1.
Rab concentration camp
–
The Rab concentration camp was one of the several Italian concentration camps and it was established during World War II, in July 1942, on the Italian-occupied island of Rab. In September 1943, after the armistice with Italy, the camp was closed, additional special instructions which included the instruction that the orders must be carried out most energetically and without any false compassion were issued by Roatta. If necessary dont shy away from using cruelty and it must be a complete cleansing. We need to all the inhabitants and put Italian families in their place. Mario Roatta in his Circolare No, following Roattas orders, one of his soldiers in his July 1,1942 letter wrote home, We have destroyed everything from top to bottom without sparing the innocent. We kill entire families every night, beating them to death or shooting them, Italian soldiers picked us all up. Some were released, and others were sent to concentration camps, nobody knew who decided, or on what grounds. The camp at Rab, built near the village of Kampor, was one of a number of such camps established along the Adriatic coast to accommodate Slovenian and Croatian prisoners. Opened in July 1942, it was officially termed Camp for the concentration, Slovenes and Croatians, many of whom were women and children, including pregnant women and newborns, suffered from cold and hunger in open-air tents, surrounded by barbed wire fence and guard towers. At its peak there were up to 15,000 internees Conditions at the camp were described as appalling, filthy, muddy, overcrowded and swarming with insects. Prisoners fought with each other for access to the meager water supply. Part of the encampment was washed away by flash flooding, treating the Slovene population like this palpably undermines our dignity and is contrary to the principles of justice and humanity to which we make constant reference in our propaganda. By 1 July 1943,2,118 Yugoslav Jews were recorded having been interned by the Italian army, starting in June 1943, they were moved into a newly constructed section of the Rab concentration camp, alongside the Slovenian and Croatian section. The Jewish internees were living conditions of true internment for their protection, whereas the Slovenes. They brought a lot of baggage with them, Italian soldiers carried their luggage into little houses of brick destined for them. Almost every family had its own little house and they were reasonably well dressed, in comparison, of course, to other internees. The difference in treatment was the consequence of a policy by the Italian military authorities. The memorandums author, a Major Prolo, urged that the infrastructure of the camp must be. comfortable for all internees without risk to the maintenance of order, inactivity and boredom are terrible evils which work silently on the individual and collectivity
Rab concentration camp
–
Italian flag over the Rab concentration camp.
Rab concentration camp
–
Male inmate at the Rab concentration camp.
2.
Final solution
–
The Final Solution or the Final Solution to the Jewish Question was a Nazi plan for the extermination of the Jews during World War II. The nature and timing of the decisions that led to the Final Solution is a studied and debated aspect of the Holocaust. The program evolved during the first 25 months of war leading to the attempt at murdering every last Jew in the German grasp, most historians agree, wrote Christopher Browning, that the Final Solution cannot be attributed to a single decision made at one particular point in time. It is generally accepted the process was prolonged and incremental. There were also plans to deport Jews to Palestine and Siberia, the term Final Solution was a euphemism used by the Nazis to refer to their plan for the annihilation of the Jewish people. Historians have shown that the tendency of the German leadership was to be extremely guarded when discussing the Final Solution. Euphemisms were, in Mark Rosemans words, their mode of communicating about murder. According to Nazi Party policy statement, the Jews, and Roma, were the only people in Europe. In 1936 the Bureau of Romani Affairs in Munich was taken over by the Interpol, after the Anschluss with Austria in 1938, special offices were established in Vienna and Berlin to facilitate Jewish emigration without covert plans for their forthcoming annihilation. In the German-occupied zone of Poland, Jews were forced hundreds of makeshift ghettos pending other arrangements. Two years later, with the launch of Operation Barbarossa against the USSR, reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler became the chief architect of a new plan, which came to be called the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. On 31 July 1941, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring wrote to Reinhard Heydrich, broadly speaking, the extermination of Jews was carried out in two major operations. His new orders gave the SS and police leaders full authority for the murder behind the front-lines. By August 1941 all Jewish men, women and children were shot, in the second phase of annihilation, the Jewish inhabitants of central, western, and south-eastern Europe were transported by Holocaust trains to camps with newly-built gassing facilities. Raul Hilberg wrote, In essence, the killers of the occupied USSR moved to the victims, whereas outside this arena, the two operations constitute an evolution not only chronologically but also in complexity. The plan to exterminate the Jews of Europe irrespective of geographic borders was formalised at the Wannsee Villa near Berlin on 20 January 1942, the conference was chaired by Heydrich and attended by 15 senior officials of the Nazi Party and the German government. Most of those attending were representatives of the Interior Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, at the conference, Heydrich indicated that approximately 11,000,000 Jews in Europe would fall under the provisions of the Final Solution. This figure included not only Jews residing in Axis-controlled Europe, but also the Jewish populations of the United Kingdom, eichmanns biographer David Cesarani wrote that Heydrichs main purpose in convening the conference was to assert his authority over the various agencies dealing with Jewish issues
Final solution
–
In a February 26, 1942, letter to German diplomat
Martin Luther,
Reinhard Heydrich follows up on the
Wannsee Conference by asking Luther for administrative assistance in the implementation of the "Endlösung der Judenfrage" (Final Solution to the Jewish Question).
Final solution
–
The villa at 56–58 Am Großen Wannsee, where the
Wannsee Conference was held, is now a memorial and museum.
3.
Mario Roatta
–
The survivors received no compensation from the Italian state after the war. The deportees had formed about 7.5 percent of the population of the Italy-occupied Province of Ljubljana. From 1934 to 1936, Roatta was the head of the Italian Military Information Service, during the Spanish Civil War, he led the Corpo Truppe Volontarie and helped Francisco Francos forces. He was the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Italian Army from October 1939 to March 1941 and from March 1941 to January 1942 its Chief of Staff, from January 1942 until February 1943, he served as the commander of the Italian Second Army and operated in Yugoslavia. Mario Roatta was born 2 February 1887 in Modena, Kingdom of Italy to Giovan Battista Roatta and his father, a native of the province of Cuneo, was a captain in the Royal Italian Army. Roatta became a soldier in the army and was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant in 1906. He served as an officer during World War I. After the war he operated as a military attaché in Warsaw where he remained until December 1930 when he took command of an infantry regiment. In June 1933, he was the Chief of Staff of the Army Corps in Bari, from 1934 to 1936, Roatta headed the Italian Military Intelligence Service. From September 1936 to December 1938, he took part in the Spanish Civil War and he initially aided Galeazzo Ciano by helping direct Italian assistance to the Nationalists on a day-to-day basis. In 1936 Ciano successfully persuaded Mussolini that Roatta be given command of the Corps of Volunteer Troops, Roatta was later replaced by Ettore Bastico as commander. From July to October 1939 he served as a military attaché in Berlin, from October 1939 to March 1941, he served as the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Italian Army. In September 1940, the Italians set forth the first crucial steps necessary for the invasion of Yugoslavia, Roatta reported that all available forces in northern Italy gathered at the Yugoslav frontier between Tarvisio and Fiume, two armies on the front line, and a third in reserve. Altogether there were thirty-seven divisions, eighty-five groups of medium-caliber artillery, in January 1942, Roatta had become the commander of the Italian Second Army, succeeding General Vittorio Ambrosio. Between 30 January and 9 February 1942, Roatta discussed with Ambrosio to create a Policy Directive on his commands relationship with the Croats, Chetniks, and Partisans. Roatta was mostly concerned with removing a number of Italian forces present in Zones II and III. In a response sent on 13 February, Ambrosio stated that there should be maximum loyalty to the Croats, but with a no uncertainty, or weakness, and he vowed a struggle to the bitter end with regards to the Partisans. Through these talks the relationship with the Independent State of Croatia, under Mario Roattas command, Italys violence against the Slovene civil population matched the Germans
Mario Roatta
–
Mario Roatta
Mario Roatta
–
CTV at the Battle of Guadalajara.
4.
Ethnic cleansing
–
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. The forces applied may be forms of forced migration, intimidation, as well as mass murder. An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos, which was used in ancient texts to describe atrocities that accompanied Alexander the Greats conquest of Thebes in 335 BC. In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs, the Poles, the French, a 1913 Carnegie Endowment report condemning the actions of all participants in the Balkan Wars contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups. During World War II, the euphemism čišćenje terena was used by the Croatian Ustaše to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes. Viktor Gutić, a senior Ustaše leader, was one of the first Croatian nationalists on record to use the term as a euphemism for committing atrocities against Serbs. This process was repeated on a larger scale in 1939–41. During The Holocaust, Nazi Germany pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was cleansed of Jews, according to Israeli historian Benny Morris, the term cleansing was used in Israeli military documents dating to the 1948 Israeli–Arab war, referring to the expulsion of Arabs from Israel. In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term ethnic cleansing to describe the violence in Nagorno-Karabakh. At around the time, the Yugoslav media used it to describe what they alleged was an Albanian nationalist plot to force all Serbs to leave Kosovo. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the Bosnian War, the first recorded mention of its use in the Western media can be traced back to an article in The New York Times dated 15 April 1992, in a quote by an anonymous Western diplomat. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes, furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention. As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies, in the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, thnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation, at the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory. The term ethnic cleansing has frequently employed to refer to the events in Bosnia. General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to the abhorrent policy of ethnic cleansing and it can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide, there is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing. There are however situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, timothy V. Waters argues that if similar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law
Ethnic cleansing
–
The
Chios Massacre refers to the slaughter of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of
Chios by
Ottoman troops in 1822.
Ethnic cleansing
–
1941. Serbs who have been expelled from their homes, march out of town carrying large bundles.
Ethnic cleansing
–
The 12th anniversary exhibition of ethnic cleansing in
Abkhazia, which was held in
Tbilisi in 2005.
Ethnic cleansing
–
Mass expulsion of Poles in 1939 as part of the German ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the Reich.
5.
Slovenes
–
They speak the Slovene, a South Slavic language with significant similarities to West Slavic languages. The majority of ethnic Slovenes live in Slovenia, and they are a minority in Austria, Hungary, Croatia, and Italy. Expatriates live mainly in other European countries, and in Argentina, Australia, Canada, most Slovenes today live within the borders of the independent Slovenia. In the Slovenian national census of 2002,1,631,363 people ethnically declared themselves as Slovenes, while 1,723,434 people claimed Slovene as their native language. The autochthonous Slovene minority in Italy is estimated at 83,000 to 100,000, the Slovene minority in southern Austria at 24,855, in Croatia at 13,200, and in Hungary at 3,180. Significant Slovene expatriate communities live in the United States and Canada, in other European countries, in Argentina, the largest population of Slovenes outside of Slovenia is in Cleveland, Ohio. In total 39-36% of 399-458 sampled Slovenian males belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a, more frequent than in South Slavic peoples, constituting 41% in the capital region, Slovenian population displays close genetic affiliations with West Slavic populations. The homogenous genetic strata of the West Slavic populations and the Slovenian population suggest the existence of a common ancestral Slavic population in central European region. The M458 branch constitutes 4%, while the dominant clade is Z280, specifically its R1a-CTS3402 clade, the Z92 branch of Z280 which is significant among East Slavs is recorded as completely absent among Slovenes, Hungarians and Austrians. Of 100 sampled Slovenians, 18% belong to R1b, of which 8% of R1b belongs to the P312 branch, 6% to the eastern, the Dinaric-North haplotypes of I2a1b are with overwhelming higher frequency than Dinaric-South even in regions with high frequency. From 623 to 658, Slavic peoples between the upper Elbe River and the Karavanke mountain range were united under the leadership of King Samo in what was to become known as Samos Tribal Union. The tribal union collapsed after Samos death, but a smaller Slavic tribal principality Carantania remained, due to pressing danger of Avar tribes from the east, the Carantanians accepted a union with Bavaria in 745 and later recognized Frankish rule and accepted Christianity in the 8th century. The last Slavic state formation in the region, the principality of Prince Kocelj, Slovene ethnic territory subsequently shrank due to pressing of Germans from the west and the arrival of Hungarians in the Pannonian plain, and stabilized in the present form in the 15th century. The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century, during this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the Protestant preacher Primož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, at the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsored Counter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics of Baroque culture. The Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people and it hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. The start of activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival. Before the Napoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged, during the same period, the first history of the Slovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written by Anton Tomaž Linhart, while Jernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensive grammar of Slovene
Slovenes
–
Peter Kozler 's
map of the Slovene Lands, designed during the
Spring of Nations in 1848, became the symbol of the quest for a
United Slovenia.
Slovenes
–
Germany
6.
Province of Ljubljana
–
The Province of Ljubljana was the central-southern area of Slovenia. Until 1943, it was annexed by Fascist Italy, and after 1943 occupied by Nazi Germany. Created on May 3,1941, it was abolished on May 9,1945, during World War II, Slovenia was in a unique situation. After Yugoslavia was invaded by Axis Powers on 6 April 1941, Germany, the ethnic German Gottscheers were moved out of the province because Hitler opposed having them in the Italian occupation zone. The bulk of its territory was, Lower Carniola, The eastern portions of Inner Carniola, The city of Ljubljana, the northern suburbs were under the occupation of the Greater German Reich. Fascist Italy occupied Marindol and other villages that had belonged to the Banovina of Croatia, Milić-Selo, Paunović-Selo, Žunić-Selo, Vukobrati, Vidnjevići. These villages were annexed to the municipality of Črnomelj as part of the Province of Ljubljana, after the war the inhabitants of those areas demanded to be returned to the People’s Republic of Croatia as part of the county of Karlovac. By the administrative organization of 1947, Marindol and the villages on the left bank of Kolpa constituted a local community in the composition of the county of Karlovac. It was still a constituent part of the county at the time of 1948 census, after that the complete area was under Slovene authority. Parts of the area were also annexed by Italy to the Ljubljana Province and parts of Gorski Kotar mainly in the Čabar area. This was an agreement between the Kingdom of Italy and the Independent State of Croatia on the border between the two Axis states during the Second World War, tens of thousands of Slovenes from German-occupied Lower Styria and Upper Carniola escaped to the Province of Ljubljana until June 1941. The central area of Slovenia was first occupied by Fascist Italy in April 1941, the province was created as a specific administration unit within Italy. Although considered as an part of Italy, it was treated as a corpus separatum. Unlike other provinces, it was administered by a High Commissioner, the High Commissioner had a similar position as prefects in other Italian provinces, but was given wider competences. The first High Commissioner was Emilio Grazioli, the province did enjoy some political or administrative autonomy and several concessions were given to the local Slovene population. In the countryside, most of the administrations, elected in general elections during the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Judiciary and local administration personnel were also kept, both Italian and Slovene were given the status of official languages and also the status of an administrative language. Most Slovenian cultural and educational institutions of importance, such as the University of Ljubljana
Province of Ljubljana
–
Nazi—annexed
Austria
Province of Ljubljana
–
1942 announcement that exiting Ljubljana is forbidden by Fascist Italian authority.
7.
Croats
–
Croats are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group at the crossroads of Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean Sea. Croats mainly live in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, but are a recognized minority in Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have migrated throughout Europe, evidence is rather scarce for the period between the 7th and 8th centuries, CE. Archaeological evidence shows population continuity in coastal Dalmatia and Istria, in contrast, much of the Dinaric hinterland appears to have been depopulated, as virtually all hilltop settlements, from Noricum to Dardania, were abandoned in the early 7th century. Although the dating of the earliest Slavic settlements is still disputed, the origin, timing and nature of the Slavic migrations remain controversial, however, all available evidence points to the nearby Danubian and Carpathian regions. Much uncertainty revolves around the circumstances of their appearance given the scarcity of literary sources during the 7th and 8th century Dark Ages. Traditionally, scholarship has placed the arrival of the Croats in the 7th century, as such, the arrival of the Croats was seen as a second wave of Slavic migrations, which liberated Dalmatia from Avar hegemony. However, as early as the 1970s, scholars questioned the reliability of Porphyrogenitus work, rather than being an accurate historical account, De Administrando Imperio more accurately reflects the political situation during the 10th century. The major basis for this connection was the similarity between Hrvat and inscriptions from the Tanais dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, mentioning the name Khoroathos. Similar arguments have been made for an alleged Gothic-Croat link and they appear to have been based around Nin and Klis, down to the Cetina and south of Liburnia. Here, concentrations of the Old Croat culture abound, marked by very wealthy warrior burials dating to the 9th century CE. Other, distinct polities also existed near the Croat duchy and these included the Guduscans, the Narentines and the Sorabi who ruled some other eastern parts of ex-Roman Dalmatia. Also prominent in the territory of future Croatia was the polity of Prince Liutevid, however, soon, the Croats became the dominant local power in northern Dalmatia, absorbing Liburnia and expanding their name by conquest and prestige. In the south, while having periods of independence, the Naretines also merged with Croats later under control of Croatian Kings, with such expansion, Croatia soon became dominant power and absorb other polities between Frankish, Bulgarian and Byzantine empire. Each vied for control of the Northwest Balkan regions, nevertheless, two independent Slavic dukedoms emerged sometime during the 9th century, the Croat Duchy and Principality of Lower Pannonia. Having been under Avar control, lower Pannonia became a march of the Carolingian Empire around 800, aided by Vojnomir in 796, the first named Slavic Duke of Pannonia, the Franks wrested control of the region from the Avars before totally destroying the Avar realm in 803. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, Frankish influence decreased on the region, the Frankish margraves sent armies in 820,821 and 822, but each time they failed to crush the rebels. Aided by Borna the Guduscan, the Franks eventually defeated Ljudevit, for much of the subsequent period, Savia was probably directly ruled by the Carinthian Duke Arnulf, the future East Frankish King and Emperor
Croats
–
Goran Ivanišević
Croats
–
The current
flag of Croatia, including the current coat of arms.
Croats
–
The Coming of the Croats to the Adriatic by
Oton Iveković.
Croats
–
Coronation of King Tomislav by
Oton Iveković.
8.
Gorski Kotar
–
Gorski Kotar is the mountainous region in Croatia between Karlovac and Rijeka. Because 63% of its surface is forested it is called the green lungs of Croatia or Croatian Switzerland. Through the region passes the European route E65, which connects Budapest, the region is divided between Primorje-Gorski Kotar County and Karlovac County. The part of the region that is in Karlovac County contains the Municipality of Bosiljevo, with a population of 4454, Delnice is the largest city of the region and its center. Other centers with populations of more than 1,000 are Vrbovsko, begovo Razdolje, the highest town in Croatia, is located in Gorski Kotar at an altitude of 1076 m. The population density of Gorski Kotar is low, but the highest in Mountainous Croatia, as of 2001, about 28,000 people were living in an area of about 1,300 square kilometers, which is about 22 people per square kilometer. Linguistically, the region is diverse, in a relatively small area. Also, in parts of Gorski Kotar there is a considerable Italian community. Geomorphically Gorski Kotar is on the plateau about 35 km and has an average altitude of 800 m. The highest point is Bjelolasica at 1534 m followed by Risnjak at 1528 m, the plateau is a climatic barrier between the littoral and continental parts of the country. The border with the Kvarner region is defined by the divide between the basins of the Black Sea and of the Adriatic Sea. To the north, the Kupa River is the border between Gorski Kotar and Slovenias White Carniola region, the first known inhabitants of the Gorski Kotar was the Illyrian tribe of the Iapodes, who lived in the area from the 9th century BC on. They were later subjugated by the Romans, who built lines of fortification from Grobnik to Prezid, the Frankopans initiated the first wave of settlement in the 14th century, first colonizing the eastern part of the Gorski Kotar, making their stronghold at Bosiljevo. In the 15th century, due to the Ottoman intrusions, the significance of the Gorski Kotar increased. This led to a new wave of settlement and the creation of defensive fortifications, after a short period of insecurity, settlement renewed at the end of 16th century, when many Ottoman exiles and refugees came to this region. They settled along the border with the Ottoman Empire, in Gomirje, Vrbovsko, Dobra, Moravice, Stari Laz, Sušica, Mrkopalj, Čabar and its surroundings were settled by a Slovene population from Carniola and Chakavian from Kvarner. After the failed Zrinski-Frankopan plot their properties were confiscated and shared many other nobles. The most intense period of settlement began in the 18th century with the 1732 opening of the Karolina road, most immigrants were from Kvarner but Czechs, Slovenes and descendants of Ottoman exiles also came
Gorski Kotar
–
Lake Lokve in Gorski Kotar, Mt. Risnjak in the distance.
9.
Racist
–
Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
Racist
–
A rally against
school integration in 1959.
Racist
–
1902 use of the word "racism".
Racist
–
Students protesting against
racial quotas in
Brazil. The sign reads: "Want vacancy? Pass the
entry exam!"
Racist
–
Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, Germany, 1933
10.
Benito Mussolini
–
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service
Benito Mussolini
–
Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
–
Birthplace of Benito Mussolini in
Predappio, now used as a museum
Benito Mussolini
–
Mussolini's father, Alessandro
Benito Mussolini
–
Mussolini's mother, Rosa
11.
Italian war crimes
–
Italian war crimes have been associated mainly with Fascist Italy in the Pacification of Libya, Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and World War II. In 1911, Italy went to war with the Ottoman Empire, in 1912,10,000 Turkish and Arab troops were imprisoned in concentration camps in Libya, all Turkish troops were executed. They were met with resistance from the Senussi led by Omar Mukhtar, civilians suspected of collaboration with the Senussi were executed. Refugees from the fighting were subject to bombing and strafing by Italian aircraft, in 1930, in northern Cyrenaica 20,000 Bedouins were relocated and their land given to Italian settlers. The Bedouins were forced to march across the desert into concentration camps, during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian violations of the laws of war were reported and documented. These included use of weapons such as mustard gas and attacks on Red Cross facilities. Thousands of Ethiopians also died in camps such as Danane. Fillipo Focardi, a historian at Romes German Historical Institute, has discovered archived documents showing how Italian civil servants were told to avoid extraditions, a typical instruction was issued by the Italian prime minister, Alcide De Gasperi, reading, Try to gain time, avoid answering requests. The denial of Italian war crimes was backed up by the Italian state, academe, and media, re-inventing Italy as only a victim of the German Nazism and the post-war Foibe massacres. The Province of Ljubljana saw the deportation of 250,000 people, the operation, one of the most drastic in Europe, filled up many Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere. The survivors received no compensation from the Italian state after the war, in early July 1942, Italian troops operating opposite Fiume, were reported to have shot and killed 800 Croat and Slovene civilians and burned down 20 houses near Split on the Dalmatian coast. In the second week of August 1942, Italians troops were reported to have burned down six Croatian villages, during September 1942, the Italian Army was reported to have destroyed 100 villages in Slovenia and killed 7,000 villagers in reprisal against local guerrilla attacks. A similar phenomenon took place in Greece in the postwar years. The Italian occupation of Greece was often brutal, resulting in such as the Domenikon Massacre. This is a working list of Italian high-ranking military personnel or other officials involved in acts of war and it includes also such personnel of lower rank that were accused of grave breaches of the laws of war. Inclusion of a person does not imply that the person was qualified as a war criminal by a court of justice. As noted in the relevant section, very few cases have brought to court due to diplomatic activities of, notably. The criterion for inclusion in the list is existence of reliable documented sources, Pietro Badoglio, In 1936, during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Badoglio approved, as commander in chief of the Italian army, the use of poisonous gas against enemy troops
Italian war crimes
–
Libyan internees in the
El Agheila concentration camp.
Italian war crimes
–
Ferruccio Nazionale, an
Italian partisan hung by the
Decima Flottiglia MAS. The sign says: "He attempted to shoot the Decima." As part of the
Italian Social Republic, the Xª MAS took part in anti-partisan actions and were implicated in a number of reprisal actions and massacres of Italian civilians, sometimes alongside the
Waffen SS.
Italian war crimes
–
Italian troops walk among the bodies of Greek civilians executed during the
Domenikon massacre.
12.
Yugoslavia
–
Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast Europe during most of the 20th century. The Serbian royal House of Karađorđević became the Yugoslav royal dynasty, Yugoslavia gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. The country was named after the South Slavic peoples and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the Ottoman Empire, renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, it was invaded by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance, in 1944, the king recognised it as the legitimate government, but in November 1945 the monarchy was abolished. Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946 and it acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country as president until his death in 1980, in 1963, the country was renamed again as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The constituent six socialist republics that made up the country were the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia, and SR Slovenia. Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo, which after 1974 were largely equal to the members of the federation. After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics borders, at first into five countries, eventually, Serbia and Montenegro accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession. Serbia and Montenegro themselves broke up in 2006 and became independent states, the concept of Yugoslavia, as a single state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the Illyrian Movement of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words jug, Yugoslavia was the result of the Corfu Declaration, as a project of the Serbian Parliament in exile and the Serbian royal Karađorđević dynasty, who became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and it was commonly referred to at the time as the Versailles state. Later, the government renamed the country leading to the first official use of Yugoslavia in 1929, on 6 January 1929 King Alexander I suspended the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions and he imposed a new constitution and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I, Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavias historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas, the banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance, the effect of Alexanders dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity. During his reign the flags of Yugoslav nations were banned, Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul
Yugoslavia
–
Partisan Stjepan Filipović shouting "Death to fascism, freedom to the people!" shortly before his execution
Yugoslavia
–
Marshal
Josip Broz Tito
13.
Brenner Pass
–
Brenner Pass is a mountain pass through the Alps which forms the border between Italy and Austria. It is one of the passes of the Eastern Alpine range and has the lowest altitude among Alpine passes of the area. Dairy cattle graze in alpine pastures throughout the summer in valleys beneath the pass, at lower altitudes, farmers log pine trees, plant crops and harvest hay for winter fodder. Many of the pastures are at an altitude of over 1,500 metres. The central section of Brenner Pass covers a four-lane motorway and railway tracks connecting Bozen/Bolzano in the south, the village of Brenner consists of an outlet shopping centre, fruit stores, restaurants, cafés, hotels and a gas station. It has a population of 400 to 600, Prenner was originally the name of a nearby farm which derived from its former owner. The farm of a certain Prennerius is mentioned in documents in 1288, the name Prenner is traced back to the German word for somebody who clears woodland. A name for the pass itself appears for the first time in 1328 as ob dem Prenner, Roman Empire The Romans regularized the mountain pass at Brenner, which had already been under frequent use during the prehistoric eras after the most recent Ice Age. Brenner Pass, however, was not the first trans-Alpine Roman road to become regularized under the Roman Empire, the first Roman road to cross this Alpine range, Via Claudia Augusta, connected Verona in northern Italy with Augusta Vindelicorum in the Roman province of Raetia. The Roman road that crossed over Brenner Pass did not exist until the 2nd century AD. It took the route through the Puster Valley and descended into Veldidena. The Alamanni crossed the Brenner Pass southward into modern-day Italy in 268 AD, however, the Romans kept control over this mountain pass until their breakup in the 5th century. Since the 12th century, Brenner Pass was controlled by the Counts of Tyrol within the Holy Roman Empire, emperor Frederick Barbarossa made frequent uses of the Brenner Pass in order to cross the Alps during his imperial expeditions of Italy. This 12th-century Brenner Pass was a trackway for mule trains and carts, Austrian Empire Modernisation of Brenner Pass took place under the Austrian Empire. In 1777, a road was laid out at the behest of Empress Maria Theresa. The Brenner Railway, which was completed in stages from 1853 to 1867, became the first trans-Alpine rail route being built without a major tunnel and at high altitude. Completion of this railway has enabled the Austrians to move their troops more efficiently and these areas were lost to Italy following the Milan Uprisings in 1859 and Austro-Prussian Wars in 1866. Post-World War I At the end of the First World War in 1918, Italy was awarded the territories south of Brenner Pass for betraying the Central Powers and switching side to the Entente Powers
Brenner Pass
–
View between the top of the pass and
Gries am Brenner
Brenner Pass
–
The Brenner Pass, one of the most important transit routes between Northern and Southern Europe.
14.
Dinaric Alps
–
The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides is a mountain chain which spans from Italy in the northwest, over Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania to Kosovo in the southeast. They extend for 645 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, where the mountain direction changes to north-south. The highest mountain of the Dinaric Alps is Mount Triglav, a located in Julian Alps in north west Slovenia. The Dinaric Alps are the fifth most rugged and extensively mountainous area of Europe after the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sand and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that had once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50–100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded, the Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara, a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border of Croatia and Bosnia. The Mesozoic limestone forms a distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys, however, in the Prokletije, a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west, there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges, the partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast. The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps, here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity, as it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels, the roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the water to the surface once more. The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, at the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue
Dinaric Alps
–
Orjen at the
Bay of Kotor is the most heavily karstified range of the Dinarides
Dinaric Alps
–
Valbona Pass, northern
Albania
Dinaric Alps
–
Mount
Mučanj, lower Dinarides, western
Serbia
15.
Pula
–
Pula or Pola is the largest city in Istria County, Croatia and the eighth largest city in the country, situated at the southern tip of the Istria peninsula, with a population of 57,460 in 2011. Like the rest of the region, it is known for its climate, smooth sea. The city has a tradition of winemaking, fishing, shipbuilding. It has also been Istrias administrative centre since ancient Roman times, evidence of the presence of Homo erectus 1 million years ago has been found in the cave of Šandalja near Pula/Pola. Pottery from the Neolithic period, indicating human settlement, has found around Pula – Pola. In the Bronze Age, a new type of settlement appeared in Istria, called gradine, many late Bronze Age bone objects, such as tools for smoothing and drilling, sewing needles, as well as spiral bronze pendants, have been found in the area around Pula/Pola. The type of materials found in Bronze Age sites in Istria connects these with sites along the Danube, the inhabitants of Istria in the Bronze Age are known as Proto Illyrians. Greek pottery and a part of a statue of Apollo have been found, Greek tradition attributed the foundation of Polai to the Colchians, mentioned in the context of the story of Jason and Medea, who had stolen the golden fleece. The Colchians, who had chased Jason into the northern Adriatic, were unable to catch him and ended up settling in a place they called Polai, the town was elevated to colonial rank between 46–45 BC as the tenth region of the late Roman Republic, under Julius Caesar. During that time the town grew and had at its zenith a population of about 30,000 and it became a significant Roman port with a large surrounding area under its jurisdiction. After Octavians victory, the town was demolished and it was soon rebuilt at the request of Octavians daughter Iulia and was then called Colonia Pietas Iulia Pola Pollentia Herculanea. The colony was part of Venetia et Histria, a region of Roman Italy, great classical constructions were built of which a few remain. A great amphitheatre, Pula Arena, was constructed between 27 BC –68 AD, much of it still standing to this day, the Romans also supplied the city with a water supply and sewage systems. They fortified the city with a wall with ten gates, a few of these gates still remain, the triumphal Arch of the Sergii, the Gate of Hercules and the Twin Gates. During the reign of emperor Septimius Severus the name of the town was changed into Res Publica Polensis, the town was the site of Crispus Caesars execution in 326 AD and Gallus Caesars execution in 354 AD. In 425 AD the town became the centre of a bishopric, when their rule ended, Pola came under the rule of the Exarchate of Ravenna. During this period Pola prospered and became the port of the Byzantine fleet. The Basilica of Saint Mary Formosa was built in the 6th century, from 788 on Pola was ruled by the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne, with the introduction of the feudal system
Pula
Pula
Pula
Pula
16.
Treviso
–
Treviso is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy. The city is home to the headquarters of clothing retailer Benetton, Sisley, Stefanel, Geox, Diadora and Lotto Sport Italia, appliance maker DeLonghi, and bicycle maker Pinarello. Treviso is also known for being the production area of Prosecco wine. For some scholars, the ancient city of Tarvisium derived its name from a settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Taurusci, others have attributed the name instead to the Greek root tarvos, meaning bull. Tarvisium, then a city of the Veneti, became a municipium in 89 BCE after the Romans added Cisalpine Gaul to their dominions, citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe of Claudia. The city lay in proximity of the Via Postumia, which connected Opitergium to Aquileia, Treviso is rarely mentioned by ancient writers, although Pliny writes of the Silis, that is the Sile River, as flowing ex montibus Tarvisanis. During the Roman Period, Christianity spread to Treviso, tradition records that St. Prosdocimus, a Greek who had been ordained bishop by St. Peter, brought the Catholic faith to Treviso and surrounding areas. By the 4th century, the Christian population grew sufficient to merit a resident bishop, the first documented bishop was John the Pius who began his epsicopacy in 396 AD. According to tradition, Treviso was the birthplace of Totila, the leader of Ostrogoths during the Gothic Wars, the latter was especially important during the reign of the last Lombard king, Desiderius, and continued to churn out coins when northern Italy was annexed to the Frankish Empire. People from the city played a role in the founding of Venice. Charlemagne made it the capital of a march, i. e. the Marca Trevigiana. Treviso joined the Lombard League, and gained independence after the Peace of Constance and this lasted until the rise of seignories in northern Italy. Among the various families who ruled over Treviso, the Da Romano reigned from 1237 to 1260, Treviso and its satellite cities, including Castelfranco Veneto, had become attractive to neighbouring powers, including the da Carrara and Scaligeri. After the fall of the last Caminesi lord, Rizzardo IV, Treviso notary and physician, Oliviero Forzetta, was an avid collector of antiquities and drawings, the collection was published in a catalog in 1369, the earliest such catalog to exist to this day. After a Scaliger domination in 1329–1339, the city itself to the Republic of Venice. From 1318 it was also, for a time, the seat of a university. Venetian rule brought innumerable benefits, however, Treviso necessarily became involved in the wars of Venice, from 1381–1384, the city was captured and ruled by the duke of Austria, and then by the Carraresi until 1388. The many waterways were exploited with several waterwheels which powered mills for milling grain produced locally
Treviso
–
Piazza dei Signori
Treviso
–
City walls.
Treviso
–
A bridge on the Sile river in Treviso.
17.
Italian armistice
–
It was signed at a conference of generals from both sides in an Allied military camp at Cassibile in Sicily, which had recently been occupied by the Allies. The armistice was approved by both King Victor Emmanuel III and Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, the armistice stipulated the surrender of Italy to the Allies. After its publication, Germany retaliated against Italy, attacking Italian forces in Italy, South of France, Italian forces were quickly defeated and most of Italy was occupied by German troops, while the King, the government and most of the navy reached territories occupied by the Allies. Following the surrender of the Axis powers in North Africa on 13 May 1943 and these moves by Mussolini were described as slightly hostile acts to the king, who had been growing increasingly critical of the war. To help carry out his plan, the King asked for the assistance of Dino Grandi. Grandi was one of the members of the Fascist hierarchy and, in his younger years. The King was also motivated by the suspicion that Grandis ideas about Fascism might be changed abruptly, various ambassadors, including Pietro Badoglio himself, proposed to him the vague possibility of succeeding Mussolini as dictator. The conspirators devised an Order of the Day for the reunion of the Grand Council of Fascism which contained a proposal to restore direct control of politics to the king. Following the Council, held on 23 July 1943, where the order of the day was adopted by majority vote, Mussolini was summoned to meet the King, upon leaving the meeting, Mussolini was arrested by carabinieri and spirited off to the island of Ponza. Badoglio took the position of Prime Minister and this went against what had been promised to Grandi, who had been told that another general of greater personal and professional qualities would have taken the place of Mussolini. The appointment of Badoglio apparently did not change the position of Italy as Germanys ally in the war, however, many channels were being probed to seek a peace treaty with the Allies. Meanwhile, Hitler sent several divisions south of the Alps, officially to help defend Italy from allied landings, three Italian generals were separately sent to Lisbon in order to contact Allied diplomats. In the end, Castellano was admitted to speak with the Allied diplomats in order to set the conditions for the surrender of Italy. To ease communication between the Allies and the Italian Government, a captured British SOE agent, Dick Mallaby, was released from Verona prison and secretly moved to the Quirinale. It was vital that the Germans remained ignorant of any suggestion of Italian surrender, Badoglio still considered it possible to gain favourable conditions in exchange for the surrender. He ordered Castellano to insist that any surrender of Italy was subordinate to a landing of Allied troops on the Italian mainland. On 31 August General Castellano reached Termini Imerese, in Sicily, by plane and was transferred to Cassibile. It soon became obvious that the two sides in the negotiations had adopted rather distant positions, Castellano pressed the request that the Italian territory be defended from the inevitable reaction of the German Wehrmacht against Italy after the signing
Italian armistice
–
King Victor Emanuel III in his uniform as
Marshal of Italy.
Italian armistice
–
General
Giuseppe Castellano
18.
Italian history
–
The history of Italy begins with the arrival of the first hominins 850,000 years ago at Monte Poggiolo. Italy shows evidence of habitation by modern humans beginning about 43,000 years ago. It is reached by the Neolithic as early as 6000–5500 BC Cardium Pottery, among the Italic peoples, the Latins, originally situated in the Latium region, and their Latin language would come to dominate the peninsula with the Roman conquest of Italy in the 3rd century BC. The decline and collapse of the Western Empire by the end of the 5th century is taken to mark the end of Late Antiquity, a Lombard Kingdom of Italy was established, although parts of the peninsula remained under Byzantine rule and influence until the 11th century. With the rise of nationalism and the idea of the state in the 19th century. The new Kingdom of Italy, established in 1861, quickly modernized and built a colonial empire, colonizing parts of Africa. However, many regions of the nation remained rural and poor. Part of the allied powers of World War I, Italy defeated its historical enemy. Soon afterwards, however, the state collapsed to social unrest. Italy joined the Axis powers in World War II, falling into a bloody Civil War in 1943, in 1946, as a result of a Constitutional Referendum, the monarchy was abolished. The new republic was proclaimed on 2 June 1946, in the 1950s and 1960s, Italy saw a period of rapid modernization and sustained economic growth, the so-called Italian economic miracle. Italy plays a prominent role in regional and global military, cultural, in prehistoric times, the Italian peninsula was rather different from its current shape. During the last Ice Age, the islands of Elba and Sicily were connected to the mainland. The Adriatic Sea was far smaller, since it started at what is now the Gargano peninsula, the arrival of the first hominins was 850,000 years ago at Monte Poggiolo. The presence of the Homo neanderthalensis has been demonstrated in archaeological findings dating to c.50,000 years ago, Homo sapiens sapiens appeared during the upper Palaeolithic. Remains of the prehistoric age have been found in Liguria, Lombardy. The most famous is perhaps that of Ötzi the Iceman, the mummy of a hunter found in the Similaun glacier in South Tyrol. During the Copper Age, Indoeuropean people migrated to Italy, approximatively four waves of population from north to the Alps have been identified
Italian history
–
Matera, which dates from Palaeolithic
10th millennium BC, (region of
Basilicata).
Italian history
–
Ötzi the oldest mummy in the world discovered in the southern Alps (region of
Trentino-Alto Adige) with extremely sophisticated equipment to that time.
4th millennium BC.
Italian history
–
Su Nuraxi nuraghe,
Sardinia,
Italy,
2nd millennium BC.
19.
Kindergarten
–
Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
Kindergarten
–
A kindergarten in Japan on Japanese Parents' Day, October 2009.
Kindergarten
–
First day of Iranian new education year, for kindergarten students and elementary school newcomers, in
Nishapur.
Kindergarten
–
Friedrich Fröbel created the name Kindergarten in Germany in 1840.
Kindergarten
–
A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan.
20.
Meadow
–
A meadow is a field habitat vegetated by grass and other non-woody plants. Meadows are of importance because they are open, sunny areas that attract and support flora. Meadows may be naturally occurring or artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland and they often host a multitude of wildlife, providing areas for courtship displays, nesting, food gathering and sometimes sheltering if the vegetation is high enough. Many meadows support an array of wildflowers, which makes them of utmost importance to insects like bees and other pollinating insects. In agriculture, a meadow is grassland which is not regularly grazed by domestic livestock, especially in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean a hay meadow, signifying grassland mown annually in the summer for making hay. Agricultural meadows are typically lowland or upland fields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed, traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England, fewer than 15.000 hectares of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UKs meadows are found in Worcestershire, with Fosters Green Meadow managed by the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust being a major site. A similar concept to the hay meadow is the pasture, which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out, the term, grassland, is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures. The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions, as mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room for orchards or honey production. A transitional state can be artificially-maintained through a system, in which cultivated soil. For example, some of todays meadows originated thousands of years ago, types of perpetual meadows may include, Alpine meadows occur at high elevations above the tree line and maintained by harsh climatic conditions. Coastal meadows maintained by salt sprays, desert meadows restricted by low precipitation or lack of nutrients and humus. Prairies maintained by periods of drought or subject to wildfires. Wet meadows saturated with water much of the year. Apart from the meadows, meadows are often conceived of as artificial or cultural habitats, since they have emerged from and continually require human intervention to persist. It can be argued however, that meadows are really semi-cultural habitats, the reason is, that in many places the natural, pristine populations of free roaming large grazers are either extinct or very limited due to human activities. This reduces or removes their natural influence on the surrounding ecology, mankind has influenced the ecology and the landscape for millennia in many parts of the world, so it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is natural and what is cultural
Meadow
–
Wildflower meadow
Meadow
–
An uncut
hay meadow.
Meadow
–
Montane hay meadows with haystacks.
Meadow
–
An
orchard meadow.
21.
Sacrarium
–
A piscina is a shallow basin placed near the altar of a church, or else in the vestry or sacristy, used for washing the communion vessels. The sacrarium is the drain itself, anglicans usually refer to the basin, calling it a piscina. Roman Catholics usually refer to the drain, and by extension and they are often made of stone and fitted with a drain, and are in some cases used to dispose of materials used in the sacraments and water from liturgical ablutions. They are found in Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches, the piscina is a Latin word originally applied to a fish-pond, and later used for natural or artificial pools for bathing, and also for a water tank or reservoir. In ecclesiastical usage it was applied to the used for ablutions. They were originally named for the baptismal font and they were rare in England until the 13th century, after which there is scarcely an altar without one. They frequently take the form of a niche, with a shaft between the arched heads, which are often filled with elaborate tracery. If there is no drain, a niche for washing is a lavabo, the purpose of the piscina or sacrarium is to dispose of water used sacramentally, by returning these particles directly to the earth. For this reason, it is connected by a pipe directly to the ground, at times the piscina has been used for disposal of other items, such as old baptismal water, holy oils, and leftover ashes from Ash Wednesday. A common myth is that wine was also poured down the piscina. What caused this confusion is that in countries with plenty of wine, if there was any unconsecrated wine left in a cruet. In the Roman Catholic Church, pouring the wine, the Blood of Christ. Extremely rarely, the Eucharistic species spoils or becomes contaminated such that it cannot be consumed. The host is then dissolved in water until it disappears, then the water is poured down into the sacrarium. ”This applies to any action that is voluntarily and gravely disrespectful of the sacred species. Anyone, therefore, who contrary to these norms, for example casting the sacred species into the sacrarium or in an unworthy place or on the ground. In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches the piscina is called a thalassidion, in Orthodoxy the Sacred Mysteries are never poured into the thalassidion, but must always be consumed by a deacon or priest. In some ancient churches, the thalassidion was placed under the Holy Table, when a monk or nun is tonsured, if the hair must be disposed of, it is thrown into the thalassidion. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Sacrarium
–
16th-century double piscina at the Franciscan friary in
Kilconnell
22.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Sculpture
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The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul a Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Sculpture
Sculpture
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Michelangelo 's
Moses, (c. 1513–1515), housed in the church of
San Pietro in Vincoli in
Rome. The sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by
Pope Julius II for his
tomb.
Sculpture
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Assyrian
lamassu gate guardian from
Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE
23.
Crypt
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A crypt is a stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics, originally, crypts were typically found below the main apse of a church, such as at the Abbey of Saint-Germain en Auxerre, but were later located beneath chancel, naves and transepts as well. Occasionally churches were raised high to accommodate a crypt at the level, such as St Michaels Church in Hildesheim. Crypt developed as a form of the Latin vault as it was carried over into Late Latin. It also served as a vault for storing important and/or sacred items, crypta, however, is also the female form of crypto hidden. The earliest known origin of both is in the Ancient Greek κρύπτω, the first person singular indicative of the verb to conceal, first known in the early Christian period, in particular North Africa at Chlef and Djemila in Algeria, and Byzantium at Saint John Studio in Constantinople. Where Christian churches have been built over mithraea, the mithraeum has often been adapted to serve as a crypt, crypts were introduced into Frankish church building in the mid-8th century, as a feature of its Romanization. Their popularity then spread widely in western Europe under Charlemagne. Examples from this period are most common in the early medieval West, for example in Burgundy at Dijon, after the 10th century the early medieval requirements of a crypt faded, as church officials permitted relics to be held in the main level of the church. By the Gothic period crypts were built, however burial vaults continued to be constructed beneath churches. In more modern terms, a crypt is most often a stone chambered burial vault used to store the deceased, crypts are usually found in cemeteries and under public religious buildings, such as churches or cathedrals, but are also occasionally found beneath mausolea or chapels on personal estates. Wealthy or prestigious families will often have a family crypt or vault in which all members of the family are interred, many royal families, for example, have vast crypts containing the bodies of dozens of former royalty. In some localities an above ground crypt is more commonly called a mausoleum, there was a trend in the 19th century of building crypts on medium to large size family estates, usually subtly placed on the edge of the grounds or more commonly incorporated into the cellar. After a change of owner these are often blocked up and the house deeds will not allow this area to be re-developed, catacomb Mausoleum Tumulus Ossuary Tomb Cemetery Media related to Crypt at Wikimedia Commons Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Crypt
Crypt
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A crypt in
Wola Gułowska,
Lublin Province,
Poland
Crypt
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Early color photo of the family vault of the
Swedish royal dynasty of
Bernadotte.
Crypt
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Crypt of
Bayeux Cathedral,
France (11th century)
Crypt
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Crypt of
Bayeux Cathedral,
France
24.
Torture
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Torture is the act of deliberately inflicting physical or psychological pain on an organism in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or compel some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act, in other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible. Although torture is sanctioned by some states, it is prohibited under international law, although widely illegal and reviled there is an ongoing debate as to what exactly is and is not legally defined to be torture. It is a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Torture is also prohibited for the signatories of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, despite these findings and international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which is currently in force since June 26,1987, provides a broad definition of torture. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to and this definition includes torture as part of domestic violence or ritualistic abuse, as well as in criminal activities. The Rome Statute is the treaty set up the International Criminal Court. The treaty was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. The Rome Statute provides a simplest definition of torture regarding the prosecution of war criminals by the International Criminal Court, since 1973, Amnesty International has adopted the simplest, broadest definition of torture. Title 18 of the United States Code contains the definition of torture in 18 U. S. C, §2340, which is only applicable to persons committing or attempting to commit torture outside of the United States. The Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 provides remedies to individuals who are victims of torture by persons acting in a capacity of any foreign nation. The definition is similar to the U. S. Code §2340, Torture grew into an ornate discipline, where calibrated violence served two functions, to investigate and produce confessions and to attack the body as a form of punishment. Entire populaces of towns would show up to witness an execution by torture in the public square and those who had been spared torture were commonly locked barefooted into the stocks, where children took delight in rubbing feces into their hair and mouths. The Age of Enlightenment in the world further developed the idea of universal human rights. The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 marks the recognition at least nominally of a ban of torture by all UN member states
Torture
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A variety of torture instruments. Many, including the large
Iron Maiden of Nuremberg, were never used for torture.
Torture
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Assyrians skinning or flaying their prisoners alive
Torture
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Medieval torture rack
Torture
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Torture of
Christian martyrs
25.
Alojz Gradnik
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Alojz Gradnik was a Slovenian poet and translator. Gradnik was born in the village of Medana in the Gorizia Hills region and his father was a Slovene from Trieste who came from a poor working-class background, but created considerable wealth by winemaking. His mother was an ethnic Friulian from the County of Gorizia and his younger brother Jožef later served as mayor of the village. Gradnik attended the multilingual State Gymnasium in Gorizia and he lived in a student home run by the Catholic Church. After finishing high school, he went to law in Vienna. After graduation in 1907, he served as a judge in the Istrian city of Pula, in Gorizia. During this period, he was active in Slovene and Croat cultural and political associations, between 1913 and 1915, he frequented the intellectual circles of young Slovene national-liberals in Gorizia. In 1924, he married Mira Potokar, with whom he had a son, in 1920, after the Italian annexation of the Julian March, he emigrated to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where he continued his career as a judge. In the late 1920s, he worked as a consultant at the Ministry of Justice in Belgrade. He was later appointed member of the High Court for the Security of the State, from 1936 and 1941 he served as a member of the Bank of the Seven, the court of cassation which had jurisdiction on all former Austro-Hungarian parts of Yugoslavia. After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, he was expelled by the new Fascist authorities of the Independent State of Croatia, between 1942 and 1943, he was internated in the Gonars concentration camp by the Italian Fascist occupation authorities. The concentration camp experience would strongly influence his later poetry, after the end of World War II, he returned to Ljubljana, where he spent the rest of his life as a pensioner. After September 1947, when the Slovenian Littoral was annexed to Yugoslavia, he visited his native village. Gradnik was a polyglot, besides Slovene, he was fluent in Italian, Friulian, German, Serbo-Croatian, English and he also spoke Russian, Hungarian, and Spanish, and knew Latin and Ancient Greek. He studied several languages, such as Sanskrit, Persian, Bengali. During his lifetime, between 1916 and 1944, he published nine collections of poems and left a number of unpublished works. Together with Izidor Cankar and Ivan Pregelj, Gradnik belonged to the generation of modernist authors in Slovenian literature. Gradnik was most influenced by the work of the poet Josip Murn Aleksandrov, like Murn, Gradnik incorporated impressionist visions of the countryside and peasant life into his poetry
Alojz Gradnik
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A village in the Gorizia Hills, a major inspiration for Gradnik's poetry
Alojz Gradnik
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Settlements
26.
Bogo Grafenauer
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Bogo Grafenauer was a Slovenian historian, who mostly wrote about medieval history in the Slovene Lands. Together with Milko Kos, Fran Zwitter, and Vasilij Melik and he was born in Ljubljana in a well-established Carinthian Slovene family. His father, Ivan Grafenauer, was a literary historian and ethnologist and nephew of Franc Grafenauer. He was the brother of the mineralogist Stanko Grafenauer and designer and choreographer Marija Grafenauer-Vogelnik and he studied history at the University of Ljubljana, graduating in 1940. In his college years, he joined the Christian left intellectual circle around Edvard Kocbek, after the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, he joined the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People. Between 1942 and 1943, the Italian Fascist occupation authorities interned him in the Gonars concentration camp, nevertheless, he managed to complete his PhD dissertation in 1944 under the supervision of the medievalist Milko Kos. Grafenauer started publishing already in the late 1930s, in his academic career, Grafenauer focused on social history in the Middle Ages. He wrote several treatises on the transition between tribal and feudal socio-economic forms in the Eastern Alps and the west Balkans and his main contribution was however the history of the German Peasants Wars in the late 15th and 16th century in the Slovene Lands and in Croatia. He also wrote on the history of the Slovenes in Carinthia in the 19th and 20th centuries, since the 1950s and 1960s, he was among those who introduced the approaches of the French Annales school in the Yugoslav historiography. Between 1945 and 1955, he wrote several expert surveys on border areas in Carinthia, from 1946 to 1982, he taught Slovene medieval history and theory of historiography at the University of Ljubljana. In 1972, he became a member of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and he was also a member of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bogo Grafenauer died in Ljubljana and was buried in the Žale cemetery and his daughter, Darja Mihelič, is also a historian. Summary of Grafenauers biography Biography on the page of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana Grafenauerjev zbornik, oto Luthar, Med kronologijo in fikcijo. Ljubljana, Znanstveno in publicistično središče,1993
Bogo Grafenauer
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Bogo Grafenauer in 1968
27.
Vitomil Zupan
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Vitomil Zupan was a post-World War II modernist Slovene writer and Gonars concentration camp survivor. Because of his descriptions of sex and violence, he was dubbed the Slovene Hemingway and was compared to Henry Miller. He is best known for Menuet za kitaro, describing the years he spent with the Slovene Partisans, in Titoist Yugoslavia he was sentenced to 18 years in a show trial, and upon his release in 1955 his works could only be published under his pseudonym Langus. He is considered one of the most important Slovene writers, Zupan was born in Ljubljana, then part of Austria-Hungary. His mother was a teacher and his father, a soldier, was killed in the First World War, at age 18, Zupan played Russian roulette and shot a friend in the head, killing him. As a result, he was prohibited from graduating from school in Yugoslavia. After World War II, until 1947, when he dedicated himself to writing. For his novel Rojstvo v nevihti he was awarded his first Prešeren Award the same year and he was released in 1955 and his two sons lived without their father, similar to his own childhood. He published his works for years only under a pseudonym and was again able to publish under his name again from the 1960s onward. Zupan died in Ljubljana in 1987 and is buried in the Žale cemetery, Vitomil Zupan is best known for his semi-autobiographical novels centered on the quest of an individual for his identity in the modern world. However, his novels were also filled with philosophical and cultural references, a collection of Zupans poetry from his prison years was first published in 2006 and revived interest in Zupans literary legacy. Alternative Slovene writers and literary thinkers, such as Dušan Pirjevec Ahac and Taras Kermauner, were influenced by Zupans work and they challenged the Titoist cultural policies. The echos of Zupans vitalism and anticonformism can be seen in the works of the writer and essayist Marjan Rožanc and he also influenced the poet Borut Kardelj. Interview with Taras Kermauner on Slovenian National TV, vesna Milek, Pesmi zoper smrt, portret Vitomila Zupana in Delo 48, 26–28. Bernard Nežmah, Vitomil Zupan, Levitan, ponatis legendarnega dela iz leta 1982 in Mladina,81, alenka Puhar, Pesmi starega restanta, Zupanovo zbrano zaporniško delo in Delo 48,15. Andrej Inkret, Zupan, Vitomil, article in Enciklopedija Slovenije, interpretacije, Vitomil Zupan Vlado Žabot, Estetski vidiki v Zupanovem Levitanu
Vitomil Zupan
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Vitomil Zupan
28.
University of Ljubljana
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The University of Ljubljana is the oldest and largest university in Slovenia. With over 63,000 enrolled undergraduate and graduate students, it is among the largest universities in Europe and that university was disbanded in 1813, when Austria regained territorial control. During the second half of the 19th century, several claims for the establishment of a Slovene language university in Ljubljana were made. In the 1890s, a board for the establishment of a Slovenian university was founded, with Ivan Hribar, Henrik Tuma. In this way, a list of suitable faculty started to emerge, nevertheless, unfavorable political circumstances prevented the establishment of the university until the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. With the establishment of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs in 1918, on November 23,1918, the first meeting of the Founding Board of Ljubljana University was called, presided over by Mihajlo Rostohar, professor of psychology at the Charles University in Prague. Together with Danilo Majaron, Rostohar convinced the Yugoslav central government in Belgrade to pass a bill establishing the university. The first lectures started on December 3 of the same year, in 1919, the university comprised five faculties, law, philosophy, technology, theology and medicine. The seat of the university was in the central Congress Square of Ljubljana in a building that had served as the State Mansion of Carniola from 1902 to 1918. The building was first designed in 1902 by Jan Vladimír Hráský, in 1941, Jože Plečniks National and University Library was completed, as one of the major infrastructure projects of the university in the interwar period. Several professors were arrested or deported to Nazi concentration camps and large numbers of students joined either the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People or the Slovenian Home Guard, some of the most brilliant students emigrated. Nevertheless, the university maintained its role and regained a limited degree of autonomy from the mid-1950s onward. It suffered a setback in autonomy from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. In 1979 it was renamed Edvard Kardelj University in Ljubljana after the Communist leader, in 1990, with the fall of Yugoslavia, it was regiven its original name. Later on, some new, modern buildings and a small scale campus were constructed in the part of the city. The University of Ljubljana has two university libraries, the National and University Library of Slovenia is the national library of Slovenia and the university library of the University of Ljubljana. It contains about 1,307,000 books and numerous text, visual, another university library is the Central Technological Library, which is also the national library and information hub of natural sciences and technology. There are over 30 libraries at individual faculties, departments, the university operates an art gallery, open since 18 June 2012
University of Ljubljana
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The main building in 1929
University of Ljubljana
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University of Ljubljana
University of Ljubljana
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The main building of the university in
Congress Square
University of Ljubljana
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Academy of Music
29.
Mauthausen Concentration Camp
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The camp operated from the time of the Anschluss, when Austria was annexed into the German Third Reich in early 1938, to the beginning of May 1945, at the end of the Second World War. As at other Nazi concentration camps, the inmates at Mauthausen-Gusen were forced to work as slave labour, the subcamps of the Mauthausen complex included quarries, munitions factories, mines, arms factories and plants assembling Me 262 fighter aircraft. In January 1945, the camps contained roughly 85,000 inmates, the death toll remains unknown, although most sources place it between 122,766 and 320,000 for the entire complex. The Mauthausen-Gusen camp was one of the first massive concentration camp complexes in Nazi Germany, and the last to be liberated by the Allies. The two main camps, Mauthausen and Gusen I, were labelled as Grade III camps, which meant that they were intended to be the toughest camps for the Incorrigible political enemies of the Reich, Mauthausen never lost this Stufe III classification. In the offices of the Reich Main Security Office it was referred to by the nickname Knochenmühle – the bone-grinder, the main camp of the complex in Mauthausen is now a museum. On 9 August 1938, prisoners from Dachau concentration camp near Munich were sent to the town of Mauthausen in Austria, the site was chosen because of the nearby granite quarry, and its proximity to Linz. Although the camp was controlled by the German state from the beginning, the owner of the Wiener-Graben quarry was a DEST Company, an acronym for Deutsche Erd– und Steinwerke GmbH. The company was led by Oswald Pohl, who was an official of the Schutzstaffel. It rented the quarries from the City of Vienna in 1938, a year later, the company ordered the construction of the first camp at Gusen. Mauthausen initially served as a prison camp for common criminals, prostitutes. On 8 May 1939 it was converted to a camp which was mainly used for the incarceration of political prisoners. In March 1940 I was brought to Mauthausen to build the Gusen camp, the building tempo had to be accelerated, because the Aktion gegen die polnische Intelligenz was designated for the month of April. They called the camp under construction Gusen Vernichtungslager fur die polnische Intelligenz, — Stefan Józefowicz, bank headmaster, no.1129 in Mauthausen,43069 Gusen. DEST began purchasing land at Gusen in May 1938, after Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the as-yet unfinished Mauthausen camp was already overcrowded with prisoners. The numbers of inmates rose from 1,080 in late 1938 to over 3,000 a year later, at about that time, the construction of a new camp for the Poles began in Gusen, about 4.5 kilometres away. The new camp became operational in May 1940, like nearby Mauthausen, the Gusen camp also rented inmates out to various local businesses as slave labour. In October 1941, several huts were separated from the Gusen subcamp by barbed wire and this camp had many prisoners of war, mostly Soviet officers
Mauthausen Concentration Camp
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Gate to the garage yard in the Mauthausen concentration camp
Mauthausen Concentration Camp
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Heinrich Himmler visiting Mauthausen in April 1941. Himmler is talking to
Franz Ziereis, camp commandant, with
Karl Wolff on the left and
August Eigruber on the right.
Mauthausen Concentration Camp
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Aerial view of the Gusen I and II camps
Mauthausen Concentration Camp
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Franz Ziereis, Commandant of Mauthausen, 1939–1945
