1.
Independent school (United Kingdom)
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For example, pupils do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Seven of the older, expensive and more schools catering for the 13–18 age-range in England. The term public being derived from the fact that they were open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion, prep schools, educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other independent schools. Some former grammar schools converted to an independent fee paying model following the 1965 Circular 10/65 which marked the end of their state funding, others converted into comprehensive schools. There are around 2,500 independent schools in the UK, in addition to charging tuition fees, many also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Many of these schools are members of the Independent Schools Council and these schools were founded as part of the church and were under their complete dominion. However, it was during the late 14th & early 15th centuries that the first schools, winchester & Oswestry were the first of their kind and paved the way for the establishment of the modern Public school. These were often established for scholars from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds, however, English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself. For instance, the Queens Scholarships founded at Westminster in 1560, are for the sons of decayd gentlemen, also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few scholars could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. After a time, such fees would eclipse the original charitable income, in 2009 senior boarding schools were charging fees of between £16,000 and nearly £30,000 per annum. However, majority of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, christs Hospital in Horsham is one of the examples, large proposition of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes. They were schools for the elite of Victorian politics, armed forces. Often successful businessmen would send their sons to a school as a mark of participation in the elite. More recently heads of schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in disciplining. To an extent, the school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire. Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools, the Direct Grant Grammar Schools Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result,119 of these schools became independent, pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession
2.
Boarding school
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A boarding school is a school at which most or all of the students live during the part of the year that they go to lessons. The word boarding is used in the sense of bed and board, i. e. lodging, some boarding schools also have day students who attend the institution by day and return to their families in the evenings. Many independent schools are boarding schools, Boarding school pupils normally return home during the school holidays and often weekends, but in some cultures may spend most of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families. In the United States, boarding schools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve—the high school years, other schools are for younger children, grades two through eight. A military school, or military academy, also features military education, in the former Soviet Union schools were introduced, these sometimes are known as Internat-schools. Some schools were a type of specialized school with a focus in a particular field or fields such as mathematics, physics, language, science, sports. Other schools were associated with orphanages after all children enrolled in Internat-school automatically. Also, separate boarding schools were established for children with special needs, general schools offered extended stay programs featuring cheap meals for children and preventing them from coming home too early before parents were back from work. In post-soviet countries, the concept of boarding school differs from country to country, the term boarding school often refers to classic British boarding schools and many boarding schools around the world are modeled on these. A typical boarding school has separate residential houses, either within the school grounds or in the surrounding area. Pupils generally need permission to go outside defined school bounds, they may be allowed to travel off-campus at certain times, depending on country and context, boarding schools generally offer one or more options, full, weekly, or on a flexible schedule. Each may be assisted in the management of the house by a housekeeper often known as matron. In the U. S. boarding schools often have a resident family that lives in the dorm and they also have janitorial staff for maintenance and housekeeping, but typically do not have tutors associated with an individual dorm. Nevertheless, older pupils are often unsupervised by staff, and a system of monitors or prefects gives limited authority to senior pupils, houses readily develop distinctive characters, and a healthy rivalry between houses is often encouraged in sport. Houses may also have common rooms for television and relaxation and kitchens for snacks, some facilities may be shared between several houses or dorms. In others, separate houses accommodate needs of different years or classes, in some schools, day pupils are assigned to a dorm or house for social activities and sports purposes. Each student has a timetable, which in the early years allows little discretion. Boarders and day students are taught together in school hours and in most cases continue beyond the day to include sports, clubs and societies
3.
Interfaith dialogue
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Similarly, pluralistic rationalist groups have hosted public reasoning dialogues to transcend all worldviews, termed transbelief dialogue. Throughout the world there are local, regional, national and international initiatives, many are formally or informally linked. The often quoted There will be no peace among the nations without peace among the religions, There will be no peace among the religions without dialogue among the religions was formulated by Dr Hans Küng, a Professor of Ecumenical Theology and President of the Global Ethic Foundation. To some, the interreligious dialogue has the same meaning as interfaith dialogue. Neither are the same as Nondenominational Christianity, the World Council of Churches, though. To the WCC, interreligious refers to action between different Christian denominations, so, interfaith refers to interaction between different faith groups such as Muslim and Christian or Jew for example. In the dialogue of the hands, we all work together to make the world a place in which we must all live together. In the dialogue of the heart, we share the experience of the emotions of different from us. The historical effectiveness of interfaith dialogue is an issue of debate, friar James L. Heft, in a lecture on The Necessity of Inter-Faith Diplomacy, spoke about the conflicts among practitioners of the three Abrahamic religions. The sad reality has been that most of the time Jews, Muslims and Christians have remained ignorant about each other, or worse, especially in the case of Christians and Muslims, attacked each other. In contrast, The Pluralism Project at Harvard University says, Every religious tradition has grown through the ages in dialogue, Christians, Jews, and Muslims have been part of one anothers histories, have shared not only villages and cities, but ideas of God and divine revelation. The importance of Abrahamic interfaith dialogue in the present has been presented, We human beings today face a stark choice. Religious pluralism can also be observed in historical contexts, including Muslim Spain. Zarmanochegas was a monk of the Sramana tradition from India who journeyed to Antioch, disputation of Barcelona - religious disputation between Jews and Christians in 1263. The apostate Paulus Christiani proposed to King James I of Aragon that a public religious disputation on the fundamentals of faith should be held between him and R. Moses b. Nahman whom he had encountered in Gerona. The Dominicans Raymond de Peñaforte, Raymond Martini, and Arnold de Segarra, the single representative for the Jewish side was Naḥmanides. The four sessions of the disputation took place on July 20,27,30, Naḥmanides was guaranteed complete freedom of speech in the debate, he took full advantage of the opportunity thus afforded and spoke with remarkable frankness
4.
Kurt Hahn
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Kurt Matthias Robert Martin Hahn CBE was a German educator whose philosophies are considered internationally influential. He founded Outward Bound, the Duke of Edinburgh Award, born in Berlin to Jewish parents, Hahn attended school in Berlin, then universities at Oxford, Heidelberg, Freiburg and Göttingen. During World War I, Hahn worked in the German Department for Foreign Affairs, analyzing English newspapers and he had been private secretary to Prince Max von Baden, the last Imperial Chancellor of Germany. From 1920 to 1933 Hahn was the first headmaster of Schule Schloss Salem, Hahn was raised as a Jew and served as the Salem Schools headmaster during Adolf Hitlers rise to power. Hahn began his fierce criticism of the Nazi regime after a young communist was killed in the presence of his mother by Hitlers storm troopers, when he spoke out against the storm troopers, who had received no punishment, Hahn spoke against Hitler publicly. He asked the students, faculty, and alumni of the Salem school to choose between Salem and Hitler, as a result, he was imprisoned for five days. After an appeal by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, Hahn was released and in July 1933 he was forced to leave Germany, Hahn settled in Scotland, where he founded Gordonstoun on similar principles to the school in Salem. Later, Hahn converted to Christianity and became a communicant member of the Church of England in 1945 and he also started an international organisation of schools, now called Round Square. Hahn was also involved in the foundation of the Outward Bound Organisation, Atlantic College in Wales and the wider United World College movement, Hahn divided his time between Britain and Germany after the war. He resigned from the headship of Gordonstoun on health grounds and returned to Hermannsberg near Salem in 1953 and he died there on 14 December 1974 and was buried in Salem. Hahns educational philosophy was based on respect for adolescents, whom he believed to possess an innate decency and moral sense and he believed that education could prevent this corruption, if students were given opportunities for personal leadership and to see the results of their own actions. This is one reason for the focus on outdoor adventure in his philosophy, at the Schule Schloss Salem, in addition to acting as headmaster, he taught history, politics, ancient Greek, Shakespeare and Schiller. He was deeply influenced by Platos thought, Gordonstoun is based less on Eton than on Salem. Punishment of any kind is viewed as a last resort, in 1934, through his lectures in London to the New Education Fellowship, Hahn met the educationalist T. C. Worsley and persuaded him to spend a term at the newly founded Gordonstoun in the capacity of consultant. Especially damaging to my very English view, was his dislike of being defeated at any game, Hahn was an avid tennis player. But was it an easily forgiveable weakness that his opponents had to be chosen for being his inferiors or else, if their form was unknown, instructed not to let themselves win. Hahns views on Shakespeare led to a disagreement, He had what I have since learned to be a common German belief that Shakespeare was better in German than in English
5.
Elgin, Moray
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Elgin is a former cathedral city and Royal Burgh in Moray, Scotland. It is the administrative and commercial centre for Moray, the town originated to the south of the River Lossie on the higher ground above the floodplain. Elgin is first documented in the Cartulary of Moray in 1190 AD and it was created a Royal Burgh in the 12th century by King David I of Scotland and by that time had a castle on top of the present day Lady Hill to the west of the town. In August 1040, MacBeths army defeated and killed Duncan I at Bothganowan, Elgin is first recorded in a charter of David I in 1151 in which he granted an annuity to the Priory of Urquhart. David had made Elgin a royal burgh around 1130, after his defeat of Óengus of Moray, during Davids reign the castle was established at the top of what is now Lady Hill. The town received a charter from Alexander II in 1224 when he granted the land for a new cathedral to Andrew. This finally settled the episcopal see which had been at times at Kinneddar. Elgin was a residence for the early Scottish monarchs, David I, William I, Alexander II and Alexander III all held court there. Of these kings, Alexander II was Elgins greatest benefactor and returned many times to his royal castle and he established the two religious houses of the town, the Dominicans or Blackfriars in the west side and the Franciscans or Greyfriars in the east. Further to the east stood the Hospital of Maison Dieu, or House of God, on 19 July 1224, the foundation stone of the new Elgin Cathedral was ceremoniously laid. The cathedral was completed sometime after 1242 but was destroyed by fire in 1270. The reasons for this are unrecorded, the buildings which now remain as ruins date from the reconstruction following that fire. The Chartulary of Moray described the cathedral as Mirror of the country. Edward I of England travelled twice to Elgin, during his first visit in 1296 he was impressed by what he saw. Preserved in the Cotton library now held in the British Library is the journal of his stay, describing the castle, by his second visit in September 1303, the castles wooden interior had been burned while held by the English governor, Henry de Rye. As a result, he stayed in Elgin for two days and then camped at Kinloss Abbey from 13 September until 4 October. After Edwards death in July 1307, Robert the Bruce retook Scotland in 1308 and he attacked Elgin castle to be twice repulsed before finally succeeding. In August 1370 Alexander Bur, Bishop of Moray began payments to Alexander Stewart, Wolf of Badenoch, King Robert IIIs brother, for the protection of his lands and men
6.
Moray
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Moray is one of the 32 Local Government council areas of Scotland. It lies in the north-east of the country, with coastline on the Moray Firth, between 1975 and 1996 Moray, with similar boundaries, was a district of the then Grampian Region. The name, first attested around 970 as Moreb, and in Latinised form by 1124 as Morauia, derives from the earlier Celtic forms *mori sea and *treb settlement. During the middle ages the Mormaerdom of Moray was much larger than the council area, covering much of what is now Highland. During this period Moray may for a time have either an independent kingdom or a highly autonomous vassal of Alba. In the early 12th century the mormaerdom/kingdom was defeated by David I of Scotland following a conflict with Óengus of Moray, after that the title became defunct until the 14th century when Thomas Randolph was granted the title Earl of Moray. The earldom would subsequently be destroyed and recreated four times, with its last creation surviving to this day, currently held by John Douglas Stuart, over the centuries the territory of the County of Moray contracted to the area around Elgin. The modern day boundaries of Moray date from the 1975 reorganisation of government in Scotland. The old County of Moray was merged with parts of Banffshire to create an enlarged Moray district, some territory to the west was lost to the Highland Region. In 1996, under the Local Government etc, act 1994, Moray became a single-tier subdivision of Scotland. The lieutenancy area and registration county of Moray cover smaller areas that are similar to the old county, Moray Council currently has 26 members elected using single transferable vote in 8 wards. Currently the council is controlled by an Independent-Conservative coalition, for elections to the House of Commons, Morays boundaries match with the Moray constituency. The current MP is Angus Robertson of the Scottish National Party, Moray is one of the SNPs longest continuously-held seats. For the Scottish Parliament, the majority of Moray is in the Moray constituency, the eastern corner of Moray is instead in the Banffshire and Buchan Coast constituency and the North East Scotland electoral region. In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Moray voted No by a percentage of 57. 6%. In the 2016 European Union membership referendum, Moray voted Remain by a 50. 1% margin and it had the biggest percentage for Leave out of all the Scottish council areas and the narrowest margin of victory for either side anywhere in the UK. The large majority of Morays population live in the part of the district. Elgin is by far the largest town, being home to 25% of the population at the 2011 census, there are 45 primary and eight secondary schools in Moray and the council currently has responsibility for educating more than 13,000 school pupils
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Sir Robert Gordon, 1st Baronet
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Sir Robert Gordon, 1st Baronet was a Scottish politician and courtier, known as the historian of the noble house of Sutherland. Born at Dunrobin Castle, Golspie, Sutherland, on 14 May 1580, he was the son of Alexander Gordon, 12th Earl of Sutherland, by his second wife Jean Gordon. In 1598 he was sent to the university of St. Andrews, where he remained six months, in January 1603 he went to France to study civil law, and remained there until October 1605. Gordon was appointed a gentleman of the chamber to James I in 1606. On 16 July 1614 he received a grant of holdings in Ulster, in March 1614-15, having attended the king to Cambridge, he was created honorary M. A. On the death of his brother John, thirteenth earl of Sutherland, in September of the year, he became tutor at law of his nephew John Gordon. In 1617 King James visited Scotland for the first time after his accession to the English throne, among the entertainments was a competition of archery in the garden of Holyrood Palace, at which Gordon gained the prize, a silver arrow. In 1621 he returned to Sutherland, when he relieved the estates of the earl of a burden of debt. Having subdued the county of Caithness, he returned with his troops into Sutherland, in 1624 Gordon was appointed one of the commissioners of the estates of the young Duke of Lennox, and two years later one of the dukes curators. He assisted under agreement Sir William Alexander of Menstrie in the plantation of a colony in Nova Scotia, a favourite of King Charles, he was employed as confidential messenger to Henrietta Maria. In August 1629 Gordon was chosen principal of Inverness-shire. In May 1630 he was sent by the lords of the council along with Sir William Seton into the north to some disturbances. On 13 July in the same year James, Duke of Lennox, as high chamberlain of Scotland. At the coronation of Charles I in Scotland in 1633, he, as vice-chamberlain, with four earls sons, the next year he was placed on the privy council in Scotland. On 1 May 1639 Gordon was with the court at Durham, the gentry of Morayshire in 1643 appointed him, along with Thomas McKenzie of Pluscarden and John Innes of Leuchars, to confer with the Marquis of Montrose. In 1646, however, the presbytery of Elgin granted a testimonial in his favour and his father-in-law Bishop Gordon, at his death in September 1619, left to Gordon the task of publishing his works, in English and Latin. A catalogue of Gordons library was published in 1816, and the documents he collected, some were printed at length in Edward Dunbar Dunbar, Social Life in Former Days, two series, 1865-6. Gordon married at London,16 February 1613, Louise, or Lucie, born 20 December 1597, only child of John Gordon, with whom he received the lordships of Glenluce in Scotland and of Longorme in France
9.
Duffus
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Duffus is a village in Moray, Scotland. The Duffus Village Inn, the shop, Post Office. Nearby are the remains of Duffus Castle, St. Peters Kirk, Duffus has won numerous awards, including Best Kept Small Village in the North of Scotland. Also to the east side is Gordonstoun School which covers over 150 acres, the name of the village Duffus derives from the lands of Duffus in Moray, Scotland. What is now known as Duffus Parish encompasses the lands of the ancient Barony of Duffus, the Duffus name has undergone a variety of spelling changes through the years, in 1290, Dufhus, and in 1512, Duffous. The name is probably a compilation of two Gaelic words, dubh and uisg, meaning darkwater or blackwater, at one time, the region was below sea-level and the Loch of Spynie and stagnant pools of water were a conspicuous feature of the area. The current village, originally called New Duffus, is a grid plan village established as a settlement in 1811. This replaced a medieval settlement which lay 0.4 kilometres to the east. A church was first founded on the site of Duffus Old Parish Church in the 9th century as a replacement for the church of St Aethan within Burghead Fort, Duffus was the base of the regionally powerful de Moravia family during the High Middle Ages. The family was probably of Flemish origin, freskin de Moravia came north from his lands in Lothian as part of an army of David I to put down another rebellion by the men of Moray. At his side, and soon to be a neighbor, was the ancestor of the Innes, the annual Duffus Village Gala provides a host of activities for villagers and nearby settlements, starting with the crowning of the Rose Queen, Rose Prince & Rosebud. Duffus family website www. duffus. com Gilbert de Moravia Andreas de Moravia Walter de Moravia Fearchar, Earl of Ross Nechtan IV of the Picts Duffus Castle Duffus - Sept of Sutherland Barrow, ISBN 0-7486-1803-1 Walker, David W. Woodworth, Matthew. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
10.
Public school (United Kingdom)
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A public school in England and Wales is an older, student selective and expensive fee-paying independent secondary school which caters primarily for children aged between 11 or 13 and 18. The term public should not be misunderstood to mean that these are public sector schools, traditionally, public schools were all-male boarding schools, although most now allow day pupils, and many have become either partially or fully co-educational. The origins of schools in the UK were primarily religious until 1640 and it was intended that by-products of this would be the publication of universal books and the setting up of schools for boys and girls. Henceforth each of these schools was to be managed by a board of governors, Public schools have had a strong association with the ruling classes. Historically they educated the sons of the English upper and upper-middle classes, the sons of officers and senior administrators of the British Empire were educated in England while their parents were on overseas postings. In 2010, over half of Cabinet Ministers had been educated at public schools, in 2014, annual fees at Canford School and Eton College were more than £33,000 for boarders. The name dates back to the time when schools founded for local children went public and it is also used to describe the some 230 girls senior schools belonging to the Girls Schools Association. Until the late medieval period most schools were controlled by the church and had specific entrance criteria, others were restricted to the sons of members of guilds, trades or livery companies. The need for professional trades in an increasingly secularised society required schools for the sons of the gentry that were independent from ecclesiastical authority, from the 16th century onward, boys boarding schools were founded or endowed for public use. Traditionally, most of public schools were all boys and full boarding. Separate preparatory schools for younger boys developed from the 1830s, with entry to the schools becoming limited to boys of at least 12 or 13 years old. The first of these was Windlesham House School, established with support from Thomas Arnold, many of the schools, including Rugby School, Harrow School and the Perse School fell into decline during the 18th century and nearly closed in the early 19th century. Protests in the local newspaper forced governors of the Perse School to keep it open, a Royal Commission, the Clarendon Commission, investigated nine of the more established schools, including seven boarding schools and two day schools. St Pauls School and the Merchant Taylors School claimed successfully that their constitutions made them private schools, in 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school. In the first year only 12 headmasters attended, but in the following year 34 did, the Headmasters Conference has since grown steadily to over 200 schools. The Public Schools Yearbook was published for the first time in 1889, listing 30 schools, mostly boarding schools except for St Pauls School, some academically successful grammar schools were added in later editions. The 1902 edition included all schools whose principals qualified for membership of the Headmasters Conference, the Fleming Report defined a public school as a member of the Governing Bodies Association or the Headmasters Conference. Based on the recommendations of this report, the Education Act 1944 offered a new status to endowed grammar schools receiving a grant from central government
11.
British royal family
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The British royal family comprises the monarch of the United Kingdom and her close relations. There is no legal or formal definition of who is or is not a member of the British royal family. Different terms may be applied to the same or similar group of relatives of the monarch in his or her role as sovereign of any of the other Commonwealth realms, for example, in Canada, the family is known as the Canadian royal family. Some members of the family have official residences named as the places from which announcements are made in the Court Circular about official engagements they have carried out. The state duties and staff of some members of the family are funded from a parliamentary annuity. Since 1917, when King George V changed the name of the house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, members of the royal family belong, either by birth or by marriage. In 2014, the family were regarded as British cultural icons. Today, they often perform ceremonial and social duties throughout the United Kingdom, in the other countries of the Commonwealth royalty do not serve as Counsellors of State, although they may perform ceremonial and social duties on behalf of individual states or the organisation. Wives of the said enjoy their husbands precedence, and husbands of princesses are unofficially but habitually placed with their wives as well and she did not alter the relative precedence of other born-princesses, such as the daughters of her younger sons. The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy and they Serve the Queen, A New and Authoritative Account of the Royal Household. The Lives of the Kings & Queens of England, symbol and Privilege, The Ritual Context of British Royalty. Britains Royal Families, The Complete Genealogy, Royal Family is a celebrated and reverential BBC documentary made by Richard Cawston to accompany the investiture of the current Prince of Wales. The documentary is frequently responsible for the greater press intrusion into the royal familys private life since its first broadcast. Official website of the royal family Official YouTube Channel House of Windsor Family Tree, archived from the original on 2010-12-02
12.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
13.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
14.
Round Square
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Round Square is an association of schools in 40 countries. The association was named after the Round Square building at Gordonstoun. Students have opportunities at age levels to attend Round Square Conferences at national, regional and global levels. Each conference has a theme based on the ideals of Round Square, in the past few years Conferences have been held in Thailand, South Africa, England and India. Round Square schools encourage students to take part in a range of community service both locally and internationally. Many projects are run through the school and further opportunities are available via the Round Square Region, Network, a key feature of the Round Square experience is the exchanges of students and academic staff between member schools. Teacher exchanges may last for one year, and student exchanges vary but are usually one or two terms or semesters in duration. Each individual Round Square School sets its own terms and conditions for exchange and provides its own requirements, information, Round Square schools wishing to arrange an exchange can find a partner by logging in and using the exchange online tools
15.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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Republic (Plato)
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The Republic is a Socratic dialogue, written by Plato around 380 BCE, concerning justice, the order and character of the just city-state and the just man. It is Platos best-known work, and has proven to be one of the worlds most influential works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually and historically. In the books dialogue, Socrates discusses the meaning of justice and whether or not the just man is happier than the unjust man with various Athenians and they consider the natures of existing regimes and then propose a series of different, hypothetical cities in comparison. This culminates in the discussion of Kallipolis, a hypothetical city-state ruled by a philosopher king and they also discuss the theory of forms, the immortality of the soul, and the role of the philosopher and that of poetry in society. The dialogues may have taken place during the Peloponnesian War, while visiting the Piraeus with Glaucon, Polemarchus asks Socrates to join him for a celebration. Cephalus, Polemarchus, and Thrasymachus are then asked their definitions of justice by Socrates. Cephalus defines justice as giving what is owed, Polemarchus says justice is the art which gives good to friends and evil to enemies. Thrasymachus proclaims justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger, Socrates overturns their definitions and says that it is your advantage to be just and disadvantage to be unjust. The first book ends in aporia concerning its essence, Socrates believes he has answered Thrasymachus and is done with the discussion of justice. Socratess young companions, Glaucon and Adeimantus, continue the argument of Thrasymachus for the sake of furthering the discussion. Glaucon would like Socrates to prove that justice is not only desirable, but that it belongs to the highest class of desirable things, Socrates suggests that they look for justice in a city rather than in an individual man. After attributing the origin of society to the not being self-sufficient and having many needs which he cannot supply himself. Socrates first describes the state but Glaucon asks him to describe a city of pigs. He then goes on to describe the city, which he calls a fevered state. This requires a class to defend and attack on its account. This begins a discussion concerning the type of education that ought to be given to these guardians in their early years and they conclude that stories that ascribe evil to the gods are untrue and should not be taught. Socrates and his companions Adeimantus and Glaucon conclude their discussion concerning education, Socrates breaks the educational system into two. They suggest that guardians should be educated in these four virtues, wisdom, courage and they also suggest that the second part of the guardians education should be in gymnastics
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Prince Maximilian of Baden
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Maximilian Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm Margrave of Baden, also known as Max von Baden, was a German prince and politician. He was heir to the Grand Duchy of Baden and in October and November 1918 briefly served as Chancellor of the German Empire and he was named after his maternal grandfather, Maximilian de Beauharnais, and bore a resemblance to his cousin, Emperor Napoleon III. Max received an education at a Gymnasium secondary school and studied law. In 1900, he married Princess Marie Louise of Hanover at Gmunden, upon the order of Queen Victoria, Prince Max was brought to Darmstadt in the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine as a suitor for Victorias granddaughter, Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt. Alix was the daughter of Victorias late daughter, Princess Alice and she was in love with Nicholas II, the future Tsar of Russia. After finishing his studies, he trained as an officer of the Prussian Army, following the death of his uncle Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden in 1907, he became heir to the grand-ducal throne of his cousin Frederick II, whose marriage remained childless. He also became president of the Erste Badische Kammer, in 1911, Max applied for a military discharge with the rank of a Generalmajor. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he served as a staff officer at the XIV Corps of the German Army as the representative of the Grand Duke. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired from his position as he was dissatisfied with his role in the military and was suffering ill health. In 1916, he became president of the German-American support union for prisoners-of-war within the YMCA world alliance. Due to his liberal stance he came into conflict with the policies of the Oberste Heeresleitung supreme command under Paul von Hindenburg and he openly spoke against the resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, which provoked the declaration of war by the United States Congress on 6 April. Hahn maintained close links with Secretary of State Wilhelm Solf and several Reichstag deputies like Eduard David, David pushed for Max to be appointed Chancellor in July 1917, after the fall of Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg. Max then put forward for the position in early September 1918, pointing out his links to the social democrats. Hertling, after consulting Vice-Chancellor Friedrich von Payer, suggested Prince Max of Baden as his successor to the Emperor. However, it took the support of Haußmann, Oberst Hans von Haeften and Ludendorff himself, to have Wilhelm II appoint Max as Chancellor of Germany. Max was to head a new government based on the majority parties of the Reichstag, when Max arrived in Berlin on 1 October he had no idea that he would be asked to approach the Allies about an armistice. Max was horrified and fought against the plan, moreover, he also admitted openly that he was no politician and that he did not think additional steps towards parliamentarisation and democratisation feasible as long as the war continued. Consequently, he did not favour a liberal reform of the constitution, however, Emperor Wilhelm II convinced him to take the post and appointed him on 3 October 1918
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Schule Schloss Salem
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Schule Schloss Salem is a boarding school with campuses in Hohenfels, Salem and Überlingen in Baden-Württemberg, Southern Germany. It is considered one of the most elite schools in Europe and it offers the German Abitur, as well as the International Baccalaureate. With a scholarship program and its Dienste such as the Firebrigade, the Technisches Hilfswerk short, THW, the Schule Schloss Salem, also commonly referred to as Salem College, hence offers an education for its students at the academic as well as social levels. The school was established by the educator Kurt Hahn with support of Prince Maximilian of Baden in 1920 and from the beginning accepted girls and boys. Under the Nazi regime Hahn was forced to emigrate to Scotland where he founded the British Salem School of Gordonstoun as well as later Outward Bound, the school’s mission continues to reflect its Hahnian roots. The academic program in Years 5–7 is in German, intensive instruction in German as a foreign language is available for international pupils. Even pupils arriving at the School with no German are fluent within one school year, from Year 8 onward, Salem is fully bilingual and offers a dual curriculum. Students may either continue in the German system or enter the international classes & the IB Diploma Programme, however, students may switch systems until they enter the upper school. Approximately a third of the students in the years are in the IB system. At Salem, involvement in activities and the life in the boarding community. All students in the upper years must engage in community service such as Nautical Service, THW extended First Aid, during the terrible aeroplane accident of 2002 in Überlingen, Salem Students were some of the first at the scene. All students must also participate in a program of sports and/or outdoor pursuits such as Outward Bound, Football. Participation in theatre, music and visual-arts extracurricular programs, while not mandatory, is strongly encouraged. The student orchestra in Salem is regarded to be one of the foremost youth-orchestras in Germany and travels around the world to perform its music, such as a recent trip to Beijing, all activities and dormitories are led by students elected by their peers. Approximately one-third of pupils receive financial aid through various scholarship programmes, Salem is divided into four separate campuses, the Lower School in Hohenfels Castle, the Middle School in Salem Castle, and the Upper School in Spetzgart Castle and the new campus of Härlen. Hohenfels is located in a castle above the town of Kalkofen. Rudolf August Oetker — grandson of the inventor of baking powder, and billionaire German entrepreneur
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Nazi Party
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Its precursor, the German Workers Party, existed from 1919 to 1920. The party emerged from the German nationalist, racist, and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, the party was created as a means to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism. Pseudo-scientific racism theories were central to Nazism, the Nazis propagated the idea of a peoples community. Their aim was to unite racially desirable Germans as national comrades, while excluding those deemed either to be political dissidents, to maintain the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, and the physically and mentally handicapped. They imposed exclusionary segregation on homosexuals, Africans, Jehovahs Witnesses, the partys leader since 1921, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. Hitler rapidly established a regime known as the Third Reich. The term Nazi derives from the name given in German to a party member Nationalsozialist and was coined in response to the German term Sozi, members of the party referred to themselves as Nationalsozialisten, rarely as Nazis. The term Parteigenosse was commonly used among Nazis, with the feminine form Parteigenossin used when it was appropriate, the term was in use before the rise of the party as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backward peasant, characterising an awkward and clumsy person. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the name in intentional association to the long-time existing Sozi to the dismissive Nazi. In 1933, when Adolf Hitler assumed power of the German government, usage of the designation Nazi diminished in Germany, the use of Nazi Germany, and Nazi regime, was popularised by anti-Nazis and German exiles abroad. Thereafter, the spread into other languages and eventually was brought back to Germany after the Second World War. The party grew out of political groups with a nationalist orientation that formed in the last years of World War I. In 1918, a called the Freien Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden was created in Bremen. On 7 March 1918, Anton Drexler, an avid German nationalist, Drexler saw the situation of political violence and instability in Germany as the result of the new Weimar Republic being out-of-touch with the masses, especially the lower classes. These were all well-known themes popular with various Weimar paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps, though very small, Drexlers movement did receive attention and support from some influential figures. Supporter Dietrich Eckhart brought military figure Count Felix Graf von Bothmer, later in 1918, Karl Harrer, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Politischer Arbeiterzirkel. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and racism directed against the Jews and they became one of many völkisch movements that existed in Germany at the time
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Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
21.
Ramsay MacDonald
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Historians credit MacDonald, along with Keir Hardie and Arthur Henderson, as one of the three principal founders of the Labour Party. His speeches, pamphlets and books him an important theoretician. He entered Parliament in 1906 and was the Chairman of the Labour MPs from 1911 to 1914 and he was widely denounced for his opposition to the First World War, and he lost his seat in 1918. The antiwar mood of the 1920s led to his rehabilitation in the 1920s and he returned to Parliament in 1922, the first Labour government—formed with Liberal support—in 1924 lasted only nine months but demonstrated that the Labour Party was sufficiently competent to run a government. In 1931, MacDonald formed a National Government in which two of his Labour colleagues agreed to serve. His majority came from the Conservatives and he abandoned the gold standard and called a general election in 1931 seeking a doctors mandate to do whatever was necessary to fix the economy. MacDonalds National coalition won a landslide and the Labour Party was reduced to a rump of around 50 seats in the House of Commons. Nevertheless budget pressures, and a strong popular pacifist sentiment, forced a reduction in the military and his health rapidly deteriorated and he became increasingly ineffective as a leader. He stood down as Prime Minister in 1935, losing his seat at the election that autumn. He remained in the Cabinet as Lord President of the Council until retiring from the government in 1937 and dying, still an MP, later that year. Since 1931 MacDonald has been denounced by Labour supporters as a traitor to their cause. Since the late 1970s historians have defended his reputation, emphasising his role in building up the Labour Party. MacDonald was born at Gregory Place, Lossiemouth, Morayshire, Scotland, the son of John MacDonald, a farm labourer, and Anne Ramsay. Although registered at birth as James McDonald Ramsay, he was known as Jaimie MacDonald and his mother had worked as a domestic servant at Claydale farm, near Alves, where her future husband was also employed. Ramsay MacDonald received an education at the Free Church of Scotland school in Lossiemouth from 1872 to 1875. He left school at the end of the term in 1881, at the age of 15. In December 1881 he was appointed as a teacher at Drainie parish school. In 1885 he left to take up a position as an assistant to Mordaunt Crofton and it was in Bristol that Ramsay MacDonald joined the Democratic Federation, a Radical sect
22.
Sir William Gordon-Cumming, 4th Baronet
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Sir William Alexander Gordon Gordon-Cumming, 4th Baronet was a Scottish landowner, soldier, adventurer and socialite. A notorious womaniser, he is best known for being the figure in the royal baccarat scandal of 1891. After inheriting a baronetcy he joined the Army and saw service in South Africa, Egypt, something of an adventurer, he also spent time hunting in the US and India. A friend of Edward, Prince of Wales for over 20 years, in 1891 he attended a party at Tranby Croft, Yorkshire. During the course of two nights play he was accused of cheating, which he denied vehemently, after news of the affair leaked out, he sued five members of the host family for slander, the Prince of Wales was called as a witness. The case was a spectacle, widely reported in the UK and abroad. A handsome, arrogant man, Gordon-Cumming was a womaniser, particularly married women. After the court case he married an American heiress, the couple had five children and he was the grandfather of the writers Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon-Cumming. William Gordon Gordon-Cumming was born on 20 July 1848 at Sanquhar House, near Forres and his parents were Alexander Penrose Gordon-Cumming and his wife Anne Pitcairn née Campbell. The big-game hunter Roualeyn George Gordon-Cumming was his uncle, and the travel writer Constance Gordon-Cumming was his aunt and he was educated at Eton and Wellington colleges. At the age of eighteen he inherited the baronetcy and became chief of the Clan Cumming, his line had been traced from the fourth century and his inheritance included three Morayshire estates, Altyre near Forres, Gordonstoun near Elgin and Dallas. Though the estates totalled 38,500 acres, they yielded poor revenues, although Gordon-Cumming suffered from asthma and was blind in one eye, he purchased an ensigns commission in the Scots Fusilier Guards in 1868. He was promoted to lieutenant and to the rank of captain in the army by purchase on 17 May 1871. He volunteered for service in South Africa in the Anglo-Zulu War, where he served gallantly and that year he conveyed the condolences of the army to the Empress Eugénie on the death of her son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial. Gordon-Cumming was promoted to the rank of captain and the army rank of lieutenant-colonel on 28 July 1880. He went on to serve in Egypt, in the Anglo-Egyptian War and in the Sudan in the Mahdist War and he was promoted to regimental major on 23 May 1888. In September 1890 Gordon-Cumming was invited, along with Edward, Prince of Wales, despite the pledge of silence, rumours of the incident began to circulate and were brought to Gordon-Cummings attention. The trial opened on 1 June 1891 and entry to the court was by ticket only, the trial closed the following week, after the judges summing up had been unacceptably biased, according to Tomes
23.
Montgomeryshire
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Montgomeryshire, also known as Maldwyn is one of thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. It is named after its county town, Montgomery, which in turn is named one of William the Conquerors main counsellors, Roger de Montgomerie. Montgomeryshire today constitutes the part of the principal area of Powys. The population of Montgomeryshire was 63,779 according to the 2011 census, the current area is 2,174 square km. The largest town is Newtown, followed by Welshpool and Llanidloes, the Treaty of Montgomery was signed in Montgomeryshire on 29 September 1267. With the introduction of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 the marcher lordships were incorporated into the new counties of Denbighshire and Montgomeryshire, Montgomeryshire was the birthplace of Welsh Catholic martyr Saint Richard Gwyn. From 1889 to 1974 the county became a county with a county council. Montgomery, the county town, held the assizes and became the meeting place of the new County Council. However, the continued to be based at Welshpool, which prior to the reforms had been regarded as the county town. Local government reforms in 1974 combined the areas of Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire and Breconshire together to form a new administrative Powys county. Montgomeryshire became a district of Powys, with its headquarters in Newtown. Further local government reform in 1996 abolished district councils in Wales, the Montgomeryshire area continues to have an administrative/political function as one of the three committee areas used by Powys Council, along with the other two historic counties. These three areas are referred to by the county council as shires. The few communities that were added to northern Powys in 1996 now form part of the modern-day Montgomeryshire area, Montgomeryshire is a UK Parliament constituency and a Welsh Assembly constituency. The shire is almost wholly mountainous, although there are fertile valleys in the east. The highest point is Cadair Berwyn at 832 metres and its main rivers are the River Severn and the River Dyfi. Lake Vyrnwy is a reservoir supplying Liverpool, the main towns are Machynlleth, Llanidloes, Montgomery, Newtown and Welshpool. The main industries are agriculture and tourism, though there is some forestry
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The Midlands
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The Midlands is a cultural and geographic area roughly spanning central England that broadly corresponds to the early medieval Kingdom of Mercia. It borders South East England, South West England, North West England, Yorkshire and Humber, East of England and its largest city is Birmingham, and it was an important location for the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The greater part of the area is formed of two English statistical regions, the West Midlands and East Midlands, the Midlands does not correspond to any current administrative area, and there is therefore no strict definition. With more restricted boundaries than the area known as the Midlands. These are also constituencies of the European Parliament, the East Midlands region comprises the shire counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire and Nottinghamshire and the unitary county of Rutland. The two regions have a population of 10,135,000, and an area of 11,053 sq mi. The largest Midlands conurbation, which includes the cities of Birmingham, various part of the Midlands are somewhat poetically referred to as the Heart of England, especially in tourist literature. The various areas of the Midlands have their own character, giving rise to a high number of local history. Nottingham played a part in the English Civil War, which is commemorated in a number of place names. Areas such as Derbyshires Amber Valley and Erewash combine attractive countryside with industrial heritage and are home to historic canals, the Black Country, broadly the boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Wolverhampton and Walsall, played an important part in the Industrial Revolution. The Midlands is predominantly low-lying and flat in character, although isolated hills such as Turners Hill have extensive views. Upland areas lie in the west and north of the region with the Shropshire Hills to the west, close to the Welsh border, the Shropshire Hills reach heights of over 500 m, including the Long Mynd, Clee Hills and Stiperstones ridge. Wenlock Edge, running through the middle of the Shropshire Hills AONB, is a long, low ridge, the Peak District reaches heights of between 300 m and 600 m with Kinder Scout being the highest point at 636 m. Further south, the Welsh border reaches over 700 m high, at Black Mountain, other small areas of lower hills in the Midlands include Cannock Chase in Staffordshire, Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire, and the Lincolnshire Wolds in Lincolnshire. The Cotswolds – designated an AONB in 1966, – extend for over 90 miles through six counties, but centred on Gloucestershire. They reach a highest point of 330 m at Cleeve Hill, the Malverns are formed of some of the oldest rock in England and extend for some 13 km through two West Midlands counties as well as northern Gloucestershire in the southwest. The highest point of the hills is the Worcestershire Beacon at 425 m above sea level, the Midlands has a temperate maritime climate. With cold, cloudy, wet winters and comfortable, mostly dry, the temperature usually ranges from −0.4 °C during winter nights to 24.1 °C during summer days
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Forres
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Forres is a town and former royal burgh situated in the north of Scotland on the Moray coast, approximately 25 miles east of Inverness and 12 miles west of Elgin. Forres has been a winner of the Scotland in Bloom award on several occasions, there are many geographical and historical attractions nearby such as the River Findhorn, and there are many historical artifacts and monuments within the town itself. The earliest written reference to Forres may be the Οὐάραρ εἴσχυσις mentioned in the second century Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, a royal castle was in the area from at least 900 AD, and around 1140 AD Forres became a royal burgh. Royal burghs were founded by the Kings of Scots of the 12th century to encourage trade, the local abbey was plundered by the Wolf of Badenoch. The population of Forres has grown in recent years and now has over 12000 inhabitants, local bars and pubs include The Newmarket, The Red Lion, locally known as the Beastie, The Mosset Tavern, and The Carlton Hotel. The town is the location of Suenos Stone, a carved stone probably created by Picts to commemorate a battle against Norse invaders. The stele is 20 feet tall and encased in glass structure to protect it from the elements, Suenos Stone translates to Svens Stone. Brodie Castle lies near the town, other attractions to Forres include Dallas Dhu Distillery, which lies just south of the town. Although no longer in production, the distillery is maintained in working order by Historic Scotland, benromach Distillery is an active distillery with a visitors centre and is located just north of the Forres bypass. Shakespeares play Macbeth locates Duncans castle in Forres, and the Three Witches meet on a heath near the town in the scene of the drama. Macbeths castle was located at Inverness, Forres has a network of footpaths that have been established and waymarked by the Forres Footpaths Trust in recent years. Forres has also just completed a flood prevention scheme at Chapletonmoss. The constituency was abolished in 1918 and the Forres and Nairn components were merged into the new constituency of Moray. As with the rest of the British Isles and Scotland, Forres experiences a climate with cool summers. The nearest official Metoffice weather station for which records are available is Kinloss. The lowest temperature to be recorded in recent years was −16.0 °C during December 2010, Forres is situated on the A96 trunk route connecting the cities of Aberdeen and Inverness. The River Findhorn was originally crossed by fording near Waterford Farm, a suspension bridge was opened in 1831 to cross the river at the west end of the town. This bridge was replaced by the current bridge in 1938, due to high volumes of traffic passing through the town centre, a bypass was built in the late 1980s to reduce congestion in the town centre
26.
Outward Bound
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Outward Bound is an international, non-profit, independent outdoor-education organization with approximately 40 schools around the world and 200,000 participants per year. Outward Bound programs aim to foster the growth and social skills of participants by using challenging expeditions in the outdoors. The first Outward Bound school was opened in Aberdovey, Wales in 1941 by Kurt Hahn, Outward Bound grew out of Hahns work in the development of the Gordonstoun school and what is now known as the Duke of Edinburghs Award. Outward Bounds founding mission was to give young seamen the ability to survive harsh conditions at sea by teaching confidence, tenacity, perseverance, James Martin Hogan served as warden for the first year of the school. This mission was established and then expanded by Capt. J. F, freddy Fuller who took over the leadership of the Aberdovey school in 1942 and served the Outward Bound movement as senior warden until 1971. Peter Willauer led the founding of the Hurricane Island Outward Bound School with Miners mentorship, the first Outward Bound program for females was conducted in 1951. Fuller was seconded to the USA in the sixties to help establish the Colorado Outward Bound School, Outward Bound USA. Some of the more notable Outward Bound teachers include James Kielsmeier, Stan Hugill, Tom Kennerley, Paul Petzoldt, rheault, Karl Rohnke, Peter Willauer, and Willi Unsoeld. The name Outward Bound derives from an expression that refers to the moment a ship leaves the harbor. This is signified by Outward Bounds use of the nautical flag, JF Fuller adapted the Outward Bound motto, To Serve, To Strive and not To Yield, from the poem Ulysses by Alfred Lord Tennyson. Tis not too late to seek a newer world, since its founding in the middle of the last century, Outward Bound has encouraged individuals to test their physical and emotional limits in challenging outdoor adventure programs. The experiences are always life-changing, they are a means of building inner strength, Outward Bound operates 40 schools in various countries and reports serving over 200,000 students each year. The Compass Rose serves as the logo for almost all the schools around the world, the cumulative effect of these experiences leads to a reorganisation of the self-conceptions and information the learner holds about him/herself. The learner will then continue to be oriented to further learning. In a typical class, participants are divided into small patrols under the guidance of one or more instructors, the first few days, often at a base camp, are spent training for the Outdoor recreation activities that the course will contain and in the philosophy of Outward Bound. After initial confidence-building challenges, the heads off on an expedition. As the group develops the capacity to do so, the instructors ask the group to make its own decisions
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The Duke of Edinburgh's Award
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The Duke of Edinburghs Award, is the generic name for a youth awards programme founded in the United Kingdom in 1956 by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, that has since expanded to 144 nations. The awards recognise adolescents and young adults for completing a series of self-improvement exercises modelled on Kurt Hahns solution to the Six Declines of Modern Youth, in the United Kingdom the programme is run by The Duke of Edinburghs Award, a royal charter corporation. In February 1956, The Duke of Edinburghs Award was first announced and it was at first for boys aged 15 to 18. It was first administered, and largely designed, by John Hunt, who had led the first successful climb of Everest in 1953 and it was designed to attract boys who had not been interested in joining one of the main British youth movements, such as the Scout Association. It was not necessary to any organisation, or wear a uniform to participate. In the first 12 months,7,000 boys had enrolled for the scheme, the programme borrowed from the Moray Badge, instituted at Gordonstoun School by its headmaster, Kurt Hahn, in 1936, and the County Badge adopted in Moray in 1941. In November 1957 it was announced that girls would be invited to participate, on 19 June 1958 the Award was extended to girls, with the first girls allowed to join from 1 September 1958. The programme for girls was not the same as that for boys, the first girls received their Gold Awards on 3 November 1959 at Buckingham Palace. From January 1965, the Gold Award for boys and girls was more similar. The first Gold Awards were achieved in 1958, and the charity was established in 1959, a single programme for young people aged 14 to 21 was launched in 1969, and extended to those up to 25 years of age in 1980. In 2013, the Duke presented Awards at St Jamess Palace which included his 500th Gold Award Presentation, the first Duke of Edinburghs Award ceremony was held in the United Kingdom in 1956. Participation in DofE programmes and the number of awards achieved has grown every year since 1956, over 5 million young people in the UK have taken part in the DofE in the UK since 1956. The Duke of Edinburghs Award is a member of the National Council for Voluntary Youth Services, in 2009, the old system of keeping track of progress through paper Record Books was replaced by the introduction of a major new online system – eDofE. Participants use this system to track their progress, while Leaders use it to oversee participants progress, the Duke of Edinburghs Award programmes take between one and four years to complete, and they must be completed by the participants twenty-fifth birthday. There are around 300,000 participants annually, the programmes are at three progressive levels which, if successfully completed, lead to a Bronze, Silver or Gold Duke of Edinburgh’s Award. With assistance from adult Leaders, participants select and set objectives in each of the following areas, physical, improving in an area of sport, dance or fitness activities. Skills, developing practical and social skills and personal interests, expedition, planning, training for and completion of an adventurous journey in the UK or abroad. At Gold level, participants must do an additional fifth Residential section, to achieve an award, the participant must work on each section for a minimum period of time, and must be monitored and assessed by someone with knowledge of the chosen activities
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Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
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Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
30.
Trireme
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A trireme was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans. The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars, manned with one man per oar. The early trireme was a development of the penteconter, an ancient warship with a row of 25 oars on each side, and of the bireme. The word dieres does not appear until the Roman period and it must be assumed the term pentekontor covered the two-level type. Triremes played a role in the Persian Wars, the creation of the Athenian maritime empire. The term is also used to refer to medieval and early modern galleys with three files of oarsmen per side as triremes. Fragments from an 8th-century relief at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh depicting the fleets of Tyre and Sidon show ships with rams and they have been interpreted as two-decked warships, and also as triremes. Modern scholarship is divided on the provenance of the trireme, Greece or Phoenicia, clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme to the Sidonians. According to Thucydides, the trireme was introduced to Greece by the Corinthians in the late 8th century BC, and the Corinthian Ameinocles built four such ships for the Samians. This was interpreted by later writers, Pliny and Diodorus, to mean that triremes were invented in Corinth, Thucydides meanwhile clearly states that in the time of the Persian Wars, the majority of the Greek navies consisted of penteconters and ploia makrá. Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the island of Aegina. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, however, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes invasion fleet was decisively defeated. After Salamis and another Greek victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale, the Ionian cities were freed, gradually, the predominance of Athens turned the League effectively into an Athenian Empire. The source and foundation of Athens power was her strong fleet, in addition, as it provided permanent employment for the citys poorer citizens, the fleet played an important role in maintaining and promoting the radical Athenian form of democracy. Athenian maritime power is the first example of thalassocracy in world history, aside from Athens, other major naval powers of the era included Syracuse, Corfu and Corinth. In the subsequent Peloponnesian War, naval battles fought by triremes were crucial in the balance between Athens and Sparta. Based on all archeological evidence, the design of trireme surely pushed the limits of the ancient world. After gathering the proper timbers and materials it was time to consider the fundamentals of the trireme design and these fundamentals included accommodations, propulsion, weight and waterline, center of gravity and stability, strength, and feasibility
31.
Cairngorms
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The Cairngorms are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name—Cairn Gorm. If you look from Aviemore on an evening, the granite screes of Lairig Ghru. This irony appears to have been missed by many for both names were used in the naming of the National Park that incorporates the range. However, the Gaelic gorm is also used as an adjective and verb, monadh Ruadh refers to the colour of the soil and Cairn Gorm refers to the green scenery. In Alexander the author refers to Colonel T, although The Cairngorms are within the Cairngorms National Park, they are only a part of it. Watson delineates the main Cairngorm massif as being between Aviemore in the north-west, Glen Gairn, Braemar in the south-east, and Glen Feshie in the south-west. The approximate southern-boundary of the runs from slightly east of Braemar, west along Glen Dee to White Bridge. The western-boundary runs down Glen Feshie and the River Spey to Aviemore, the northern-boundary runs roughly eastward from Aviemore through Glen More to Glen Avon. The eastern-boundary then runs up Glen Avon, and over Am Bealach Dearg to slightly east of Braemar, to the south of the Cairngorms are a separate distinct range, The Grampians. As it has often used on maps to take in the Ben Alder and Perthshire hills far to the west of our area. Before the Regionalisation of Scotland in 1975, most of the Cairngorms were within the county of Aberdeenshire, with the rest reaching into Inverness-shire in the west, granting the tight delineation of The Cairngorms above—there are no public roads through The Cairngorms. All the public roads in the area either skirt The Cairngorms or stop short—providing access to them only. From the south, and south-east motorised access ends at Linn of Dee, from the north-west it passes Coylumbridge, Glenmore and the Sugarbowl and ends at the car park at the Cairngorm Mountain ski resort. The Cairngorms consist of an elevated plateau adorned with low. Although not strictly a plateau, the Cairngorms give the sense of being a single plateau. Adam Watson gives the summit of Lairig Ghru as 835 metres, and the summit of Lairig an Laoigh at 740 metres, the Cairngorms became part of Scotlands second national park on 1 September 2003. The national park is in the Scottish council areas of Aberdeenshire, Moray, Angus, Perth and Kinross and Highland. After she had climbed to the top of Ben Macdui on 7 October 1859, Queen Victoria wrote, It had a sublime and solemn effect, so wild, so solitary—no one but ourselves and our little party there
32.
Platonic idealism
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Platonic idealism usually refers to Platos theory of forms or doctrine of ideas. Some commentators hold that Plato argued that truth is an abstraction, a Tree is the ideal that each of us holds that allows us to identify the imperfect reflections of trees all around us. Plato gives the line as an outline of this theory. At the top of the line, the Form of the Good is found, some contemporary linguistic philosophers construe Platonism to mean the proposition that universals exist independently of particulars. Platonism is usually divided into three periods, Early Platonism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism Platos students used the hypomnemata as the foundation to his approach to knowledge. The hypomnemata constituted a material memory of things read, heard, or thought, thus offering these as a treasure for rereading. Platonism is considered to be, in mathematics departments the world over, one statement of this philosophy is the thesis that mathematics is not created but discovered. A lucid statement of this is found in a written by the British mathematician G. H. Hardy in defense of pure mathematics. Platos Theory of Ideas, by W. D. Ross, Platonism and the Spiritual Life, by George Santayana. On the Foundations of the Philosophy of Plato and the Presocratics, by Artur Rodziewicz,2012
33.
Gordonstoun
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Gordonstoun School is a co-educational independent school for boarding and day pupils in Moray, Scotland. It is named after the 150-acre estate originally owned by Sir Robert Gordon in the 17th century and it is located in Duffus to the north-west of Elgin. It is sometimes referred to as a school in the English usage of the term as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. The school follows certain practices such as usage of the Common Entrance Exam for the 13+ entry age, founded in 1934 by German educator Kurt Hahn, Gordonstoun has an enrolment of around 500 full boarders as well as about 100 day pupils between the ages of 8 and 18. With the number of teaching staff exceeding 100, there is a low ratio compared to the average in the United Kingdom. There are eight boarding houses, formerly nine prior to the death of Altrye house in the summer of 2016, the other houses have been built or modified since the school was established. Three generations of British royalty were educated at Gordonstoun since it was established, including the Duke of Edinburgh, due to Dr. Hahns influence, the school has had a strong connection with Germany. It is part of the Round Square Conference of Schools, a group of more than 80 schools across the globe also founded by Hahn, around 30% of students attending Gordonstoun come from abroad. The British Salem School of Gordonstoun was established in 1934 by Kurt Hahn after he was asked by friends to give a demonstration in the UK of his Salem system and he was born in Berlin in 1886 and studied at the University of Oxford. After reading Platos The Republic as a man, Hahn conceived the idea of a modern school. With the help of Prince Max of Baden, he set up the Schule Schloss Salem in 1919, after the First World War, both men decided that education was key in influencing the future. They developed Salem in order to develop its students as community leaders, by the 1930s Salem had already become a renowned school throughout Europe. In 1932 Hahn spoke out against the Nazis and was arrested in March 1933 and he was released and exiled to Britain in the same year through the influence of the Prime Minister, Ramsey MacDonald, who was familiar with Hahns work. At the urging of British friends, Hahn decided to start a new school in Morayshire, Gordonstoun was started in a small way and had financial difficulties in its early years. After the death in 1930 of Sir William Gordon-Cumming, 4th Baronet, his house at Gordonstoun was obtained by Kurt Hahn, the buildings needed repair and renovation, and at the start of the first academic year, the school had only two enrolled pupils. Hahn expected Gordonstoun to operate for only a few years, as an example of his vision, the number of pupils steadily increased, and some additional pupils transferred from Salem, including Prince Philip of Greece, now the Duke of Edinburgh. By the start of the Second World War,135 boys were attending, in June 1940 the school was evacuated and the Gordonstoun estate was taken over by the army for use as barracks. The school was relocated temporarily to quarters in Montgomeryshire in Mid Wales when Lord Davies, the buildings were insufficient, and finances and pupil numbers began to drop
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Charitable organization
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A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization. It differs from types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals as well as social well-being. The legal definition of charitable organization varies according to the country, the regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies. Financial figures are important indicators to assess the sustainability of a charity. This information can impact a charitys reputation with donors and societies, and thus, Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from for-profit-organizations. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a form of corporate philanthropy. Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through parish relief, churches, almshouses, Charities were also responsible for education, health, housing and even prisons. It was in the Enlightenment era that charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations, societies, gentlemans clubs, and mutual associations began to flourish in England and the upper-classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new social activism was channeled into the establishment of charitable organizations and this emerging upper-class fashion for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. This was the first such charity in the world and served as the precedent for incorporated associational charities everywhere. Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers charity, by 1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes and these organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. Charities also began to adopt campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause, the process was however a lengthy one being finally concluded when Saudi Arabia abolished slavery in 1962. This period also saw growing philosophical debate between those who championed state intervention and those who believed that private charities should provide welfare, thomas Malthus, the political economist, criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views were influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for the poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations were set up to alleviate the conditions of the working class in the slums. The Labourers Friend Society, chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, was set up to working class conditions. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for cottage husbandry that later became the allotment movement and this was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavour that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century brought about by the growth of the middle class
35.
Preparatory school (United Kingdom)
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A preparatory school in the United Kingdom is a student selective, fee-paying independent primary school that caters primarily for children up to approximately the age of 13. They are also now used by parents in the hope of getting their child into a good state selective grammar school, boys prep schools are generally for 8- to 13-year-olds, who are prepared for the Common Entrance Examination, the key to entry into many secondary independent schools. Before the age of seven or eight, the term school is used. Girls private schools in England tend to follow the age ranges of state schools more closely than those of boys. Girls preparatory schools usually admit girls from the age of four or five, however, as more girls now go on to formerly single-sex boys schools that have become co-educational, the separation is less clear. There are 130,000 pupils in over 500 prep schools of all types and sizes, prep schools may be for boys or girls only, or may be co-educational. They may be day schools, boarding schools, weekly boarding, flexi-boarding, pre-prep schools are generally associated with prep schools, and take children from reception through to year two. Earlier provision is generally characterised as nursery or kindergarten and they are now found in all parts of the United Kingdom, and elsewhere. Incorporated Association of Preparatory Schools Independent Schools Council THE MAKING OF THEM - The British Attitude to Children and the Boarding School System
36.
Walkers Shortbread
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Walkers Shortbread is a Scottish manufacturer of shortbread, biscuits, cookies and crackers. The company is Scotlands biggest exporter of food, the companys signature pure butter shortbread is baked in the Moray village of Aberlour, Speyside, according to an original family recipe perfected by Joseph Walker in 1898. Walkers continued adding to its line of recipes, producing more than 80 products by the mid-1990s, by then, the next generation of Walkers had taken the leadership following the senior James Walkers death in 1987. The younger Walkers took up positions as co-managing directors, with each assigned specific responsibilities in the company, as such Joseph Walker directed the groups production, purchasing, and distribution operations, while Marjorie Walker handled the companys administration and finance. James Walker provided the public face, responsible for marketing. However, on 13 June 2006 Walkers grandson James Walker, announced that the bakery in Aberlour would be closing and turning into a facility for the company. The company has received the Queens Award for Export Achievement three times, the highest accolade given to British exporters, Walker Shortbread is also still owned and managed by the Walker family. Walkers Shortbread is based in Aberlour in Speyside, but they also have a site in Elgin. In the United States, their offices are in Hauppauge, New York, list of shortbread biscuits and cookies Official site Walkers Shortbread U. S. online store
37.
Motto
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A motto is a maxim, a phrase meant to formally summarize the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. In heraldry, a motto is depicted below the shield in a banderole, this placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms. In the case of Scottish heraldry it is mandated to appear above the crest, spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield. In heraldic literature, the rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common, which date back to the battle cry. In English heraldry mottos are not granted with armorial bearings, in Scottish heraldry, mottos can only be changed by re-matriculation, with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Although very unusual and perhaps outside standard heraldic practice, there are examples of the particular appearance of the motto scroll. Ships and submarines in the Royal Navy each have a badge and motto, Latin has been very common for mottos, but for nation states their official language is generally chosen. A canting motto is one that contains word play, for example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpreting on-slow. In literature, a motto is a sentence, phrase, poem, or word prefixed to an essay, chapter, novel and it is a short, suggestive expression of a guiding principle for the written material that follows. For example, Robert Louis Stevensons Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes uses mottos at the start of each section, epigram Hendiatris Inscription List of Latin phrases List of mottos List of national mottos Slogan Tagline United in diversity United we stand, divided we fall
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Education in Scotland
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Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education, and the Scottish education system is distinctly different from those in the other countries of the United Kingdom. The Scotland Act 1998 gives the Scottish Parliament legislative control over all matters. One unique aspect is that the ancient universities of Scotland issue a Master of Arts as the first degree in humanities, state schools are owned and operated by the local authorities which act as Education Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school. Schools are supported in delivering learning and teaching by Education Scotland, there are also private schools across the country, although the distribution is uneven with such schools in 22 of the 32 Local Authority areas. At September 2011 the total population in Scotland was 702,104, of which 31,425 pupils. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament, children start primary school aged between 4½ and 5½ depending on when the childs birthday falls. Scottish school policy places all those born between March of a year and February of the following year in the same year group. This usually allows those not ready for formal education to have a year at an early years centre. Pupils remain at school for seven years. Then aged eleven or twelve, they start school for a compulsory four years with the following two years being optional. In Scotland, pupils sit National 4/5 exams at the age of fifteen/sixteen, for normally eight subjects including compulsory exams in English, a Science subject and a Social Subject were also compulsory, but this was changed is accordance with the new curriculum. It is now required by the Scottish Parliament for students to have two hours of education a week, each school may vary these compulsory combinations. The school leaving age is sixteen, after which students may choose to remain at school. The International Baccalaureate has also introduced in some independent schools. The table below lists rough equivalences with the system in the rest of the United Kingdom. In many cases, this applies to children of international post-graduate students, the age ranges specify the youngest age for a child entering that year and the oldest age for a child leaving that year. In general, the point for ages is the end of February. All parents of children born between September and February are entitled to entry to Primary School if they believe their child is not ready for school
39.
Education in England
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Education in England is overseen by the United Kingdoms Department for Education. Local government authorities are responsible for implementing policy for public education, England also has a tradition of independent schools and Home schooling, legally, parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. At age 16 the students take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education or other Level 1/2 qualifications. While education is compulsory until 18, schooling is compulsory to 16, thus post-16 education can take a number of forms. It can also include work-based apprenticeships or traineeships, or volunteering, Higher education often begins with a three-year bachelors degree. Postgraduate degrees include masters degrees, either taught or by research, tuition fees for first degrees are up to £9,000 per academic year for English, Welsh and European Union students, although these are set to rise to £9,250 for students starting from 2017. The Regulated Qualifications Framework covers national school examinations and vocational education qualifications and it is referenced to the European Qualifications Framework, and thus to other qualifications frameworks across the European Union. The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, which is tied to the RQF, covers degrees and this is referenced to the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area developed under the Bologna process. The Education Act 1902 allowed local authorities to create secondary schools, the Education Act 1918 abolished fees for elementary schools. Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged 5 to 18, either at school or otherwise, children between the ages of 3 and 5 are entitled to 600 hours per year of optional, state-funded, pre-school education. This can be provided in playgroups, nurseries, community centres or nursery classes in schools. The age at which a student may choose to stop education is known as the leaving age for compulsory education. This age was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008, from this time, the school leaving age and the education leaving age have been separated. State-provided schooling and sixth-form education are paid for by taxes, the education leaving age was raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to their 18th birthday for those born on or after 1 September 1997. The prescribed days are 31 August,31 December and 31 March, the school year begins on 1 September. Below is a table summarizing the most common names of the various schools, Grammar schools are normally state-funded but selective schools, admitting children from 11 years old onward, but there are exceptions such as Manchester Grammar School. Some 93% of children between the ages of 3 and 18 are in education in state-funded schools without charge and they are monitored directly by the Department for Education. Community schools, in which the local authority employs the staff, owns the schools lands and buildings
40.
GCE Advanced Level
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A number of countries, including Singapore, Kenya, Mauritius and Zimbabwe have developed qualifications with the same name as and a similar format to the British A Levels. Obtaining A Level or equivalent qualifications is generally required for university entrance, a Levels are generally worked towards over two years and split into two parts, with one part studied in each year. The first part is known as the Advanced Subsidiary Level, A1 Level or AS Level, the second part is known as the A2 Level and is more in depth and academically rigorous than the A1 Level. Up to June 2009 a third Special/Advanced Extension Award level was available for the brightest candidates, a number of countries use A Levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A Levels taken by students in some countries often differ significantly from the A Levels taken in the United Kingdom, a Levels are the secondary school leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs, in Scotland, A Levels are also offered by selected schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The British variant of A/AS levels are taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A Levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations, at select examination centres, the British A Level exams may also be available to private candidates. A-level has become a choice for a number of students in Nepal. A-levels offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate, Examinations are handled by international British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Academies are established all around the country which prepare the students to take the examinations as a private candidate, in Brunei, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, in Malaysia, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, for instance, there are two types of A Level in Malaysia, Cambridge A Level and Edexcel International Advanced Level. A number of papers for offered, such as French, are customised to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A Level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate, in Seychelles, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, in Sri Lanka, A Level is offered by governmental and non governmental schools. The qualifications are awarded upon completion of examinations called Local A Levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A Levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Department of Examinations, passing A Levels is the major requirement for applying local universities
41.
Classics
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Classics or Classical Studies is the study of classical antiquity. It encompasses the study of the Graeco-Roman world, particularly of its languages, and literature but also it encompasses the study of Graeco-Roman philosophy, history, and archaeology. Traditionally in the West, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was considered one of the cornerstones of the humanities and it has been traditionally a cornerstone of a typical elite education. The word Classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning belonging to the highest class of citizens, the word was originally used to describe the members of the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality, for example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts classicus and proletarius writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Thus the two meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality, and to the standard texts used as part of a curriculum. In the Middle Ages, classics and education were tightly intertwined, according to Jan Ziolkowski, while Latin was hugely influential, however, Greek was barely studied, and Greek literature survived almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, were unavailable in the Middle Ages. Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages. Catullus, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period, the Renaissance led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history, as well as a revival of classical styles of Latin. From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, Renaissance Humanism, Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch and Boccaccio who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems, the late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines. From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin, in this period Johann Winckelmanns claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement, in the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. The 19th century saw the influence of the world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the US
