was for tracking Soviet submarines, which had to pass through the gap to attack targets further west. It was later supplemented by mobile assets such as the Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System, SOSUS development was started in 1949 when the US Navy formed the Committee for Undersea Warfare to research anti-submarine warfare. The panel allocated $10 million annually to develop systems to counter the Soviet submarine threat consisting primarily of a fleet of diesel submarines. At MIT in 1950, the committee sponsored Project Hartwell, named for the Hartwell Farms restaurant in Lexington, MA, where some of the initial steps were planned. In November, they selected Western Electric to build a system. Meanwhile, Project Jezebel at Bell Labs and Project Michael at Columbia University focused on studying long range acoustics in the ocean, by 1952, enough progress resulted in top secret plans to deploy six arrays in the North Atlantic basin, and the classified name SOSUS was used. The number of arrays was increased to nine later in the year, in 1961, SOSUS tracked the Fleet Ballistic Missile submarine USS George Washington from the US to the UK. The next year SOSUS detected and tracked its first Soviet diesel submarine, later that year the SOSUS test system in the Bahamas tracked a Soviet Foxtrot class submarine during the Cuban Missile Crisis. SOSUS was upgraded a number of times as submarines became quieter, SOSUS systems consisted of bottom mounted hydrophone arrays connected by underwater cables to facilities ashore. The individual arrays were installed primarily on slopes and seamounts at locations optimized for undistorted long range acoustic propagation. The combination of location within the ocean and the sensitivity of arrays allowed the system to detect acoustic power of less than a watt at ranges of several hundred kilometres. Evaluation Centers were also set up at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island, Washington and Naval Air Station Oceana, the Data Evaluation Center at Dam Neck was named after Commander Will James whose entire Navy career was spent in the system. One eavesdropping station was at Andøya, Norway, in 1972 an eavesdropping station was constructed in Gamvik, Norway. When the USS Thresher sank in 1963, SOSUS helped determine its location, in 1968, the first detections of Victor and Charlie class Soviet submarines were made, while in 1974 the first Delta class submarine was observed. In 1968, SOSUS played a key role in locating the wreckage of a US Nuclear Attack submarine, in 1985, the Fixed Distributed System test array became operational and the first SURTASS patrol began. The name for the system had become Integrated Undersea Surveillance System. S. Navys submarine fleet, its fleet, and its antisubmarine warfare aircraft forces until the end of the Cold War. In 1991, the mission was declassified and the next year it began reporting whale detections
26.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
27.
USS Halibut (SSGN-587)
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Halibuts keel was laid down by Mare Island Naval Shipyard at Vallejo, California, on 11 April 1957. Begun as a submarine but completed with nuclear power, Halibut was the first submarine initially designed to launch guided missiles. Intended to carry the Regulus I and Regulus II nuclear cruise missiles and her missile system was completely automated, with hydraulic machinery controlled from a central control station. Halibut departed on her shakedown cruise 11 March 1960, on 25 March, underway to Australia, she became the first nuclear-powered submarine to successfully launch a guided missile. She returned to Mare Island Naval Shipyard on 18 June 1960, during her first deployment she successfully launched her seventh consecutive Regulus I missile during a major Southeast Asia Treaty Organization weapons demonstration. Returning to Pearl Harbor on 9 April 1961, Halibut began her second deployment 1 May, during subsequent cruises, she participated in several missile firing exercises and underwent training. Halibut deployed for the time to the Western Pacific in late 1961, establishing a pattern of training. On 4 May 1964 Halibut departed Pearl Harbor for the last Regulus missile patrol to be made by a submarine in the Pacific. In total, between February 1961 and July 1964, Halibut undertook a total of seven deterrent patrols before being replaced in the Pacific by Polaris-equipped submarines of the George Washington class. From September through December 1964, Halibut joined eight other submarines in testing and evaluating the attack capabilities of the Permit-class submarine. In February 1965 Halibut entered Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard for a major overhaul and she sailed from Pearl Harbor on 6 September for the West Coast, arriving at Keyport, Washington, on 20 September. On 5 October she departed Keyport for Pearl Harbor and, after a stop over at Mare Island, California. Halibut was also used on secret underwater espionage missions by the United States against the Soviet Union, the latter mission is profiled in the 1996 book, Spy Sub - A Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific, by Dr. Roger C. Halibut was decommissioned on 30 June 1976, citation, USS Jimmy Carter USS Parche USS Seawolf This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here, conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1947-1995. London, Conway Maritime Press, Ltd,1995 Pg.610 http, //www. navsource. org/archives/08/08587a. htm NavSource Online, Submarine Photo Archive, Halibut Keel Laying - Construction Norman Polmar and J. K. Cold War Submarines, The Design and Construction of U. S. Washington, DC, Potomac Books, Inc.2004. Spy Sub - Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific, penguin Books, USA, New York, NY,1996
28.
USS Seawolf (SSN-575)
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This sonar arrangement resulted in an unusual bow shape above the water for a U. S. submarine. Her distinctive reactor was replaced with a standard pressurized water reactor. Seawolf was the basic double hull twin-screw submarine design as her predecessor USS Nautilus. The Submarine Intermediate Reactor nuclear plant was designed by General Electrics Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory and prototyped in West Milton, the prototype plant was eventually designated S1G and Seawolf s plant as S2G. Primary system pressure was 15 psi and the moving part in the primary system was the liquid sodium which was magnetically pumped by electromagnets external to primary piping. The sodium cooled system gave other unique attributes to the U. S and this harmless glow from a secondary effect made for many a dockside conversation. There was only one coolant leak ever noted, and that was during fitting out in the yards, hydrogen also has a small capture cross section which formed 3H as a free gas in the primary system. This complicated system operation since 3H is radioactive, would mix with the H2 from Na-H2O reaction and had to be contained. Early in November 1956, he informed the Commission that he would take steps toward replacing the reactor in Seawolf with a plant similar to that in the Nautilus. The leaks in the Seawolf steam plant were an important factor in the decision, in Rickovers words they were expensive to build, complex to operate, susceptible to prolonged shutdown as a result of even minor malfunctions, and difficult and time-consuming to repair. The S2G reactor was replaced with a pressurized water reactor similar to Nautilus and designated S2Wa, although fully armed, Seawolf, like the first nuclear submarine, Nautilus, was primarily an experimental vessel. Seawolf was originally thought of publicly as a submarine, but in fact was intended to be a one-off test platform for the SIR LMFR reactor. Her future uses, after the plant was replaced with a light water system, included covert operations in foreign waters. Seawolfs keel was laid down 7 September 1953 by the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics Corporation in Groton and she was launched on 21 July 1955 sponsored by Mrs. W. Sterling Cole, and commissioned on 30 March 1957 with Commander R. B. Like all of the original nuclear subs, the manager at Electric Boat was the General Manager of the company. During the parallel construction of the first nuclear submarines, the Navy, the Atomic Energy Commission, its independent labs, for the yard, the Power Plant Project manager was a separate function on these original nuclear subs. Boykin III would lead EBs power plant installation, and return to the two years later for the reactor conversion. His counterpart at the Office of Naval Reactors, Gardner Brown, lieutenant James Earl Jimmy Carter, the only US President to qualify in submarines, was to be her Engineering Officer, but had resigned his commission upon the death of his father in 1953
29.
Melvin Laird
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Melvin Robert Bom Laird was an American politician, writer and statesman. He was a U. S. congressman from Wisconsin from 1953 to 1969 before serving as Secretary of Defense from 1969 to 1973 under President Richard Nixon, first elected in 1952, Laird was the last surviving Representative elected to the 83rd Congress at the time of his death. Laird was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of Melvin R. Laird, Sr. a politician, businessman and he grew up and attended high school in Marshfield, Wisconsin, although in his junior year he attended Lake Forest Academy in Lake Forest, Illinois. He was nicknamed Bambino by his mother, Laird was the grandson of William D. Connor, the Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin from 1907 to 1909, and the great-grandson of Robert Connor, a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly. His niece is Jessica Laird Doyle, wife of former Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle and he graduated from Carleton College in Minnesota in May 1944, having enlisted in the United States Navy a year earlier. Following his commissioning as an ensign, he served on a destroyer, a recipient of the Purple Heart and several other decorations, Laird left the Navy in April 1946. Laird entered the Wisconsin State Senate at age 23, succeeding his deceased father and he represented a legislative district encompassing Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Laird was re-elected eight consecutive times and he was chairman of the House Republican Conference when Nixon selected him for the cabinet and he was known for his work on both domestic and defense issues, including his service on the Defense subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee. He left Congress reluctantly, making it clear when he became secretary on January 22,1969 that he intended to no more than four years. As a congressman Laird had supported a strong defense posture and had sometimes been critical of Secretary McNamara, Laird also criticized McNamaras management and decision-making practices. Laird was reportedly the elder statesman chosen by the Republicans to convince Vice President Spiro Agnew to resign his position after Agnews personal corruption became a public scandal and he also had a prominent role in the selection of Gerald Ford as Agnews replacement as Vice President. The department implemented a number of the panels proposals while Laird served in the Pentagon, Laird did not depart abruptly from the McNamara-Clifford management system, but rather instituted gradual changes. While retaining decisionmaking functions for himself and the deputy secretary of defense, Laird somewhat decentralized policymaking and he accorded the service secretaries and the JCS a more influential role in the development of budgets and force levels. He revised the PPBS, including a return to the use of service budget ceilings, the previously powerful systems analysis office could no longer initiate planning, only evaluate and review service proposals. Laird noted this in his FY1971 report, Except for the policy decisions. The military leadership was enthusiastic about Lairds methods, as the Washington Post reported after his selection as secretary of defense, Around the military-industrial complex these days theyre singing Praise the Laird and pass the transformation. Laird did not shrink from centralized management where he found it useful or warranted and his tenure saw the establishment of the Defense Investigative Service, the Defense Mapping Agency, the Office of Net Assessment, and the Defense Security Assistance Agency. In October 1972 Congress passed legislation creating a second deputy secretary of defense position, Laird succeeded in improving DoDs standing with Congress
30.
United States Secretary of Defense
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The Secretary of Defense is the leader and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense, an Executive Department of the Government of the United States of America. The Secretary of Defenses power over the United States military is only to that of the President. This position corresponds to what is known as a Defense Minister in many other countries. The Secretary of Defense is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, Secretary of Defense is a statutory office, and the general provision in 10 U. S. C. This is also extended to the United States Coast Guard during any period of time in which its command, only the Secretary of Defense can authorize the transfer of operational control of forces between the three Military Departments and the nine Combatant Commands. The current Secretary of Defense is retired United States Marine Corps general James Mattis, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization, the resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. The Act merged the Department of War with the Department of the Navy to form the National Military Establishment, the Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Department of the Army to become its own branch of service, the Department of the Air Force. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, the position of the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time. The last major revision of the framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made. Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, as the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are under the Secretary of Defense. All of these positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award, which is the ribbon and unit award issued to joint DoD activities. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials, Permanent Representative to NATO in recognition of U. S
31.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
32.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
33.
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
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The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands or the Leeward Islands are the small islands and atolls in the Hawaiian island chain located northwest of the islands of Kauai and Niihau. They are part of the U. S. state of Hawaii except Midway Atoll, in the state of Hawaii, they are part of Honolulu County. The United States Census Bureau defines this area as Census Tract 114.98 of Honolulu County and its total land area is 3.1075 square miles. All the islands except Nihoa are north of the Tropic of Cancer and it represents the southwestern part of the islands former volcanic cone. Ancient Hawaiians might have stayed here long-term, 40-acre Necker Island is hook shaped and 270 feet tall at its summit. Barren of vegetation, it was used by Ancient Hawaiians for religious purposes, French Frigate Shoals is an atoll, the largest region of coral reefs in Hawaii, at 200 square miles. The atoll is composed of a dozen or so islands, Tern Island housing an airport. Gardner Pinnacles is made up of two small peaks, the last rocky island in Hawaii. While the island itself is tiny, the reef is expansive. 166-square-mile Maro Reef is an extremely fertile reef system that has described as a coral garden. Laysan is a 913-acre, low, sandy island with a lake in its interior. It has arguably the most diverse ecosystem in the NWHI, Lisianski Island, only 400 acres, is geologically akin to Laysan, without the lake. Though the island is slightly less biodiverse, the reef is very fertile. Pearl and Hermes Atoll is an very similar to French Frigate Shoals. For this reason, it was ignored by guano miners. Midway Atoll is the most commonly known of the NWHI, and is also the largest, circular Kure Atoll contains the 236-acre Green Island, which used to host a LORAN station and a runway, but these have since been demolished. In terms of biodiversity, Kure is one of the less impressive of the NWHI, as the Pacific Plate moved north and later northwest over the hot spot, volcanic eruptions built up islands in a linear chain. The isolated land masses gradually eroded and subsided, evolving from high islands in the south, much like the Main Islands of Hawaii, each of the NWHI are in various stages of erosion
34.
Glomar Explorer
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The cultural effect of Glomar Explorer is indicated by its reference to a number of books, The Ghost from the Grand Banks, a 1990 science fiction novel by Arthur C. Clarke, Shock Wave by Clive Cussler, Charles Strosss novel, The Jennifer Morgue and this is equivalent to $1.7 billion in present-day terms. It first began operation on 20 June 1974, Hughes told the media that the ships purpose was to extract manganese nodules from the ocean floor. This marine geology cover story became surprisingly influential, causing others to examine the idea. Because K-129 sank in deep water, at a depth of 3.0 miles, located 1,560 miles NW of Hawaii. Such a vessel would be detected easily by Soviet vessels, which then interfere with the operation. The CIA contacted Hughes, who agreed to assist, while the ship did recover during 1974 a portion of K-129, a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery. This lost section is said to have many of the most sought items, including the code book. The CIA, wanting neither to confirm nor deny the story, issued the Glomar response, the true name of the project was not known publicly to be Project Azorian until 2010. The publication Red Star Rogue by Kenneth Sewell makes the claim Project Jennifer recovered virtually all of K-129 from the ocean floor, a subsequent movie and book by Michael White and Norman Polmar revealed testimony from on-site crewmen as well as B&W video of the actual recovery operation. These sources indicate only the forward 38 feet of the submarine were recovered. While the ship had a lifting capacity, there was little interest in operating the vessel because of her great cost. From March to June 1976, the General Services Administration published advertisements inviting businesses to submit proposals for leasing the ship and these are equivalent to $8.42 million and $8.33 million in present-day terms, respectively. The Lockheed Missile and Space Company submitted a US$3 million, two-year lease proposal contingent upon the ability to secure financing. The consortium included subsidiaries of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana, Royal Dutch Shell, another partner, and the prime contractor, was the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company. The conversion cost more than $180 million US and was completed during the first quarter of 1998 and this is equivalent to $264 million in present-day terms. The conversion of the vessel from 1996-1998 was the start of a 30-year lease from the U. S. Navy to Global Marine Drilling at a cost of US$1 million per year, during 2010, Transocean acquired the vessel in return for a US$15 million cash payment. The rig was reflagged from Houston, US to Port Vila, Transocean announced during April 2015 that the ship would be scrapped
35.
R-11 Zemlya
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The R-11 Zemlya, GRAU index 8A61 was a Soviet tactical ballistic missile. It is also known by its NATO reporting name SS-1 Scud-A and it was the first of several similar Soviet missiles to be given the reporting name Scud. The R-11 originated from a 1951 requirement for a missile with similar performance to the German V-2 rocket. With the Wasserfall, a version of the V-2, as a model the R-11 was developed by engineer Victor Makeev. The two men disagreed over the propulsion of the missile, with Korolev favouring the use of oxygen, while Makeev advocated the use of toxic. Makeevs version, that first flew on 18 April 1953, was fitted with an Isayev engine using RP-1, on 13 December 1953, a production order was passed with SKB-385 in Zlatoust, a factory dedicated to producing long-range rockets. In June 1955, Makeev was appointed chief designer of the SKB-385 to oversee the programme and, in July, the definitive R-11M, designed to carry a nuclear warhead, was accepted officially into service on 1 April 1958. The launch system received the GRAU index 8K11, like the V-2, the R-11 relied on inertial guidance, and its flight was controlled by four graphite vanes in the engine exhaust, that were active only while the motor was burning. The R-11M had a range of 270 kilometres, but when carrying a nuclear warhead. At maximum range, it was found to have a range error 1.19 kilometres. It was used as a nuclear strike vector, giving the Soviet Army the ability to hit European targets from forward areas. To give the system sufficient mobility on the battlefield, the R-11 was mounted on the chassis of an IS-2 tank, the only payload was a nuclear warhead with an estimated yield of 50 kilotons. A naval variant, the R-11FM was first tested at Kapustin Yar in February 1955, while the initial design was done by Korolevs OKB-1, the programme was transferred to Makeevs SKB-385 in August 1955. During its service,77 launches were conducted, of which 59 were successful, the success of the R-11FM established Makeev as the main designer of submarine-launched weapons for the Soviet military. Hwasong-5 Hwasong-6 R-17 Elbrus Scud Ballistic Missile Reference from the Federation of American Scientists Missile Threat, A Project of the George C. Marshall Institute R-11 / SS-1B SCUD-A
36.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile
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A submarine-launched ballistic missile is a ballistic missile capable of being launched from submarines. Modern variants usually deliver multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles each of which carries a nuclear warhead, submarine-launched ballistic missiles operate in a different way from submarine-launched cruise missiles. Modern submarine-launched ballistic missiles are closely related to ballistic missiles. The war ended before it could be tested, but the engineers who had worked on it went on to work for the USA and USSR on their SLBM programs. These and other early SLBM systems required vessels to be surfaced when they fired missiles, a converted Project 611 submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955. Five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational ballistic missile submarines with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956–57. The United States Navy initially worked on a variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large. Red Raborn headed a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, soon Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborns Special Project Office. All US SLBMs have been solid-fueled while all Soviet and Russian SLBMs have been liquid-fueled except for the Russian RSM-56 Bulava, george Washington also conducted the first successful submerged SLBM launch with a Polaris A-1 on 20 July 1960. The Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, however, the Hotel class carried only three R-13 missiles each and had to surface and raise the missile to launch. Submerged launch was not an operational capability for the Soviets until 1963, the Soviet Union was able to beat the U. S. The United States eventually conducted a similar test in the Pacific Ocean on 6 May 1962, the first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, which first entered service in 1967 with 32 boats completed by 1974. By the time the first Yankee was commissioned the US had built 41 SSBNs, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, the SSBN facilities at the Advanced Refit Sites were austere, with only a submarine tender and floating dry dock. Converted merchant ships designated T-AKs were provided to ferry missiles and supplies to the sites, with two rotating crews per boat, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed
37.
T
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T is the 20th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second most common letter in English language texts, taw was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. In English, ⟨t⟩ usually denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive, as in tart, tee, or ties, the digraph ⟨ti⟩ often corresponds to the sound /ʃ/ word-medially when followed by a vowel, as in nation, ratio, negotiation, and Croatia. The letter ⟨t⟩ corresponds to the affricate /t͡ʃ/ in some words as a result of yod-coalescence, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨t⟩ denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive. Media related to T at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of T at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of t at Wiktionary
38.
R-27 Zyb
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The R-27 Zyb was a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union and employed by the Soviet Navy from 1968 through 1988. NATO assigned the missile the reporting name SS-N-6 Serb, in the USSR, it was given the GRAU index 4K10. It was a fuel rocket using a hypergolic combination of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine as fuel. Between 1974 and 1990,161 missile launches were conducted, with a success rate of 93%. The R-27 missiles were deployed on the Yankee I submarines, including the K-219, the missile was a two-stage development of the single-stage R-27, the second stage containing the warhead as well as propulsion and terminal guidance. Initial trials ended on 18 December 1972 because the Rekord-2 fire control system hadn´t been delivered yet, after a number of delays caused by several malfunctions, test firings were finally carried out between 11 September and 4 December 1973. Following the initial trials, the K-102 continued making trial launches with both the R-27 and the R-27K, until it was accepted for service on 15 August 1975. Using external targeting data, the R-27K/SS-NX-13 would have been launched underwater to a range of between 350-400 nm, covering a footprint of 27 nm, the Maneuvering Re-Entry vehicle would then home in on the target with a CEP of 400 yards. Warhead yield was between 0. 5-1 Mt, the missile system never became operational, since every launch tube used for the R-27K counted as a strategic missile in the SALT agreement, and they were considered more important. Although the R-27K could fit in the tubes of the Project 667A. Soviet Union The Soviet Navy was the operator of the R-27
39.
R-39 Rif
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The R-39 Rif was a submarine-launched ballistic missile that served with the Soviet Navy from its introduction in 1983 until 1991, after which it served with the Russian Navy until 2004. The missile had GRAU indices of 3M65, 3M20, and 3R65 and it was carried on board Typhoon-class submarines. An intercontinental missile, the R-39 had a three-stage solid-fuel boost design with a liquid-fuel post-boost unit carrying up to ten independently targetable reentry vehicle warheads. Like other SLBMs the initial launch was powered by a gas generator in the bottom of the firing tube, during the missiles passage through the water additional motors produce a gaseous wall around the missile, reducing hydrodynamic resistance. The launch system was designated D-19, development work began at NII Mashinostroyeniya in 1971 and the design gained official approval in 1973. Initial test flights from 1979 found problems in the solid-fuel boost engines, later tests aboard a modified Typhoon-class submarine were more successful and deployment began in May 1983, with 20 missiles in each submarine. At full deployment,120 missiles were deployed with 1,200 total warheads, under the terms of the START I and START II treaties, from 1996 a number of R-39 missiles were destroyed. Throughout the 1990s, Typhoon class submarines and the R-39 missiles they carried were gradually withdrawn from service, all the missiles were decommissioned by 2004 and all the Typhoon class submarines have been retired, except for one which is used as a test platform for the RSM-56 Bulava. A successor design, R-39M Grom /RSM-52V/SS-N-28 for D-19UTTKh launch system, Soviet Union Soviet Navy Russia Russian Navy List of missiles Russian nuclear forces 2005, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March/April 2005. GlobalSecurity. org data on R-39 GlobalSecurity. org data on R-39M GlobalSecurity. org data on Typhoon submarines
40.
Vladivostok
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Vladivostok is a city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia, located at the head of the Golden Horn Bay, not far from Russias borders with China and North Korea. The population of the city as of 2016 is 606,653, the city is the home port of the Russian Pacific Fleet and the largest Russian port on the Pacific Ocean. The name Vladivostok loosely translates from Russian as the ruler of the East—a name similar to Vladikavkaz which means the ruler of the Caucasus, the Japanese name of the city is Urajiosutoku. In Korean, the name is transliterated as Beulladiboseutokeu in South Korea, Ullajibosŭttokhŭ in North Korea, Qing China, which had just lost the Opium War with Britain, was unable to defend the region. The Manchu emperors of China, the Qing Dynasty, banned Han Chinese from most of Manchuria including the Vladivostok area —it was only visited by illegal gatherers of ginseng and sea cucumbers. On June 20,1860, the supply ship Manchur, under the command of Captain-Lieutenant Alexey K. Shefner. Warrant officer Nikolay Komarov with 28 soldiers and two non-commissioned officers under his command were brought from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur by ship to construct the first buildings of the future city, the Manza War in 1868 was the first attempt by Russia to expel Chinese from territory it controlled. Hostilities broke out around Vladivostok when the Russians tried to shut off gold mining operations, the Chinese resisted a Russian attempt to take Ashold Island and in response, two Russian military stations and three Russian towns were attacked by the Chinese whom the Russians failed to oust. An elaborate system of fortifications was erected between the 1870s and 1890s, a telegraph line from Vladivostok to Shanghai and Nagasaki was opened in 1871. That same year a commercial port was relocated to Vladivostok from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur, town status was granted on April 22,1880. A coat of arms, representing the Siberian tiger, was adopted in March 1883, the first high school was opened in 1899. The citys economy was given a boost in 1916, with the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, after the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks took control of Vladivostok and the Trans-Siberian Railway in its entirety. During the Russian Civil War they were overthrown by the White-allied Czechoslovak Legion, the intervention ended in the wake of the collapse of the White Army and regime in 1919, with all Allied forces except the Japanese withdrawing by the end of 1920. In April 1920, the city came under the governance of the Far Eastern Republic. Vladivostok then became the capital of the Japanese-backed Provisional Priamurye Government, the withdrawal of Japanese forces in October 1922 spelled the end of the enclave, with Ieronim Uborevichs Red Army taking the city on October 25,1922. As the main base of the Soviet Pacific Fleet, Vladivostok was officially closed to foreigners during the Soviet years. The city hosted the summit at which Leonid Brezhnev and Gerald Ford conducted the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in 1974, at the time, the two countries decided quantitative limits on various nuclear weapons systems and banned the construction of new land-based ICBM launchers. In 2012, Vladivostok hosted the 24th APEC summit, leaders from the APEC member countries met at Russky Island, off the coast of Vladivostok
41.
Dalian
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Dalian is a major city and seaport in the south of Liaoning Province, China. It is the southernmost city of Northeast China and at the tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, Dalian is the provinces second largest city and has sub-provincial administrative status, only the provincial capital is larger. The Shandong Peninsula lies southwest across the Bohai Strait, Korea lies across the Yellow Sea to the east, today, a financial, shipping and logistics centre for Northeast Asia, Dalian has a significant history of being used by foreign powers for its ports. Dalian was previously known as both Dalniy and Dairen, however the city was better known as Port Arthur and Ryojun from the original Port Arthur, now the citys Lüshunkou district. In 2012, Dalian ranked 82nd in the Global City Competitiveness Index, in 2006, Dalian was named Chinas most livable city by China Daily. Modern Dalian originated from Qingniwa or Qingniwaqiao, a fishing village. Russia built a town for the Kwantung Leased Territory after assuming control in 1898. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan occupied the Kwantung Leased Territory, English sources called the city Dairen in this period, from the Japanese. In 1981, the State Council again renamed the city, from Lüda to Dalian, in the Qin and Han periods, Chinese expanded their territories into northern Korea through the Dalian region, then under the jurisdiction of Liaodong county. During the Sixteen Kingdoms era, the kingdom of Goguryeo controlled this region, in the early Tang Dynasty, the Dalian region was part of Andong Prefecture in Jili state, during the Liao Dynasty, it was part of Dong Jing Tong Liaoyang county. Dalian was named Sanshan in the period of Wei Jin, San Shanpu in the Tang Dynasty, Sanshan Seaport in the Ming Dynasty, and Qingniwakou during the Qing Dynasty. In the 1880s, Jinzhou, the north of downtown within Dalian, now Jinzhou District, was a town and centre for political intrigue. The Qing government built bridges and heavily fortified the peninsula, mining camps on the northern coast of Dalian Bay became the small town of Qingniwa or Qingniwaqiao, near what became downtown Dalian. The British occupied Qingniwa in 1858, but it returned to Chinese control in the 1880s, Port Arthur at the peninsulas tip took its English name from Royal Navy Lieutenant William C. Arthur, but Chinese called it Lüshun, in April 1895, China conceded defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, ceding Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan and Penghu, and making many other concessions in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. For Russia the region of the peninsula was of particular interest as one of the few areas in the region that had the potential to develop ice-free ports. The Russians built a commercial port city, which they wanted to become the Paris of the Far East. Linked to the Trans-Siberian Railways branch line from Harbin, Dalniy became Russias primary port-city in Asia, Russia spent more than 10 million golden rubles building the new ice-free port city
42.
Sino-Soviet split
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In the 1960s, China and the Soviet Union were the two largest communist states in the world. The doctrinal divergence derived from Chinese and Soviet national interests, in the 1950s and the 1960s, ideological debate between the communist parties of the USSR and China also concerned the possibility of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist West. The split concerned the leadership of world communism, the USSR had a network of communist parties it supported, China now created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. The split helped to determine the framework of the Second Cold War in general, the divide fractured the international communist movement at the time and opened the way for the warming of relations between the United States and China under Richard Nixon and Mao in 1971. Relations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989, the split was primarily caused because of two main factors, differing national interests and various interpretations of communist ideology. During the Second World War Stalin urged Mao into a joint, Chiang Kai-shek received no assistance during the Berlin Blockade in 1948, because the United States Air Force was putting all its efforts towards helping the people of Berlin during that time. The Americans were preoccupied in Europe and did not turn to help Chiang Kai-sheks Kuomintang Army in China until the Kuomintang were losing the Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin Campaigns. However, Mao and his supporters argued that traditional Marxism was rooted in industrialized European society, in ways of which neither Marx nor Lenin could dream, which the Soviet government banned in the USSR. However, because of tensions over the partition of Korea, and these ideas became the basis for the Great Leap Forward. However, the meeting between the two leaders was not completely positive – Mao found Khrushchev’s personality grating, and Khrushchev was unimpressed with Chinese culture, in 1955, relations only continued to improve. By this year, economic trade collaboration had begun to develop to the point that 60% of Chinese exports were to the USSR. Mao also began to implement the Chinese “Five Year Plan”, modeled after the USSR’s own successful Five Year Plans that had begun a couple of decades previously, Mao also promoted and encouraged the collectivization of agriculture in the PRC, applauding Stalin’s own policies towards agriculture and industrialization. This period, from roughly Stalin’s death in 1953 to Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” in 1956 has been called the “golden age” of Sino-Soviet relations and this is mainly through the increased economic and political cooperation as well as collaboration in international politics between the two countries. However, relations began to deteriorate in 1956 after Khrushchev revealed his “Secret Speech” at the 20th Communist Party Congress, the “Secret Speech” criticized many of Stalin’s policies, especially his purges of Party members, and marked the beginning of Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization process. This created a domestic problem for Mao, who had supported many of Stalin’s policies. With Khrushchev’s denouncement of Stalin, many people questioned Mao’s own policies in China, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and conflict in Poland – a direct result of Khrushchev’s statements – also worried Mao. This event showed the beginnings of the split between the PRC and the USSR. Mao was also worried about the “peaceful coexistence” foreign policy with the West that Khrushchev began and this policy was known as the “Hundred Flowers Campaign”, but was unsuccessful and backfired against Mao, weakening his position within his own party
43.
Great Wall of China
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Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC, these, later joined together and made bigger and stronger, are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built 220–206 BC by Qin Shi Huang, since then, the Great Wall has been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced, the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty. The Great Wall stretches from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, a comprehensive archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km. This is made up of 6,259 km sections of wall,359 km of trenches and 2,232 km of natural defensive barriers such as hills. Another archaeological survey found that the wall with all of its branches measure out to be 21,196 km. The collection of fortifications now known as The Great Wall of China has historically had a number of different names in both Chinese and English. The Chinese character 城 is a compound of the place or earth radical 土 and 成. The longer Chinese name Ten-Thousand-Mile Long Wall came from Sima Qians description of it in the Records, though he did not name the walls as such. The AD493 Book of Song quotes the frontier general Tan Daoji referring to the wall of 10,000 miles, closer to the modern name. Since Chinas metrication in 1930, it has been equivalent to 500 metres or 1,600 feet. However, this use of ten-thousand is figurative in a manner to the Greek and English myriad. Because of the association with the First Emperors supposed tyranny. Instead, various terms were used in records, including frontier, rampart, barrier, the outer fortresses. Poetic and informal names for the wall included the Purple Frontier, only during the Qing period did Long Wall become the catch-all term to refer to the many border walls regardless of their location or dynastic origin, equivalent to the English Great Wall. The current English name evolved from accounts of the Chinese wall from early modern European travelers, by the 19th century, The Great Wall of China had become standard in English, French, and German, although other European languages continued to refer to it as the Chinese wall. The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring, during this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Yan, and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, king Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, to position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empires northern frontier
44.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
