1.
Municipality of Brda
–
The Municipality of Brda is a municipality in western Slovenia. It is located in the Slovenian Littoral region, extending from the Italian border to the Soča River and it is bounded by Sabotin Hill to the east and Korada Hill to the north. The municipality comprises the Slovenian part of the Gorizia Hills, which are one of the most important wine-producing microregions in Slovenia and it enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate and it is protected from the strong Bora wind, which frequently blows in other parts of the Slovenian Littoral. Agriculture is an important part of the economy, besides grapes, cherries are the most important agricultural product in the municipality, followed by apricots, pears, figs. Together with the Vipava Valley, Brda produces most of the persimmons in Slovenia, small amounts of olive oil are also produced. The wine varieties grown in Brda include Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, Pinot gris, Brda is the native land of the poet Alojz Gradnik, who was born in the village of Medana. The people speak a distinctive Slovene dialect belonging to the Littoral dialect group, Slovenian wine Collio Goriziano Media related to Municipality of Brda at Wikimedia Commons About Goriska Brda Brda on Geopedia
Municipality of Brda
–
The village of Hum in the municipality
2.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
3.
Slovene language
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Slovene or Slovenian belongs to the group of South Slavic languages. It is spoken by approximately 2.5 million speakers worldwide and it is the first language of about 2.1 million Slovenian people and is one of the 24 official and working languages of the European Union. Standard Slovene is the standard language that was formed in the 18th century, mostly based on Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect groups. For example, the Resian and Torre dialects in the Italian Province of Udine differ most from other Slovene dialects, the distinctive characteristics of Slovene are dual grammatical number, two accentual norms, and abundant inflection. Although Slovene is basically an SVO language, word order is very flexible, Slovene has a T-V distinction, second-person plural forms are used for individuals as a sign of respect. Slovene and Slovak are the two modern Slavic languages whose names for themselves literally mean Slavic. Slovene is an Indo-European language belonging to the Western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, such as Bulgarian. The Slovene language also has commonalities with the West Slavic languages. Like all Slavic languages, Slovene traces its roots to the same group of languages that produced Old Church Slavonic. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written Slovene dialect are from the Freising Manuscripts, the consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1093. These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language and this linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern Istria, during most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovene territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time, German emerged as the language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan and Styrian nobility. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene, the words Buge waz primi, gralva Venus. The first printed Slovene words, stara pravda, appeared in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the Slovene peasant revolt. Standard Slovene emerged in the half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors. During this period, German had a influence on Slovene. Many Slovene scientists before the 1920s also wrote in languages, mostly German
Slovene language
–
Tombstone of Jožef Nahtigal in
Dobrova with archaic Slovene onikanje in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [počivajo] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal... they were born [rojeni]... they died [umerli]... God grant them [jim] eternal peace and rest."
Slovene language
–
Slovene-speaking areas
4.
Slovenia
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Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a nation state in southern Central Europe, located at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and it covers 20,273 square kilometers and has a population of 2.06 million. It is a republic and a member of the United Nations, European Union. The capital and largest city is Ljubljana, additionally, the Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity, is one of the most water-rich in Europe, with a river network, a rich aquifer system. Over half of the territory is covered by forest, the human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of South Slavic, Germanic, Romance, although the population is not homogeneous, the majority is Slovene. Slovene is the language throughout the country. Slovenia is a largely secularized country, but its culture and identity have been influenced by Catholicism as well as Lutheranism. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented and has strongly influenced by international conditions. It has been hurt by the Eurozone crisis, started in the late 2000s. The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction, Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In October 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the State of Slovenes, Croats, in December 1918, they merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, and Hungary, with a tiny area transferred to the Independent State of Croatia, in June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia split from Yugoslavia and became an independent country. Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and there is evidence of habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ±700 BP, in the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle were found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe, in the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archaeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found, particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, in the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC
Slovenia
–
A
pierced cave bear bone, possibly
flute, from
Divje Babe
Slovenia
–
Flag
Slovenia
–
Roman
Emona 's south wall (reconstruction) in present-day Ljubljana
Slovenia
–
Prince's Stone, symbol of
duchy of Carantania
5.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
6.
Gorizia
–
Gorizia listen is a town and comune in northeastern Italy, in the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia. It is located at the foot of the Julian Alps, bordering Slovenia and it is the capital of the Province of Gorizia and a local center of tourism, industry, and commerce. Since 1947, a town of Nova Gorica has developed on the other side of the modern-day Italian–Slovenian border. Taken together, the two towns constitute a conurbation, which includes the Slovenian municipality of Šempeter-Vrtojba. Since May 2011, these three towns are joined in a common trans-border metropolitan zone, administered by a joint administration board, Gorizia is located at the confluence of the Isonzo and Vipava Valleys. It lies on a plain overlooked by the Gorizia Hills, sheltered from the north by a mountain ridge, Gorizia is protected from the cold Bora wind that affects most of the neighbouring areas. The town thus enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate throughout the year, the name of the town comes from the Slovene word gorica meaning little hill, which is a very common toponym in Slovene-inhabited areas. The document referred to Gorizia as the known as Goriza in the language of the Slavs. From the 11th century, the town had two different layers of development, the castle district and the village beneath it. The first played a role and the second a rural-commercial role. In 1500, the dynasty of the Counts of Gorizia died out and their County passed to Austrian Habsburg rule, under Habsburg dominion, the town spread out at the foot of the castle. Many settlers from northern Italy moved there and started their commerce, Gorizia developed into a multi-ethnic town, in which Friulian, Venetian, German and Slovene language was spoken. In mid-16th century, Gorizia emerged as a centre of Protestant Reformation, the prominent Slovene Protestant preacher Primož Trubar also visited and preached in the town. By the end of the century, however, Catholic Counter-Reformation had gained force in Gorizia, led by the local dean Janez Tavčar, Tavčar was also instrumental in bringing the Jesuit order to the town, which played a role in the education and cultural life in Gorizia thereafter. Gorizia was at first part of the County of Görz and since 1754, a new town quarter developed around the Cathedral where many treasures from the Basilica of Aquileia were transferred. Many new villas were built conveying to the town the typical late Baroque appearance, a synagogue was built within the town walls, too, which was another example of Gorizias relatively tolerant multi-ethnic nature. During the Napoleonic Wars, Gorizia was incorporated to the French Illyrian Provinces between 1809 and 1813, after the restoration of the Austrian rule, the Gorizia and its County were incorporated in the administrative unit known as the Kingdom of Illyria. During this period, Gorizia emerged as a summer residence of the Austrian nobility
Gorizia
–
The old part of Gorizia seen from the castle
Gorizia
–
The medieval center of Gorizia
Gorizia
–
The Leopold Gate, built in the late 17th century in honour of
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor
Gorizia
–
The Strassoldo Palace, residence of the
Bourbon family in exile
7.
Slovenes
–
They speak the Slovene, a South Slavic language with significant similarities to West Slavic languages. The majority of ethnic Slovenes live in Slovenia, and they are a minority in Austria, Hungary, Croatia, and Italy. Expatriates live mainly in other European countries, and in Argentina, Australia, Canada, most Slovenes today live within the borders of the independent Slovenia. In the Slovenian national census of 2002,1,631,363 people ethnically declared themselves as Slovenes, while 1,723,434 people claimed Slovene as their native language. The autochthonous Slovene minority in Italy is estimated at 83,000 to 100,000, the Slovene minority in southern Austria at 24,855, in Croatia at 13,200, and in Hungary at 3,180. Significant Slovene expatriate communities live in the United States and Canada, in other European countries, in Argentina, the largest population of Slovenes outside of Slovenia is in Cleveland, Ohio. In total 39-36% of 399-458 sampled Slovenian males belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a, more frequent than in South Slavic peoples, constituting 41% in the capital region, Slovenian population displays close genetic affiliations with West Slavic populations. The homogenous genetic strata of the West Slavic populations and the Slovenian population suggest the existence of a common ancestral Slavic population in central European region. The M458 branch constitutes 4%, while the dominant clade is Z280, specifically its R1a-CTS3402 clade, the Z92 branch of Z280 which is significant among East Slavs is recorded as completely absent among Slovenes, Hungarians and Austrians. Of 100 sampled Slovenians, 18% belong to R1b, of which 8% of R1b belongs to the P312 branch, 6% to the eastern, the Dinaric-North haplotypes of I2a1b are with overwhelming higher frequency than Dinaric-South even in regions with high frequency. From 623 to 658, Slavic peoples between the upper Elbe River and the Karavanke mountain range were united under the leadership of King Samo in what was to become known as Samos Tribal Union. The tribal union collapsed after Samos death, but a smaller Slavic tribal principality Carantania remained, due to pressing danger of Avar tribes from the east, the Carantanians accepted a union with Bavaria in 745 and later recognized Frankish rule and accepted Christianity in the 8th century. The last Slavic state formation in the region, the principality of Prince Kocelj, Slovene ethnic territory subsequently shrank due to pressing of Germans from the west and the arrival of Hungarians in the Pannonian plain, and stabilized in the present form in the 15th century. The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century, during this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the Protestant preacher Primož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, at the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsored Counter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics of Baroque culture. The Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people and it hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. The start of activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival. Before the Napoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged, during the same period, the first history of the Slovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written by Anton Tomaž Linhart, while Jernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensive grammar of Slovene
Slovenes
–
Peter Kozler 's
map of the Slovene Lands, designed during the
Spring of Nations in 1848, became the symbol of the quest for a
United Slovenia.
Slovenes
–
Germany
8.
Friulian
–
Friulian or Friulan is a Romance language belonging to the Rhaeto-Romance family, spoken in the Friuli region of northeastern Italy. Friulian has around 600,000 speakers, the vast majority of whom also speak Italian, documents in Friulian are attested from the 11th century and poetry and literature date as far back as 1300. By the 20th century, there was a revival of interest in the language that has continued to this day, in North America the more common English form is Friulan for both the language and the ethnic identity of the people living in Friuli and abroad. Friulan follows the example of Friulano in Italian, see the reference, Friulan Dictionary, English-Friulan / Friulan-English. A question which causes many debates is the influence of the Latin spoken in Aquileia, some claim that it had peculiar features that later passed into Friulian. 357, wrote a commentary to the Gospel in sermo rusticus, in the language spoken by the people, the language spoken before the arrival of the Romans in 181 BC was of Celtic origin since the inhabitants belonged to the Carni, a Celtic population. In modern Friulian, the words of Celtic origins are many, even influences from the Lombard language - Friuli was one of their strongholds - are very frequent. In Friulian there are also a lot of German, Slovenian and Venetian words, from that evidence, scholars today agree that the formation of Friulian dates back to around 1000, at the same time as other dialects derived from Latin. The first written records of Friulian have been found in administrative acts of the 13th century, but the documents became more frequent in the following century, the main centre at that time was Cividale. The Friulian language has never acquired official status, legal statutes were first written in Latin, then in Venetian, the idea of unity among Ladin, Romansh and Friulian comes from the Italian historical linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli, who was born in Gorizia. In 1871, he presented his theory that three languages are part of one family, which in the past stretched from Switzerland to Muggia. The three languages are the survivors of this family and all developed differently. Friulian was much influenced by German. Many features that Ascoli thought were peculiar to the Rhaeto-Romance languages can, in fact, in the past, the language borders were wider since in Trieste and Muggia, local variants of Friulian were spoken. The main document about the dialect of Trieste, or tergestino, is Dialoghi piacevoli in dialetto vernacolo triestino, Friuli was, until the 1960s, an area of deep poverty, causing a large number of Friulian speakers to emigrate. Most went to France, Belgium, and Switzerland or outside Europe, to Canada, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, in those countries, there are associations of Friulian immigrants that try to protect their traditions and language. The first texts in Friulian date back to the 13th century and are commercial or juridical acts. The examples show that Friulian was used together with Latin, which was still the administrative language, the most notable work is Piruç myò doç inculurit, it was composed by an anonymous author from Cividale del Friuli, probably in 1380
Friulian
–
Historical linguist
Graziadio Isaia Ascoli presented the theory that Ladin, Romansh and Friulian are from the same family
Friulian
–
Historical flag of Friûl
Friulian
–
Road sign in Italian and Friulian
Friulian
–
Sign of the Universitât dâl Friûl in Udine
9.
Province of Gorizia
–
The Province of Gorizia is a province in the autonomous Friuli–Venezia Giulia region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Gorizia and these communes are now part of Slovenia. It has an area of 466 square kilometres and a population of 142,035. It has a length of 47.6 kilometres. There are 25 communes in the province, around 11% of the population of the province is of ethnically Slovene. Italian legislation ensures the protection of the Slovene linguistic minority in 9 of the 25 municipalities comprising the province, three rural municipalities have an ethnically Slovene majority, but the majority of native Slovene speakers in the Province live in the urban area of Gorizia
Province of Gorizia
–
Map highlighting the location of the province of Gorizia in Italy
10.
Cormons
–
As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 7,639 and an area of 34.6 square kilometres. The municipality of Cormons contains the frazioni Angoris, Borgnano, Brazzano, Giassico, San Rocco di Brazzano, Novali, Castelletto, Plessiva, Povia, Fornaci, Roncada, according to the Italian census of 1971,4, 4% of the population was of Slovene ethnicity. Denis Godeas Sergio Marcon Valentino Pittoni Peter Cormons Stephan Villavicencio Cormons railway station is served by trains to Trieste, Udine, Treviso, media related to Cormons at Wikimedia Commons Cormons official website Cormons live streaming webcam
Cormons
–
Main square in Cormons, renovated by the architect
Boris Podrecca
11.
Ribolla Gialla
–
Ribolla Gialla is a white Italian wine grape grown most prominently in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy. The grape is found in Slovenia where it is known as Rebula. In Friuli, the grape thrives in the region around Rosazzo, in Slovenia, the grape is grown prominently in the Brda region. The grape is not related to the Friuli red wine grape Schioppettino which is known as Ribolla Nera. The obscure, lower quality Ribola Verde grape is mutated version that is not widely used, the grape is believed to have originated in Greece and made its way to the Friuli-Venezia Giulia by way of Slovenia. The first written documentation of the grape was in a 1289 notarial contract on vineyard land in the Friuli region, during the 14th century, the Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio listed indulgence of Ribolla wines as one of the sins of gluttony in his diatribe on the subject. When the Duke of Austria, Leopold III, established reign over Trieste one of his stipulations was that the city supply him each year with 100 urns of the regions best Ribolla wine. By 1402, the reputation of the wine made from the grape was high enough for the city of Udine to feel compelled to enact a law prohibited the adulteration of any wine made from Ribolla. In the 18th century, the Italian writer Antonio Musnig rated Ribolla wine as the finest white wine in the Friuli, by the 1990s less than 1% of all white Friuli wines created under a Denominazione di origine controllata designation contained Ribolla. By the turn of the 21st century, international interest in the wines of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia had led to an increase in plantings of the grape, today it has a more prominent roles in the white DOC wines of Colli Orientali del Friuli and Collio Goriziano. The white wine made from the Ribolla grape is typically a deep colored, light bodied wine with high acidity, the wine can produce a more New World style with some oak aging. As the wine ages, it can develop some nutty flavors, in Greece, the wine has flinty and lemon notes. In the Friuli, the wines of the regions have a little more body than the wines of the central regions
Ribolla Gialla
–
Today Ribolla Gialla can be found widely planted throughout the Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
12.
Malvasia Istriana
–
Grape varieties in this family include Malvasia bianca, Malvasia di Schierano, Malvasia negra, Malvasia nera, Malvasia near di Brindisi and a number of other varieties. Malvasia wines are produced in Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Corsica, the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, the island of Madeira, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Australia and Brazil. These grapes are used to produce table wines, dessert wines. Most ampelographers believe that the Malvasia family of grapes are of ancient origin, most likely originating in Crete, during the Middle Ages, the Venetians became so prolific in the trading of Malvasia wine that merchant wine shops in Venice were known as malvasie. A competing theory holds that the name is derived from the district of Malevizi, in any case, Malmsey was one of the three major wines exported from Greece in medieval times. Both Monemvasia and Candia have lent their names to modern grape varieties, in Greece, there is a variety known as Monemvasia, evidently named after the port, though now grown primarily in the Cyclades. In western Europe, a variety of Malvasia is known as Malvasia Bianca di Candia. DNA analysis does, however, suggest that the Athiri wine grape is ancestral to Malvasia, most varieties of Malvasia are closely related to Malvasia bianca. One notable exception is the variety known as Malvasia di Candia which is a distinctly different sub-variety of Malvasia. Malvasia bianca is grown throughout the world in places like Italy, the San Joaquin Valley of California, the Greek Islands of Paros and Syros. Throughout central Italy, Malvasia is often blended with Trebbiano to add flavor, in Rioja, it performs a similar function when blended with Viura. Malvazija Istarska Malvazija Istarska got the name after peninsula of Istria shared between Croatia, Slovenia and Italy and it represents one of the main white wines of Croatian Istria and the north Dalmatian coast. The vine was introduced to the area by Venetian merchants who brought cuttings from Greece, the malvasia is called malvazija in Croatian language. It is the white wine in the region. Other The Dalmatian Maraština is identical to the Italian variety Malvasia Lunga, Malvasia Istriana In Italy this wine is grown in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region in Collio DOC and Isonzo DOC. The name comes from the Istria peninsula spanning over Croatia, Slovenia, the vine was introduced to the area by Venetian merchants who brought cuttings from Greece. Malvasia Istriana is also found in the Colli Piacentini region of Emilia where it is used to make sparkling wine known locally as champagnino or little Champagne. Following World War II, lack of interest in the market lead to a sharp decline in plantings with many varieties on the verge of extinction
Malvasia Istriana
–
Malvasia grapes on the vine
Malvasia Istriana
–
A map of the island fortress of Monemvasia in the 17th century
Malvasia Istriana
–
Malvasia grapes
Malvasia Istriana
–
Bottles of Malvazija istarska (Istrian Malvasia) quality wine
13.
Chardonnay
–
Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety used in the production of white wine. The variety originated in the Burgundy wine region of eastern France, for new and developing wine regions, growing Chardonnay is seen as a rite of passage and an easy entry into the international wine market. The Chardonnay grape itself is neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the grape being derived from such influences as terroir. It is vinified in many different styles, from the lean, crisply mineral wines of Chablis, France, to New World wines with oak, and tropical fruit flavors. In cool climates, Chardonnay tends to be medium to light body with noticeable acidity and flavors of plum, apple. In warmer locations, the flavors become more citrus, peach, wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation tend to have softer acidity and fruit flavors with buttery mouthfeel and hazelnut notes. Chardonnay is an important component of many sparkling wines around the world, a peak in popularity in the late 1980s gave way to a backlash among those wine connoisseur who saw the grape as a leading negative component of the globalization of wine. For much of its history, a connection was assumed between Chardonnay and Pinot noir or Pinot blanc, in addition to being found in the same region of France for centuries, ampelographers noted that the leaves of each plant have near-identical shape and structure. Pierre Galet disagreed with this assessment, believing that Chardonnay was not related to any other major grape variety, viticulturalists Maynard Amerine and Harold Olmo proposed a descendency from a wild Vitis vinifera vine that was a step removed from white Muscat. Another theory stated that it originated from an ancient indigenous vine found in Cyprus, modern DNA fingerprinting research at University of California, Davis, now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot noir and Gouais blanc grape varieties. The Romans are thought to have brought Gouais blanc from Croatia, the Pinot of the French aristocracy grew in close proximity to the Gouais blanc, giving both grapes ample opportunity to interbreed. Since the two parents were distant, many of the crosses showed hybrid vigour and were selected for further propagation. As of 2006,34 clonal varieties of Chardonnay could be found in vineyards throughout France, examples include the lower-yielding clones Dijon-76,95 and 96 that produce more flavor-concentrated clusters. Dijon-77 and 809 produce more aromatic wines with a perfume, while Dijon-75,78,121,124,125 and 277 are more vigorous. New World varieties include the Mendoza clone, which produced some of the early California Chardonnays, the Mendoza clone is prone to develop millerandage, also known as hens and chicks, where the berries develop unevenly. In places such as Oregon, the use of newer Dijon clones has had success in those regions of the Willamette Valley with climates similar to that of Burgundy. Chardonnay has served as parent to several French-American hybrid grapes, as well as crossings with other V. vinifera varieties, examples include the hybrid Chardonel, which was a Chardonnay and Seyval blanc cross produced in 1953 at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. Mutations of the Chardonnay grape include the rare pink-berried Chardonnay Rose, also Chardonnay Blanc Musqué, Chardonnay Blanc Musqué is mostly found around the Mâconnais village of Clessé and sometimes confused with the Dijon-166 clone planted in South Africa, which yields Muscat-like aromas
Chardonnay
–
Chardonnay grapes
Chardonnay
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Goaus blanc, one of the parent varieties of Chardonnay.
Chardonnay
–
Chardonnay grapes after
harvest
Chardonnay
–
Chardonnay grapes in Champagne
14.
Pinot bianco
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Pinot blanc is a white wine grape. It is a point genetic mutation of Pinot noir, Pinot noir is genetically unstable and will occasionally experience a point mutation in which a vine bears all black fruit except for one cane which produces white fruit. In Alsace, Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia, somewhat confusingly, the designation Pinot blanc for Alsace AOC wine does not necessarily mean that the wine is varietally pure Pinot blanc. Rather, the means that it is a white wine made from Pinot varieties. Under Alsace appellation rules, the varieties Pinot blanc, Auxerrois blanc, Pinot gris and Pinot noir may all be used, the most full-bodied Pinot blanc wines from Alsace, with a spicy and smokey character and moderate acidity, are probably dominated by Auxerrois grapes. Historically, Pinot blanc was used both in Burgundy and Champagne and it is still allowed in Bourgogne blanc blend and small amounts of Pinot blanc may in principle be blended into some Burgundy wines, but very small amounts are cultivated in either region. In the Champagne region, Pinot blanc is often called Blanc vrai, in Germany, where it is known as Weißer Burgunder or Weißburgunder, there were 3,491 hectares of Pinot blanc in 2006. The most powerful versions are made in Baden and Palatinate. In the United States it is produced in California. In the United States, many of the vines called Pinot blanc are actually a different variety, Melon de Bourgogne/Muscadet, the grape is also grown in Austria and Hungary as well as in Burgundy, France. In Canada, Pinot blanc is used to make ice wine. Canadas Okanagan Valley has developed a reputation for Pinot blanc as its signature wine, Pinot blanc has also been confused with Chardonnay, and wineries often vinify it in a similar style, using barrel fermentation, new oak and malolactic fermentation. It can also be treated more lightly and made into a wine that still has some ability to age. During a series of trials between 1930 and 1935, Pinot blanc was crossed with Riesling to create the white Italian wine grape variety Manzoni bianco. In Alsace, Italy and Hungary, the produced from this grape is a full-bodied dry white wine while in Germany. One of the components of the wine Vin Santo can be Pinot blanc, in France the grape is often blended with Klevner, sometimes referred to by locals as true Pinot, and Auxerrois grapes, in order to give it a more alsacian flavor. Bottles labeled Pinot Blanc offer fruity aromas, often of apple, citrus fruit, bottles that are varietally pure, although more difficult to find, provide stronger floral characteristics, stone fruits and a headier minerality. Pinot blanc wines are made for immediate consumption
Pinot bianco
–
Pinot blanc grapes
Pinot bianco
–
An Oregon Pinot blanc.
Pinot bianco
–
A Crémant d'Alsace made from Pinot blanc.
Pinot bianco
–
A bottle of Pinot blanc (selected late harvest) from
Međimurje County, northern
Croatia
15.
Pinot grigio
–
Pinot gris or Grauburgunder is a white wine grape variety of the species Vitis vinifera. Thought to be a mutant clone of the Pinot noir variety, it normally has a fruit, accounting for its name but the grapes can have a brownish pink to black. The word pinot, which comes from the word meaning pine cone in French, could have been given to it because the grapes grow in small pine cone-shaped clusters. The wines produced from this grape also vary in color from a golden yellow to copper and even a light shade of pink. The clone of Pinot gris grown in Italy is known as Pinot grigio, Pinot gris is grown around the globe with the spicy full-bodied Alsatian and lighter-bodied, more acidic Italian styles being most widely recognized. The flavors can range from ripe tropical fruit notes of melon, in Italy, Pinot grigio grapes are often harvested early to retain the refreshing acidity and minimize some of the overt-fruitiness of the variety, creating a more neutral flavor profile. This style is imitated in other Old World wine regions. Pinot gris has been known since the Middle Ages in the Burgundy region and it spread from Burgundy, along with Pinot noir, arriving in Switzerland by 1300. The vine soon after developed the name Szürkebarát meaning grey monk, in 1711, a German merchant, named Johann Seger Ruland discovered a grape growing wild in the fields of the Palatinate. The subsequent wine he produced became known as Ruländer and the vine was later discovered to be Pinot gris. Until the 18th and 19th century, the grape was a popular planting in Burgundy and Champagne but poor yields and unreliable crops caused the grape to fall out of favor in those areas. The same fate nearly occurred in Germany, but vine breeders in the early 20th century were able to develop clonal varieties that would produce a more consistent, the leaves and the vines of both grapes are so similar that the coloration is the only aspect that differentiates the two. Around 2005, Pinot gris was enjoying increasing popularity in the marketplace, especially in its Pinot grigio incarnation, the total area cultivated by this vine worldwide is about 15,000 hectares. Argentina - San Juan and Mendoza Australia - Tasmania, Yarra Valley, Adelaide Hills, Orange, New South Wales, austria -300 hectares or 0. 6% of the total wine growing area. Canada - British Columbia, Ontario Chile - Casablanca, Chile France - Burgundy, Loire,5,042 hectares or 4. 9% of the wine growing area. Hungary - Badacsony, Mátraalja Italy - Roverè della Luna, Trentino Moldova New Zealand, in 2007 the area was only 1,146 hectares. Romania - Constanţa County, Jidvei Turkey- Thrace Region, Kırklareli, Arcadia Vineyards South Africa Slovenia - Primorska, previously, the Pinot gris wines produced in Alsace were originally labeled Tokay dAlsace. In the Middle Ages, the grape was popularized in the region by Hungarian traders who were introduced to the grape from Burgundy
Pinot grigio
–
A bunch of Pinot gris grapes
Pinot grigio
–
An Italian Pinot grigio from the Alto Adige region.
Pinot grigio
–
A Pinot gris Vendange Tardive from Alsace, i.e., a sweet late harvest wine.
Pinot grigio
–
A Pinot gris from the Russian River Valley of California.
16.
Sauvignon blanc
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Sauvignon blanc is a green-skinned grape variety that originates from the Bordeaux region of France. The grape most likely gets its name from the French words sauvage and it is possibly a descendant of Savagnin. Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the wine regions, producing a crisp, dry. The grape is also a component of the famous wines from Sauternes. Sauvignon blanc is widely cultivated in France, Chile, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Washington, some New World Sauvignon blancs, particularly from California, may also be called Fume Blanc. Depending on the climate, the flavor can range from aggressively grassy to sweetly tropical, in cooler climates, the grape has a tendency to produce wines with noticeable acidity and green flavors of grass, green bell peppers and nettles with some tropical fruit and floral notes. In warmer climates, it can develop more tropical fruit notes but risk losing a lot of aromatics from over-ripeness, leaving only slight grapefruit and tree fruit notes. Wine experts have used the phrase crisp, elegant, and fresh as a description of Sauvignon blanc from the Loire Valley. Sauvignon blanc, when chilled, pairs well with fish or cheese. It is also known as one of the few wines that can pair well with sushi, along with Riesling, Sauvignon blanc was one of the first fine wines to be bottled with a screwcap in commercial quantities, especially by New Zealand producers. The wine is usually consumed young, as it not particularly benefit from aging, as varietal Sauvignon blancs tend to develop vegetal aromas reminiscent of peas. The first Friday in May is International Sauvignon Blanc Day, the Sauvignon blanc grape traces its origins to western France in the Loire Valley and Bordeaux Regions. As noted above, it is not clear that the vine originated in western France, ongoing research suggests it may have descended from Savagnin. It has also associated with the Carmenere family. At some point in the 18th century, the vine paired with Cabernet Franc to parent the Cabernet Sauvignon vine in Bordeaux, in the 19th century, plantings in Bordeaux were often interspersed with Sauvignon vert as well as the Sauvignon blanc pink mutation Sauvignon gris. Despite the similarity in names, Sauvignon blanc has no relation to the Sauvignon rosé mutation found in the Loire Valley of France. The first cuttings of Sauvignon blanc were brought to California by Charles Wetmore, founder of Cresta Blanca Winery and these cuttings came from the Sauternes vineyards of Château dYquem. The plantings produced well in Livermore Valley, eventually, the wine acquired the alias of Fumé Blanc in California by promotion of Robert Mondavi in 1968
Sauvignon blanc
–
Ripe Sauvignon blanc grapes
Sauvignon blanc
–
The first plantings of Sauvignon blanc were introduced to California at Cresta Blanca Winery (pictured) in the Livermore Valley.
Sauvignon blanc
–
Vineyards in Sancerre will often plant
roses around Sauvignon blanc vines as an early detector of
powdery mildew.
Sauvignon blanc
–
A Pouilly Fumé from the Loire Valley.
17.
Varietal
–
A varietal wine is a wine made primarily from a single named grape variety, and which typically displays the name of that variety on the wine label. Examples of grape varieties used in varietal wines are Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay. Wines that display the name of two or more varieties on their label, such as a Chardonnay-Viognier, are blends and not varietal wines. The term is misused in place of vine variety, the term variety refers to the vine or grape while varietal refers to the wine produced by a variety. As vintners and consumers have become aware of the characteristics of individual varieties of grapes, wines have also come to be identified by varietal names. The alternatives to the differentiation of wines by grape variety are branded wine, such as Hearty Burgundy, or geographical appellations. This is much less the case in places where appellations have a long and strong tradition, in the past, the grape variety was very uncommonly mentioned on the labels of French wine bottles, and was forbidden for almost all AOC wines. Also, in its own way, Chardonnay is now a powerful brand, australia has virtually completed a three decade long transition from labelling by style, e. g. claret, burgundy, hock, chablis to a varietal system. Within the European Union, a wine using a varietal label must contain at least 85% of that variety, 85% is a common minimum standard, national regulations may set the limit higher in certain cases, but not lower. Champagne, for instance, is typically a blend of Chardonnay, Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier, in Alsace, winemakers adopt the German custom of varietal labeling. In recent years, varietal labels have more common for French wines. Most of these wines are Vin de pays rather than AOC wines, there is no restriction on the identity of the balance. Many states in the United States require specific compositions to qualify for sale under a particular varietal labels, international variety List of grape varieties Wine varietals, frenchscout. com
Varietal
–
A varietal Californian wine, a
Zinfandel.
Varietal
–
French estate bottled wine from the
Corbières AOC in the
Languedoc-Roussillon that features the grape variety
Grenache noir on the label. Unique for French wines
18.
Merlot
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Merlot is a dark blue-colored wine grape variety, that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name Merlot is thought to be a diminutive of merle and its softness and fleshiness, combined with its earlier ripening, makes Merlot a popular grape for blending with the sterner, later-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, which tends to be higher in tannin. Merlot is also one of the most popular red wine varietals in many markets and this flexibility has helped to make it one of the worlds most planted grape varieties. As of 2004, Merlot was estimated to be the third most grown variety at 260,000 hectares globally and this puts Merlot just behind Cabernet Sauvignons 262,000 hectares. While Merlot is made across the globe, there tends to be two main styles, the earliest recorded mention of Merlot was in the notes of a local Bordeaux official who in 1784 labeled wine made from the grape in the Libournais region as one of the areas best. In 1824, the word Merlot itself appeared in an article on Médoc wine where it was described that the grape was named after the black bird who liked eating the ripe grapes on the vine. Other descriptions of the grape from the 19th century called the variety lou seme doù flube with the thought to have originated on one of the islands found along the Garonne river. By the 19th century it was being planted in the Médoc on the Left Bank of the Gironde. It was first recorded in Italy around Venice under the synonym Bordò in 1855, the grape was introduced to the Swiss, from Bordeaux, sometime in the 19th century and was recorded in the Swiss canton of Ticino between 1905 and 1910. In the 1990s, Merlot saw an upswing of popularity in the United States, the popularity of Merlot stemmed in part from the relative ease in pronouncing the name of the wine as well as its softer, fruity profile that made it more approachable to some wine drinkers. In the late 1990s, researchers at University of California, Davis showed that Merlot is an offspring of Cabernet Franc and is a half-sibling of Carménère, Malbec, as the connection to Merlot became known, the grape was formally registered under the name Magdeleine Noire des Charentes. Through its relationship with Magdeleine Noire des Charentes Merlot is related to the Southwest France wine grape Abouriou, grape breeders have used Merlot crossed with other grapes to create several new varieties including Carmine, Ederena, Evmolpia, Fertilia, Mamaia, Nigra, Prodest and Rebo. Over the years, Merlot has spawned a color mutation that is used commercially, Merlot grapes are identified by their loose bunches of large berries. The color has less of a blue/black hue than Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and with a thinner skin and it normally ripens up to two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon. Also compared to Cabernet, Merlot grapes tend to have a sugar content. Ampelographer J. M. Merlot thrives in soil, particularly ferrous clay. The vine tends to bud early which gives it some risk to cold frost, if bad weather occurs during flowering, the Merlot vine is prone to develop coulure. The vine can also be susceptible to mildew and to infection by leafhopper insect varieties
Merlot
–
Merlot grapes on the vine
Merlot
–
A main and attached "wing cluster" of Merlot grapes with its characteristic dark-blue color.
Merlot
–
Cabernet Franc, one of the parent varieties of Merlot.
Merlot
–
Merlot leaf
19.
Cabernet franc
–
Cabernet Franc is one of the major black grape varieties worldwide. It is principally grown for blending with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot in the Bordeaux style, in addition to being used in blends and produced as a varietal in Canada and the United States, it is made into ice wine in those regions. Cabernet Franc is lighter than Cabernet Sauvignon, making a pale red wine that contributes finesse. Depending on the region and style of wine, additional aromas can include tobacco, raspberry, bell pepper, cassis. Records of Cabernet Franc in Bordeaux go back to the end of the 18th century, DNA analysis indicates that Cabernet Franc is one of two parents of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Carménère. They were planted at the Abbey of Bourgueil under the care of an abbot named Breton, by the 18th century, plantings of Cabernet Franc were found throughout Fronsac, Pomerol and St-Emilion, making quality wines. As Cabernet Sauvignon grew more popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, in 1997, DNA evidence emerged to show that Cabernet Franc had crossed with Sauvignon blanc to produce Cabernet Sauvignon. In general, Cabernet Franc is very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon and this trait allows the vine to thrive in slightly cooler climates than Cabernet Sauvignon, such as the Loire Valley. In Bordeaux, plantings of Cabernet Franc are treated as a policy against inclement weather close to harvest that may damage plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon. Its early budding does pose the viticultural hazard of early in the growing season. The vine is vigorous and upright, with dark-green, 5-lobed leaves, the winged bunches are elongated and small-medium in size. The berries are small and blue-black in color, with fairly thin skins. The Cabernet Franc grapevine is more prone to mutation than Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc can adapt to a wide variety of vineyard soil types but seems to thrive in sandy, chalk soils, producing heavier, more full bodied wines there. In the Loire Valley, terroir based differences can be perceived between wines made from grapes grown in gravel terraces versus tuffeau slopes, the grape is highly yield sensitive, with over-cropping producing wines with more green, vegetal notes. Across the world Cabernet Franc is one of the twenty most widely planted grape varieties, plantings are found throughout Europe, in the New World, China and Kazakhstan. In many regions, it is planted as a component of a Bordeaux-style blend such as Meritage, playing role to Cabernet Sauvignon. In parts of northeast Italy, Anjou-Saumur, Touraine and the right region of Bordeaux. In France, Cabernet Franc is found predominately in the Loire Valley, as of 2000, it was the sixth most widely planted red grape variety in the country
Cabernet franc
–
Cabernet Franc in Viala & Vermorel
Cabernet franc
–
Cabernet Franc grapes
Cabernet franc
–
Cabernet Franc leaf.
Cabernet franc
–
The Bordeaux wine
Chateau Cheval Blanc from St-Emilion is predominately Cabernet Franc.
20.
Cabernet Sauvignon
–
Cabernet Sauvignon is one of the worlds most widely recognized red wine grape varieties. It is grown in every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Canadas Okanagan Valley to Lebanons Beqaa Valley. Cabernet Sauvignon became internationally recognized through its prominence in Bordeaux wines where it is blended with Merlot. For most of the 20th century, it was the worlds most widely planted red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s. Familiarity and ease of pronunciation have helped to sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers and its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a colonizer that takes over wine regions at the expense of native grape varieties. The classic profile of Cabernet Sauvignon tends to be full-bodied wines with high tannins, in more moderate climates the blackcurrant notes are often seen with black cherry and black olive notes while in very hot climates the currant flavors can veer towards the over-ripe and jammy side. In parts of Australia, particularly the Coonawarra wine region of South Australia, for many years, the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood and many myths and conjectures surrounded it. The word Sauvignon is believed to be derived from the French sauvage meaning wild, until recently the grape was rumored to have ancient origins, perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make ancient Roman wine and referenced by Pliny the Elder. This belief was widely held in the 18th century, when the grape was known as Petite Vidure or Bidure. There was also belief that Vidure was a reference to the wood of the vine. Another theory was that the grapevine originated in the Rioja region of Spain, the first estates known to have actively grown the variety were Château Mouton and Château dArmailhac in Pauillac. The grapes true origins were discovered in 1996 with the use of DNA typing at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology, by a team led by Dr. Carole Meredith. The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc, in 2016 scientists at the UC Davis announced they had sequenced a draft of the whole genome of the Cabernet Sauvignon grape, the first genome of a commercial wine-producing grape to be sequenced. While not as prolific in mutating as Pinot noir, nor as widely used in production of offspring, in 1961, a cross of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache produced the French wine grape Marselan. Cygne blanc is a seedling of Cabernet Sauvignon that was discovered in 1989 growing in a garden in Swan Valley. Cabernet blanc is a crossing of Cabernet Sauvignon and a hybrid grape variety that was discovered in Switzerland in the late 20th century. In 1977 a vine producing bronze grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia and they propagated this mutant, registered it under the name of Malian, and sold pale red wines under that name. In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes, Cleggett registered this White Cabernet under the name of Shalistin
Cabernet Sauvignon
–
Cabernet Sauvignon grapes
Cabernet Sauvignon
–
Cabernet Franc
Cabernet Sauvignon
–
Sauvignon blanc
Cabernet Sauvignon
–
Cabernet Sauvignon leaf. In cooler climate conditions, vines will focus more energy in producing foliage, which is needed to capture sunlight for
photosynthesis, rather than
ripening grapes. This makes canopy management and aggressive pruning an important consideration for growers.
21.
Denominazione di origine controllata
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Denominazione di origine controllata is a quality assurance label for Italian wines. The system is modeled on the French Appellation dorigine contrôlée designations, the Italian government introduced the system in 1963 and overhauled in 1992 to comply with European Union law on protected geographical designations of origin, which came into effect that year. There are three levels of labels, DO — Denominazione di Origine, DOC — Denominazione di Origine Controllata, all three require that a food product be produced within the specified region using defined methods and that it satisfy a defined quality standard. The need for a DOCG identification arose when the DOC designation was, in the view of many Italian food industries, a new, more restrictive identification was then created as similar as possible to the previous one so that buyers could still recognize it, but qualitatively different. A notable difference for wines is that DOCG labelled wines are analysed and tasted by government–licensed personnel before being bottled, to prevent later manipulation, DOCG wine bottles then are sealed with a numbered governmental seal across the cap or cork. Wines labelled DOC or DOCG may only be sold in bottles holding 5 litres or less, traditional food An excerpt from the relevant Italian law V. Q. P. R. D. Vini, Elenco e Riferimenti Normativi al 07.02, complete list of italian DOC wines
Denominazione di origine controllata
–
Labels of the Italian wine Amarone Della Valpolicella Classico 2004 from the Pegrandi vineyard produced by Vaona. The label indicates that this is a DOC class wine from the Classico region of Valpolicella.
Denominazione di origine controllata
–
DOCG seal on a bottle of
Chianti Classico Riserva 1995.
Denominazione di origine controllata
–
A paper strip denoting DOCG on a bottle of 2012
Barbera d'Asti
22.
Italian wine
–
Italy is home to some of the oldest wine-producing regions in the world, and Italian wines are known worldwide for their broad variety. Italy, closely followed by France, is the world’s largest wine producer by volume and its contribution is about 45–50 million hl per year, and represents about ⅓ of global production. Italian wine is exported around the world and is extremely popular in Italy. Grapes are grown in almost every region of the country and there are more than one million vineyards under cultivation, although vines had been cultivated from the wild Vitis vinifera grape for millennia, it wasnt until the Greek colonization that wine-making flourished. Viticulture was introduced into Sicily and southern Italy by the Mycenaean Greeks and it was during the Roman defeat of the Carthaginians in the 2nd century BC that Italian wine production began to further flourish. During this time, viticulture outside of Italy was prohibited under Roman law and it was customary to mix wine with a good proportion of water which may otherwise have been unpalatable, making wine drinking a fundamental part of early Italian life. As the laws on provincial viticulture were relaxed, vast vineyards began to flourish in the rest of Europe, especially Gaul and this coincided with the cultivation of new vines, like biturica. These vineyards became hugely successful, to the point that Italy ultimately became a centre for provincial wines. Depending on the vintage, modern Italy is the worlds largest or second largest wine producer, in 2005, production was about 20% of the global total, second only to France, which produced 26%. In the same year, Italys share in dollar value of table wine imports into the U. S. was 32%, Australias was 24%, along with Australia, Italys market share has rapidly increased in recent years. In 1963, the first official Italian system of classification of wines was launched, Vini Varietali, These are generic wines that are made either mostly from one kind of authorized international grapes or entirely from two or more of them. The grape and the vintage can be indicated on the label, Vini DOP, This category includes two sub-categories, i. e. Vini DOC and Vini DOCG. DOC wines must have been IGP wines for at least 5 years and they also must follow stricter production regulations than IGP wines. A DOC wine can be promoted to DOCG if it has been a DOC for at least 10 years, in addition to fulfilling the requisites for DOC wines, before commercialization DOCG wines must pass stricter analyses, including a tasting by a specifically appointed committee. DOCG wines have also demonstrated a superior commercial success, currently there exist 332 DOCs and 73 DOCGs for a total of 405 DOPs. A number of sub-categories also exist regulating the production of sparkling wines, within the DOP category, Classico is a wine produced in the historically oldest part of the protected territory. Superiore is a wine with at least 0.5 more alc%/vol than its correspondent regular DOP wine and produced using a smaller allowed quantity of grapes per hectare, Riserva is a wine that has been aged for a minimum period of time, depending on the typology. Sometimes, Classico or Superiore are themselves part of the name of the DOP, the Italian Ministry of Agriculture regularly publishes updates to the official classification
Italian wine
–
A classic Italian vineyard scene, with vines growing together with
olive trees.
Italian wine
–
Vineyards around the town of
Barolo.
Italian wine
–
Tuscan wine
Italian wine
–
Italian regions
23.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia (wine)
–
Friuli-Venezia Giulia wine is wine made in the northeastern Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia. Once part of the Venetian Republic and with sections under the influence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire for some time, there are 11 Denominazione di origine controllata and 3 Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia area. The region has 3 Indicazione Geografica Tipica designations Alto Livenza, delle Venezie, nearly 62% of the wine produced in the region falls under a DOC designation. The area is predominantly for its white wines which are considered some of the best examples of Italian wine in that style. Along with the Veneto and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, the Friuli-Venezia Giulia forms the Tre Venezie wine region which ranks with Tuscany, during the Middle Ages, travelers passing through this area brought grapevines from Macedonia and Anatolia. Under the Habsburg reign, the French grape varieties were introduced, prior to the phylloxera epidemic over 350 grape varieties were grown in the region. During the 19th century, the served as a major Mediterranean port for the Austro-Hungarian Empire which bought a Teutonic influence to the area. Following the phylloxera epidemic, winemaking in the Friuli region was very muted, the international popularity of Pinot grigio in the 1980s and 1990s help to change the dynamic of Friuli-Venezia Giulia winemaking. Prior to this time vineyard owners sold their grapes in bulk to co-ops, with the success of Mario Schiopetto in bottling and marketing the product of his own vineyard, other vineyard owners followed suit and began opening up small wineries of their own. The Friuli-Venezia Giulia region is bordered by the Alps to the north separating it from Austria, Slovenia borders the region on the east and the Italian region of Veneto forms the western border and part of the southern border with the Adriatic Sea. The northern half is mountainous and gives way to flatter terrain. The climate is distinguished with very warm days and chilly nights that help maintain a balance in the grape between acidity and sugar levels and allows the grapes a long, slow growing season, in summertime the mean temperature is around 73 °F with rainfall averaging 60 inches. Harvest normally takes place in September, the soils of the region vary from the calcium rich marl and flysch sandstone in the more hilly regions to clay, sand and gravel in the valley. The names of Friuli vineyards and wine estates often include the word ronco, most of the vineyards of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia are located in the southern half of the region, including the large wine regions of Collio Goriziano, Colli Orientali del Friuli, Isonzo and Carso. The Lison-Pramaggiore region is shared with the Veneto, smaller regions such as the Annia, Aquileia, Grave and Latisana are located in the central and western part of the region around the city of Pordenone. These smaller regions are located on alluvial plains with soils composed of gravel, the wines made here are lighter and less elegant than the Friuli wines made in the major southern wine regions. Unlike other Friuli regions which require 100%, a wine in the Graves and Aquileia zones only need 85% of the grape variety with the Latisana. More red wine is produced in these zones than in the rest of the Friuli with Merlot, Cabernet franc, with wine production still, frizzante and spumante styles are produced from Chardonnay, Pinot bianco, Pinot grigio, Friulano and Verduzzo
Friuli-Venezia Giulia (wine)
–
Monte Toc along the border between Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the Veneto.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia (wine)
–
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Friuli-Venezia Giulia (wine)
–
Approximate location of the wine regions of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia (wine)
–
The
Gulf of Trieste borders the wester half of the Carso wine region and the southern portion of Isonzo.
24.
Slovene wine
–
Slovenian wine is wine from Slovenia. Viticulture and winemaking has existed in this region since the time of the Celts and Illyrians tribes, long before the Romans would introduce winemaking to the lands of France, Spain and Germany. Today Slovenia has more than 28,000 wineries making between 80 and 90 million litres annually from the countrys 22,300 ha of vineyards, about 75% of the countrys production is white wine. Almost all of the wine is consumed domestically with only 6.1 million l a year being exported—mostly to the United States, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and lately the Czech Republic. Most of the wine production falls under the classification of premium wine with less than 30% classified as basic table wine. Slovenia has three principal regions, the Drava Wine-growing Region, the Lower Sava Wine-growing Region. By the Middle Ages, the Christian Church controlled most of the wine production through the monasteries. Under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, privately owned wineries had some presence in the region but steady declined following the empires fall and the beginning of Yugoslavia. By the end of the Second World War, co-operatives controlled nearly all of the wine production. The exception was the few small private wineries in the Drava Valley region that were able to continue operation, in 1967, the government established the PSVVS which established testing practices for quality assurance and issued seals of approval for wines that met the organizations standards. In 1991, Slovenia was the first Yugoslav republic to declare independence, today the Slovenian wine industry the most advanced and well developed of the former Yugoslav republics and is starting to gain interest in the worlds wine market. Slovenia has a diverse geography provides a wide variety of microclimates. It is bordered to the north by Austria, separated by the Alps, to the west is Italy and the Adriatic Sea, Hungary to the east and Croatia forms the southern border. The region has a climate with cold, dry winters. The far western regions of the Littoral have some Mediterranean influence, some common viticultural hazards in the region include spring frost, drought during the growing season and summertime hail. Many of Slovenias vineyards are located in the foothills of the Julian and Karavanke Alps, the Drava and Sava Rivers are major influences in the Drava Valley and Lower Sava Valley, respectively. The Littoral Region is Slovenias most internationally known region, though predominatly a white wine producer, it is responsible for most of Slovenias red wine production. The Littoral Wine-growing Region has two of Slovenias most widely known and prominent wine districts, the Goriška brda and Koper districts and it is subdivided into four districts
Slovene wine
–
Vineyards in the
Brda region
Slovene wine
–
Slovenia's major wine regions
Slovene wine
–
A sparkling wine from Brda
25.
Slavic peoples
–
Slavs are the largest Indo-European ethno-linguistic group in Europe. They are native to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, Northeastern Europe, North Asia, Slavs speak Slavic languages of the Balto-Slavic language group. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central, states with Slavic languages comprise over 50% of the territory of Europe, therefore it is the largest ethno-linguistic group in Europe by land area. Present-day Slavic people are classified into West Slavs, East Slavs, there are an estimated 360 million Slavs worldwide. The Slavic autonym is reconstructed in Proto-Slavic as *Slověninъ, plural *Slověne, the oldest documents written in Old Church Slavonic and dating from the 9th century attest the autonym as Slověne. The word slovo and the related slava and slukh originate from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱlew-, cognate with Ancient Greek κλῆς, whence comes the name Pericles, Latin clueo, some other theories have limited support. The English term slave eventually derives from the ethnonym Slav, Slavs were captured and enslaved by the Muslims of Spain during the ninth century AD. The Slavs under name of the Antes and the Sclaveni make their first appearance in Byzantine records in the early 6th century. Procopius wrote in 545 that the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a name in the remote past. He described them as barbarians, who lived under democracy, and that believe in one god. They lived in scattered housing, and constantly changed settlement, regarding warfare, they were mainly foot soldiers with small shields and battleaxes, lightly clothed, some entering battle naked with only their genitals covered. And they live a life, giving no heed to bodily comforts. Jordanes described the Sclaveni having swamps and forests for their cities, another 6th-century source refers to them living among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes. Menander Protector mentions a Daurentius that slew an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I. The Avars asked the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars, he declined and is reported as saying, Others do not conquer our land. The relationship between the Slavs and a called the Veneti east of the River Vistula in the Roman period is uncertain. The name may refer both to Balts and Slavs, perhaps some Slavs migrated with the movement of the Vandals to Iberia and north Africa. Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared on Byzantine borders in great numbers, the Byzantine records note that grass would not regrow in places where the Slavs had marched through, so great were their numbers
Slavic peoples
–
Living of East Slavs, by
Sergey Ivanov
Slavic peoples
–
Distribution of Slavic languages in Europe
Slavic peoples
–
Adalbert of Prague liberates Slavic slaves from the Jewish slave traders, relief of
Gniezno Doors
Slavic peoples
–
Slavic peoples in 6th century
26.
Austro-Hungarian
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
Austro-Hungarian
–
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
Austro-Hungarian
–
Civil Ensign
Austro-Hungarian
–
Austrian Parliament Building
Austro-Hungarian
–
Hungarian Parliament Building
27.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
28.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
29.
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
–
Covering an area of 255,804 km², the SFRY was bordered with Italy to the west, Hungary to the north, Bulgaria and Romania to the east and Albania and Greece to the south. In addition, it included two autonomous provinces within Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina, the SFRY traces back to 29 June 1943 when the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia was formed during World War II. On 29 November 1945, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed after the deposal of King Peter II thus ending the monarchy. Following the death of Tito on 4 May 1980, rising ethnic nationalism in the late 1980s led to dissidence among the multiple ethnicities within the constituent republics. This led to the federation collapsing along the borders, followed by the final downfall and breakup of the federation on 27 April 1992. The term former Yugoslavia is now commonly used retrospectively, the name Yugoslavia, an Anglicised transcription of Jugoslavija, is a composite word made-up of jug and slavija. The Serbo-Croatian, Slovene and Macedonian word jug means south, while slavija denotes a land of the Slavs, thus, a translation of Jugoslavija would be South-Slavia or Land of the South Slavs. The term is intended to denote the lands occupied by the six South Slavic nations, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Slovenes, the full official name of the federation varied significantly between 1945 and 1992. Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, the name deliberately left the republic-or-kingdom question open. In 1963, amid pervasive liberal constitutional reforms, the name Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was introduced, the state is most commonly referred to by the latter name, which it held for the longest period of all. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though SFR Yugoslavia was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media. On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany, by 17 April 1941, Yugoslav resistance was soon established in two forms, the Royal Yugoslav Army and the Yugoslav Partisans. The Partisan supreme commander was Josip Broz Tito, and under his command the movement soon began establishing liberated territories which attracted the attentions of the occupying forces. The coalition of parties, factions, and prominent individuals behind the movement was the Peoples Liberation Front. The Front formed a political body, the Anti-Fascist Council for the Peoples Liberation of Yugoslavia. The AVNOJ, which met for the first time in Partisan-liberated Bihać on 26 November 1942, during 1943, the Yugoslav Partisans began attracting serious attention from the Germans. In two major operations of Fall Weiss and Fall Schwartz, the Axis attempted to stamp-out the Yugoslav resistance once, on both occasions, despite heavy casualties, the Group succeeded in evading the trap and retreating to safety. The Partisans emerged stronger than before and now occupied a significant portion of Yugoslavia
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
–
U.S.-Yugoslavia summit, 1978
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
–
Flag
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
–
The parliament building of
Bosnia and Herzegovina burns amid the
Yugoslav wars.
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
–
Vukovar water tower during the
Siege of Vukovar. The tower came to symbolize the town's resistance to Serb forces.
30.
Winemaker
–
A winemaker or vintner is a person engaged in winemaking. Winemakers can also be referred to as oenologists as they study oenology – the science of wine, a vintner is a wine merchant. In some modern use, particularly in American English, the term is used as a synonym for winemaker. The term started to be used in Middle English, when it superseded the earlier term vinter, a vigneron is someone who cultivates a vineyard for winemaking. The word connotes or emphasizes the role that vineyard placement. It is also used when referring to a winemaker from France, vincent of Saragossa is the patron saint of vignerons. A négociant is the French term for a merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers. Négociants buy everything from grapes to grape must to wines in various states of completion, in the case of grapes or must, the négociant performs virtually all the winemaking. If it buys already fermented wine in barrels or en-vrac—basically in bulk containers, it may age the wine further, blend in other wines or simply bottle, the result is sold under the name of the négociant, not the name of the original grape or wine producer. Currently, one of the largest Negociants in the United States and, some négociants have a recognizable house style. It was too expensive for growers to purchase the wine presses, owning only a small portion of a particular high-quality single vineyard meant that a grower often had insufficient wine from a parcel to vinify on its own. Under French inheritance laws, vineyard holdings were split until offspring owned no more than a single row of grapes. Many négociants are also vineyard owners in their own right, in Burgundy for instance, négociants as Bouchard Père et Fils and Faiveley are among the largest owners of vineyards. Oenology Vignerons indépendants de France Viticulture Winemaking cooperative Winery
Winemaker
–
Merlot grapes grown by Concha y Toro Vineyards for its Casillero del Diablo label are grown in Chile's Rapel Valley
Winemaker
–
Wine grapes.
31.
Maceration (wine)
–
Maceration is the winemaking process where the phenolic materials of the grape—tannins, coloring agents and flavor compounds—are leached from the grape skins, seeds and stems into the must. To macerate is to soften by soaking, and maceration is the process by which the red wine receives its red color, since 99% of all grape juice is clear-grayish in color. In the production of wines, maceration is either actively avoided or allowed in very limited manner in the form of a short amount of skin contact with the juice prior to pressing. This is more common in the production of varietals with less natural flavor and body structure like Sauvignon blanc, for Rosé, red wines grapes are allowed some maceration between the skins and must, but not to the extent of red wine production. The process of maceration begins, to varying extent, as soon as the skins are broken. Temperature is the force, with higher temperatures encouraging more breakdown and extraction of phenols from the skins. Maceration continues during the period, and can last well past the point when the yeast has converted all sugars into alcohol. The process itself is a one with compounds such as the anthocyanins needing to pass through the cell membrane of the skins to come into contact with the wine. This process seems to slow once the wine reaches a level of 10%. Throughout the fermentation process, carbon dioxide is released as a byproduct of the conversion of sugar into alcohol, the carbon dioxide seeks to escape from the must by rising to the top of the mixture, pushing the grape skins and other materials to the top as well. This forms what is known as a cap that is visible on top of the fermentation vessel and this process of pumping over or punching down the cap is done often throughout the fermentation process, depending on the extent of maceration the winemaker desires. An efficient and modern method of maceration is the process in which compressed air or gas is sequentially injected into the juice. Depending on the varietal, the process of maceration can help bring out many flavors in the wine that would otherwise be lacking and it can enhance the body and mouthfeel for many wines, as well as strengthen the color. Greater extraction can add to the complexity and life expectancy of the wine by developing more complex tannins that will soften over a period of time. With these benefits does come the risk of developing various wine faults, too much extraction can also increase the harshness of some tannins to where the wine is not very approachable to most wine drinkers. One classical method of maceration is grape stomping or pigeage, where grapes are crushed in vats by barefoot workers. This technique was popular in the production of Burgundy wines in the 1970s & 1980s but there is some debate among oenologists about the overall benefits to. Carbonic maceration is the fermentation of whole clusters of grapes in an atmosphere saturated with carbon dioxide
Maceration (wine)
–
Cabernet Sauvignon musts interact with the skins during fermentation to add color,
tannins and flavor to the wine.
Maceration (wine)
–
The "cap" of grape skins being "punched down" to maximize maceration.
32.
Oxidation
–
Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
Oxidation
–
Rusting iron
Oxidation
–
Sodium and
fluorine bonding ionically to form
sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer
electron to give it a stable
electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom
exothermically. The oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each other. The sodium is oxidized, and the fluorine is reduced.
Oxidation
–
A
bonfire
Oxidation
–
Oxides, such as
iron(III) oxide or
rust, which consists of hydrated
iron(III) oxides Fe 2 O 3 · n H 2 O and
iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH) 3), form when oxygen combines with other elements
33.
Calcareous
–
Calcareous is an adjective meaning mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate, in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The term is used in a variety of scientific disciplines. The term also applies to the calcium carbonate tests of often more or less microscopic Foraminifera, note that not all tests are calcareous, diatoms and radiolaria have siliceous tests. The molluscs are calcareous, as are calcareous sponges, that have spicules which are made of calcium carbonate, calcareous grassland is a form of grassland characteristic of soils containing much calcium carbonate from underlying chalk or limestone rock. Species of algae such as the green-segmented genus Halimeda are calcareous, the term is used in pathology, for example in calcareous conjunctivitis, and when referring to calcareous metastasis or calcareous deposits, which may both be removed surgically. The term calcareous can be applied to a sediment, sedimentary rock, or soil type which is formed from, or contains a proportion of. Calcareous sediments are deposited in shallow water near land, since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. Generally speaking, the farther from land sediments fall, the less calcareous they are, some areas can have interbedded calcareous sediments due to storms, or changes in ocean currents. Calcareous ooze is a form of calcium derived from planktonic organisms that accumulates on the sea floor. This can only occur if the ocean is shallower than the carbonate compensation depth, below this depth, calcium carbonate begins to dissolve in the ocean, and only non-calcareous sediments are stable, such as siliceous ooze or pelagic red clay. Calcareous soils are alkaline, in other words they have a high pH. This is because of the very weak acidity of carbonic acid, note that this is not the only reason for a high soil pH
Calcareous
–
Calcareous
sandstone in
Seven Sisters Country Park
Calcareous
–
Calcareous mine in
Perm Krai,
Russia
34.
Marl
–
Marl or marlstone is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt. The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite, but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite, dolomite and it also describes a habit of coralline red alga. The term is often used to describe indurated marine deposits. Marlstone is a rock of about the same composition as marl. It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture, and is less fissile than shale, the term marl is widely used in English-language geology, while the terms Mergel and Seekreide are used in European references. The lower stratigraphic units of the cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone. Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl–opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing, marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post glacial lake-bed sediments, often found underlying peat bogs. It has been used as a conditioner and acid soil neutralizing agent. Marl was extensively mined in Central New Jersey as a soil conditioner in the 1800s, in 1863, the most common marl was blue marl. Marl was in demand for farms. Agricultural lime Keuper marl Schurrenberger, D. Russell, J. classification of lacustrine sediments based on sedimentary components
Marl
–
Scala dei Turchi coastal marl formation, southern
Sicily
35.
Flysch
–
Flysch is a sequence of sedimentary rocks that is deposited in a deep marine facies in the foreland basin of a developing orogen. Flysch is typically deposited during a stage of the orogenesis. When the orogen evolves, the basin becomes shallower and molasse is deposited on top of the flysch. It is therefore called a syn-orogenic sediment, Flysch consists of repeated sedimentary cycles with upwards fining of the sediments. At the bottom of each cycle are sometimes coarse conglomerates or breccias, Flysch typically consists of a sequence of shales rhythmically interbedded with thin, hard, graywacke-like sandstones. Typically the shales do not contain fossils, the coarser sandstones often have fractions of micas. Flysch is formed under deep marine circumstances, in a quiet, the coarser layers are disruptions in these circumstances, caused by pulsewise flows of mass transport from the forming orogenic wedge. In many cases the mass transports are represented in the record by turbidites, Flysch deposits form at convergent plate boundaries at the stage of continental collision, often in remnant ocean basins that are present along the same boundary. The sedimentary material in the flysch is derived from the forming mountains, the same ocean basin is in the process of subducting under the orogenic wedge. As subduction continues, the sediments are scraped off the down-going oceanic plate and are accreted onto the orogenic wedge. As a result, flysch deposits are often deformed by thrust faulting and folding. The name flysch was introduced in literature by the Swiss geologist Bernhard Studer in 1827. Studer used the term for the typical alternations of sandstone and shale in the foreland of the Alps, the name comes from the German word fliessen, which means to flow, because Studer thought flysch was deposited by rivers. The insight that flysch is actually a deep marine sediment typical for a plate tectonic setting came only much later. The name flysch is currently used in many mountain chains belonging to the Alpine belt, well-known flysch deposits are found in the forelands of the Pyrenees and Carpathians and in tectonically similar regions in Italy, the Balkans and on Cyprus. In the northern Alps, the Flysch is also a lithostratigraphic unit,1999, Earth System History, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, ISBN 0-7167-2882-6. Einsele, G.2000, Sedimentary Basins, Evolution, Facies, Flysch in, Encyclopædia Britannica 2010 Online. As accessed on 23 April 2010
Flysch
–
Carpathian flysch
36.
Sandstone
–
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
Sandstone
–
Cut slab of sandstone showing
Liesegang banding
Sandstone
–
Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda,
Põlva County,
Estonia
Sandstone
–
Alcove in the
Navajo Sandstone
Sandstone
–
Sandstone Rock-cut tombs (
Kokhim) in
Petra,
Jordan
37.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
–
Friuli Venezia Giulia is one of the 20 regions of Italy, and one of five autonomous regions with special statute. It has an area of 7,858 km² and about 1.2 million inhabitants, a natural opening to the sea for many Central European countries, the region is traversed by the major transport routes between the east and west of southern Europe. It encompasses the region of Friuli and a small portion of the historical region of Venezia Giulia, each with its own distinct history, traditions. Friuli Venezia Giulia is Italys most North-Eastern region and it covers an area of 7,858 km2 and is the fifth smallest region of the country. It borders Austria to the north and Slovenia to the east, to the south it faces the Adriatic Sea and to the west its internal border is with the Veneto region. The region spans a variety of climates and landscapes from the mild Oceanic in the south to Alpine continental in the north. The total area is subdivided into a 42. 5% mountainous-alpine terrain in the north,19. 3% is hilly, mostly to the south-east, morphologically the region can be subdivided into four main areas. The mountainous area in the north, this part of the region includes Carnia and its landscapes are characterised by vast pine forests and pastures, mountain lakes and numerous streams and small rivers descending from the mountains. The area is known for its tourist destinations, especially during the winter season. The hilly area, situated to the south of the mountains, the main product of agriculture in this area is wine, whose quality, especially the white, is known worldwide. The easternmost part of the area is also known as Slavia Friulana. The central plains are characterised by poor, arid and permeable soil, the soil has been made fertile with an extensive irrigation system and through the adoption of modern intensive farming techniques. In this part of the region most of the activities are concentrated. The coastal area can be subdivided in two, western-eastern, subsections separated by the river Isonzos estuary. To the west, the coast is shallow and sandy, with numerous tourist resorts, to the east, the coastline rises into cliffs, where the Kras plateau meets the Adriatic, all the way to Trieste and Muggia on the border with Slovenia. The rivers of the flow from the North and from Slovenia into the Adriatic. The Timavo is a river that flows for 38 km from Slovenia. The region Friuli Venezia Giulia has a temperate climate, however, due to the terrains diversity, it varies considerably from one area to another
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
–
A view of the
Carnia highlands.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
–
Friuli–Venezia Giulia
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
–
Carso landscape at
Doberdò.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
–
Roman ruins in
Aquileia.
38.
Yield (wine)
–
In viticulture, the yield is a measure of the amount of grapes or wine that is produced per unit surface of vineyard, and is therefore a type of crop yield. Two different types of measures are commonly used, mass of grapes per vineyard surface. The yield is seen as a quality factor, with lower yields associated with wines with more concentrated flavours. In most of Europe, yield is measured in hectoliters per hectare, in most of the New World, yield is measured in tonnes per hectare – i. e. by mass of grapes produced per unit area. Due to differing winemaking procedures for different styles of wine, and different properties of different grape varieties and it is therefore not possible to make an exact conversion between these units. Representative figures for the amount of grapes needed for 100 l of wine are 160 kg for white wine,130 kg for red wine, thus, for white wine,100 hl/ha ≈16,000 kg/ha =6.5 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈15 hl/ha for red wine,100 hl/ha ≈13,000 kg/ha =5.3 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈19 hl/ha for mixed wine,100 hl/ha ≈14,000 kg/ha =5.7 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈17.5 hl/ha Yields vary greatly between countries, regions and individual vineyards, and can be vintage-dependent, somewhere around 50 hectoliters per hectare, or 3 tons per acre, is a typical representative figure for many countries and regions. While yield is seen as an important quality factor in wine production. This is a situation that would correspond to yields of, say,200 hl/ha or more, depending on grape variety. Beyond that, there are differing schools of thought, one school of thought, generally subscribed to in France, claims that great red wine is impossible to produce at yields exceeding 50 hl/ha. Another school of thought claims that a yield of 100 hl/ha is possible to combine with high quality, in general, white wine is seen as less sensitive to high yields, and some grape varieties, such as Pinot noir, as particularly sensitive to overcropping. For the Bordeaux vintages of the 1980s, it is recognized that the most abundant harvests also gave the best vintages. In both France and Italy, the maximum allowed yields are regulated in laws, and vary between appellations. In France, the yields are given in the regulations for each appellation dorigine contrôlée. The maximum allowed yield for given AOC in a vintage is a combination of the base yield of the AOC, as modified by the plafond limité de classement. In most vintages, the PLC allows a production around 20 per cent above the base yield
Yield (wine)
–
The yield of grapes that will be harvested from a vineyard will depend on several factors including vintage conditions, local wine laws and winemaker's preference.
Yield (wine)
–
The size of harvest bins can vary from small trays to half tons bins.
Yield (wine)
–
How "hard" a wine is pressed, or if the wine is pressed at all, will impact the finished volume of wine yielded from the grapes. A winemaker can choose to not press his grapes at all, using only the
free-run juice liberated during crushing and maceration, reducing the yield volume by 30-40%.
Yield (wine)
–
Free run Chardonnay juice dripping into the press pan
39.
Acre
–
The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong, lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands. The international symbol of the acre is ac, the most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by two parts per million, see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land, one international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. An acre was defined in the Middle Ages, being the amount of land that could be ploughed in one day with a yoke of oxen. One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles,4,840 square yards,43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square metres. While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are definitions of a yard. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, as a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape, any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre. In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States, consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872609874252 square metres, its value is based on an inch defined by 1 metre =39.37 inches exactly. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre. Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper, areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, in Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75 percent of a 100 yards long by 53.33 yards wide American football field, the full field, including the end zones, covers approximately 1.32 acres. For residents of countries, the acre might be envisaged as approximately half of a 105 metres long by 68 metres wide association football pitch. It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, in English it was historically spelled aker. The acre was approximately the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day and this explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong
Acre
–
Comparison of 1 Acre with some Imperial and metric units of area
40.
Hectolitre
–
The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
Hectolitre
–
Maßkrüge (1-litre beer mugs) during the 2006
Oktoberfest in Germany
Hectolitre
–
One litre is the volume of a cube with 10 cm sides
41.
Hectare
–
The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
Hectare
–
Trafalgar Square has an area of about one hectare.
Hectare
–
Definition of a hectare and of an are.
Hectare
–
Waikato Stadium – Hamilton, New Zealand
Hectare
–
The Statue of Liberty –
New York Harbor
42.
German wine
–
German wine is primarily produced in the west of Germany, along the river Rhine and its tributaries, with the oldest plantations going back to the Roman era. Approximately 60 percent of the German wine production is situated in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Germany has about 102,000 hectares of vineyard, which is one tenth of the vineyard surface in Spain. The total wine production is usually around 9 million hectoliters annually, corresponding to 1.2 billion bottles, white wine accounts for almost two thirds of the total production. For the red wines, Spätburgunder, the name for Pinot noir, is in the lead. Germany produces wines in many styles, dry, semi-sweet and sweet wines, rosé wines, red wines and sparkling wines. Due to the location of the German vineyards, the country has produced wines quite unlike any others in Europe. Between the 1950s and the 1980s German wine was known abroad for cheap, sweet or semi-sweet, the wines have historically been predominantly white, and the finest made from Riesling. Many wines have been sweet and low in alcohol, light, historically many of the wines were probably dry, as techniques to stop fermentation did not exist. Recently much more German white wine is being made in the dry style again, much of the wine sold in Germany is dry, especially in restaurants. However most exports are still of sweet wines, particularly to the export markets such as Great Britain. The United States and the Netherlands are two other important export markets for German wine, Red wine has always been hard to produce in the German climate, and in the past was usually light colored, closer to rosé or the red wines of Alsace. However recently there has been increased demand and darker, richer red wines are produced from grapes such as Dornfelder and Spätburgunder. Viticulture in present-day Germany dates back to Ancient Roman times, to sometime from 70 to 270 CE/AD, in those days, the western parts of todays Germany made up the outpost of the Roman empire against the Germanic tribes on the other side of Rhine. What is generally considered Germanys oldest city, Trier, was founded as a Roman garrison and is situated directly on the river Moselle in the wine region. The oldest archeological finds that may indicate early German viticulture are curved pruning knives found in the vicinity of Roman garrisons, however, it is not absolutely certain that these knives were used for viticultural purposes. Before the era of Charlemagne, Germanic viticulture was practiced primarily, although not exclusively, Charlemagne is supposed to have brought viticulture to Rheingau. The eastward spread of viticulture coincided with the spread of Christianity, thus, in Medieval Germany, churches and monasteries played the most important role in viticulture, and especially in the production of quality wine
German wine
–
Steep vineyards on Rüdesheimer Berg overlooking
river Rhine. These vineyards are located in the southwestern part of the region Rheingau at a bend in the river. These vineyards are planted with Riesling grapes, with some Spätburgunder (Pinot noir), and produce some of the finest wines in Germany.
German wine
–
Steep vineyards along
river Mosel, close to the village
Ürzig.
German wine
–
Vine trellising according to the Pfälzer Kammerbau system traditional to the Palatinate, where it was widely used until the 18th century. In an all-wooden version (without the steel wires), this system is supposed to date back to Roman times.
German wine
–
German wine from
Franken in the characteristic round bottles (
Bocksbeutel)
43.
Cold fermentation
–
Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a brewer, at home by a homebrewer. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies. The basic ingredients of beer are water and a starch source such as malted barley. Most beer is fermented with a brewers yeast and flavoured with hops, less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava. Secondary sources, such as maize, rice, or sugar, may also be used, sometimes to reduce cost, or to add a feature, the proportion of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Steps in the process include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering. There are three main methods, warm, cool and spontaneous. Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel, there are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and Yorkshire Square. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform from ancient Mesopotamia. Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that brewing alcohol was primary an activity engaged in by women, chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Ale produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion litres are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006
Cold fermentation
–
Malted barley before kilning or roasting
Cold fermentation
–
A 16th-century brewery
Cold fermentation
–
Hop cone in a
Hallertau, Germany, hop yard
Cold fermentation
–
A mash tun at the
Bass Museum in Burton-upon-Trent
44.
Pneumatic
–
Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases, a centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas. Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air, the air usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components. Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually just air, smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN when supplied in cylinders. Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, compressed oxygen would not asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a hazard if vented improperly. The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind, german physicist Otto von Guericke went a little further. He invented the pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures, the field of pneumatics has changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines with multiple parts that serve different functions, both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil, most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi, simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control. Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance, because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force, compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost. Safety—There is a low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe, liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher due to the incompressibility
Pneumatic
–
Preserved
Porter Locomotive Company No. 3290 of 1923.
45.
Wine press
–
A wine press is a device used to extract juice from crushed grapes during wine making. There are a number of different styles of presses that are used by wine makers, each style of press exerts controlled pressure in order to free the juice from the fruit. The pressure must be controlled, especially grapes, in order to avoid crushing the seeds. Wine was being made at least as long ago as 6000 BC, in 2011, a basket press consists of a large basket filled with the crushed grapes. Pressure is applied through a plate that is forced down onto the fruit, the mechanism to lower the plate is often either a screw or a hydraulic device. The juice flows through openings in the basket, the basket style press was the first type of mechanized press to be developed, and its basic design has not changed in nearly 1000 years. A horizontal screw press works using the principle as the basket press. Instead of a plate being brought down to put pressure on the grapes, plates from either side of a cylinder are brought together to squeeze the grapes. Generally the volume of grapes handled is significantly greater than that of a basket press, a bladder press consists of a large cylinder, closed at each end, into which the fruit is loaded. To press the grapes, a large bladder expands and pushes the grapes against the sides, the juice then flows out through small openings in the cylinder. The cylinder rotates during the process to help homogenize the pressure that is placed on the grapes, a continuous screw press differs from the above presses in that it does not process a single batch of grapes at a time. Instead it uses an Archimedes screw to continuously force grapes up against the wall of the device, juice is extracted, and the pomace continues through to the end where it is extracted. This style of press is used to produce table wines. Flash release is a used in wine pressing. The technique allows for an extraction of phenolic compounds
Wine press
–
16th century wine press
Wine press
–
Modern wine press
Wine press
–
Ancient wine press in
Israel with the pressing area in the center and the collection vat off to the bottom left.
Wine press
–
A bladder press
46.
Centrifugation
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This process is used to separate two miscible substances, but also to analyze the hydrodynamic properties of macromolecules. More-dense components of the mixture away from the axis of the centrifuge. Chemists and biologists may increase the effective force on a test tube so as to more rapidly and completely cause the precipitate to gather on the bottom of the tube. The remaining solution may be discarded with a pipette, there is a correlation between the size and density of a particle and the rate that the particle separates from a heterogeneous mixture, when the only force applied is that of gravity. The larger the size and the larger the density of the particles, by applying a larger effective gravitational force to the mixture, like a centrifuge does, the separation of the particles is accelerated. This is ideal in industrial and lab settings because particles that would naturally separate over a period of time can be separated in much less time. The rate of centrifugation is specified by the angular velocity usually expressed as revolutions per minute, the conversion factor between RPM and g depends on the radius of the centrifuge rotor. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can process a continuous stream of particle-laden liquid, Centrifugation is the most common method used for uranium enrichment, relying on the slight mass difference between atoms of U238 and U235 in uranium hexafluoride gas. However, depending on the model used, the respective angle of the rotor. For example, the Sorvall #SS-34 rotor has a radius of 10.8 cm, so the formula becomes R P M =299 g r. Microcentrifuges are used to small volumes of biological molecules, cells. Microcentrifuge tubes generally hold 0.5 -2.0 mL of liquid, microcentrifuges are small enough to fit on a table-top and have rotors that can quickly change speeds. They may or may not have a refrigeration function, high-speed or superspeed centrifuges can handle larger sample volumes, from a few tens of millilitres to several litres. Additionally, larger centrifuges can also reach higher angular velocities, the rotors may come with different adapters to hold various sizes of test tubes, bottles, or microtiter plates. Ultracentrifugation makes use of centrifugal force for studying properties of biological particles. Compared to microcentrifuges or high-speed centrifuges, ultracentrifuges can isolate much smaller particles, including ribosomes, proteins, ultracentrifuges can also be used in the study of membrane fractionation. This occurs because ultracentrifuges can reach maximum angular velocities in excess of 70,000 rpm, additionally, while microcentrifuges and supercentrifuges separate particles in batches, ultracentrifuges can separate molecules in batch or continuous flow systems. In addition to purification, analytical ultracentrifugation can be used for determination of the properties of such as shape, mass, composition
Centrifugation
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Processes
47.
Oak (wine)
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Oak is used in winemaking to vary the color, flavor, tannin profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a barrel during the fermentation or aging periods, Oak barrels can impart other qualities to wine through evaporation and low level exposure to oxygen. In early wine history, the amphora was the vessel of choice for the storage, due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of barrels in history. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that ancient Mesopotamians used barrels made of wood to transport wine along the Euphrates. Palm is a material to bend and fashion into barrels, however. The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at least two millennia, first coming into use during the time of the Roman Empire. In time, winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience, wine kept in oak barrels took on properties that improved it by making it softer and, in some cases, better-tasting. Robert Mondavi is credited with expanding the knowledge of winemakers in the United States about the different types of oak, the porous nature of an oak barrel allows evaporation and oxygenation to occur in wine but typically not at levels that would cause oxidation or spoilage. The typical 59-gallon barrel can lose anywhere from 5 1⁄2 to 6 1⁄2 gallons in a year through evaporation and this allows the wine to concentrate its flavor and aroma compounds. Small amounts of oxygen are allowed to pass through the barrel, the chemical properties of oak can have a profound effect on wine. Phenols within the wood interact to produce vanilla type flavors and can give the impression of tea notes or sweetness, the degree of toast on the barrel can also impart different properties affecting the tannin levels as well as the aggressive wood flavors. The hydrolyzable tannins present in wood, known as ellagitannins, are derived from structures in the wood. They help protect the wine from oxidation and reduction, wines can be barrel fermented in oak or placed in oak after fermentation for a period of aging or maturation. Wine matured in oak receives more oak flavors and properties than wine fermented in oak because yeast cells present in fermentation interact with, when dead yeast cells are removed as lees some oak properties go with them. Characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color, white wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy phenolic compounds still present. Flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include caramel, cream, smoke, spice, chardonnay is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include coconut, cinnamon and cloves notes. The toastiness of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of mocha, the length of time a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the varietal and finished style the winemaker desires. New World Pinot noir may spend less than a year in oak, premium Cabernet Sauvignon may spend two years
Oak (wine)
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Oak wine barrels
Oak (wine)
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A California Chardonnay that shows on the label that it has been barrel fermented.
Oak (wine)
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The effect of oak aging on two Penedès region Cabernet Sauvignon varietals, a two-year-old cosecha (left) and six-year-old crianza (right). As the wine matures, its color shifts from deep purple or crimson to a lighter brick-red, and takes on a more graduated appearance in the glass.
Oak (wine)
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Oak barrel aging
sherry. It has a transparent front for people to see the process inside
48.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
