1.
Gouache (grape)
–
Enfariné noir is a red French wine grape variety that is grown predominantly in the Jura wine region of eastern France. While once widely planted throughout the Franche-Comté, the grape is now extinct with less than 1 hectare of the variety planted in 2008. The name Enfariné comes from the French word farine meaning flour and it comes from the bloom or blush that covers ripening grapes, looking like flour dusting. Some ampelographers, such as Pierre Galet, speculate that the grape originated in the Aube department in what is now part of the Champagne wine region. The first written record of Enfariné noir comes from a February 3,1731 decree from the parliament of Besançon in the Doubs department of the Franche-Comté, according to an 1856 report, this parliamentary decree resulted in a decreasing of vineyard plantings by more than a third by 1732. There is some speculation from ampelographers like Galet that the variety may have connection to Gueuche noir of which it shares several synonyms. Enfariné noir is a late ripening variety that can be productive and high yielding if not kept in check by winter bud pruning, low vigor rootstock. The vine tends to create large cluster thick-skin berries that tend to be larger than other Vitis vinifera varieties, there are very few viticultural hazards that Enfariné noir is susceptible to with the vine being resistant to most grapevine diseases. Enfariné noir was widely planted throughout the Franche-Comté but over the last couple centuries its numbers have dramatically decreased. In 2008, less than 1 hectare of the vine was reported with the vast majority being found in the Jura wine region. Here producers such as Domaine Ganevat, Domaine des Cavarodes, Étienne Thiebaud and Domaine Jean Bourdy have worked to replant, the results from these conservation vineyards often goes into vin de pays where it is often blended with Poulsard
Gouache (grape)
–
The name Enfariné comes from the French word farine and refers to the dusting or "bloom" of indigenous yeast that covers the berries as they ripen.
2.
Pigment
–
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
Pigment
–
Natural
ultramarine pigment in powdered form
Pigment
–
Synthetic ultramarine pigment is chemically identical to natural ultramarine
Pigment
–
Miracle of the Slave by
Tintoretto (c. 1548). The son of a master
dyer, Tintoretto used Carmine Red Lake pigment, derived from the
cochineal insect, to achieve dramatic color effects.
Pigment
–
Girl with a Pearl Earring by
Johannes Vermeer (c. 1665).
3.
Dextrin
–
Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen. Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of D-glucose units linked by α- or α- glycosidic bonds, Dextrins can be produced from starch using enzymes like amylases, as during digestion in the human body and during malting and mashing, or by applying dry heat under acidic conditions. The latter process is used industrially, and also occurs on the surface of bread during the process, contributing to flavor, color. Dextrins produced by heat are known as pyrodextrins. During roasting under acid condition the starch hydrolyses and short chained starch parts partially rebranch with α- bonds to the starch molecule. Dextrins are white, yellow, or brown powders that are partially or fully water-soluble, most of them can be detected with iodine solution, giving a red coloration, one distinguishes erythrodextrin and achrodextrin. White and yellow dextrins from starch roasted with little or no acid are called British gum, white dextrins are used as, a crispness enhancer for food processing, in food batters, coatings, and glazes. A textile finishing and coating agent to increase weight and stiffness of textile fabrics, a thickening and binding agent in pharmaceuticals and paper coatings. As pyrotechnic binder and fuel, they are added to fireworks and sparklers, as a stabilizing agent for certain explosive metal azides, particularly Lead azide. Due to the rebranching, dextrins are less digestible, indigestible dextrin are developed as stand alone fiber supplements. Maltodextrin Maltodextrin is a short-chain starch sugar used as a food additive and it is produced also by enzymatic hydrolysis from gelled starch and is usually found as a creamy-white hygroscopic spray dried powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose, cyclodextrin The cyclical dextrins are known as cyclodextrins. They are formed by enzymatic degradation of starch by certain bacteria, for example, cyclodextrins have toroidal structures formed by 6-8 glucose residues. Amylodextrin is a linear dextrin or short chained amylose that can be produced by hydrolysis of the alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds or debranching amylopectin. Limit dextrin is the polymer produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of amylopectin with beta amylase. Limit dextrin is a short chained branched amylopectin remnant, produced by hydrolysis of amylopectin with alpha amylase, highly branched cyclic dextrin is a dextrin produced from enzymatic breaking of the amylopectin in clusters and using branching enzyme to form large cyclic chains. Brewing Cellodextrin, breakdown of cellulose Dextrose equivalent Icodextrin Modified starch Starch gelatinization Dextrins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings EAFUS
Dextrin
–
A dextrin with α-(1→4) and α-(1→6)
glycosidic bonds
4.
Gum arabic
–
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is cultivated in Arabia. Gum arabic is a mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is the source of the sugars arabinose and ribose. Gum arabic is used primarily in the industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414, while gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the gum to make a chilled, sweetened. Gum arabics mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue, other substances have replaced it where toxicity is not an issue, and as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. Still, it remains an important ingredient in soft drink syrup, hard gummy candies such as gumdrops, marshmallows, for artists, it is the traditional binder in watercolor paint, in photography for gum printing, and it is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. Pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifying agent, wine makers have used gum arabic as a wine fining agent. It is an important ingredient in shoe polish, and can be used in making homemade incense cones and it is also used as a lickable adhesive, for example on postage stamps, envelopes, and cigarette papers. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment also helps to stop oxidation of aluminium printing plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a printing press. Also called acacia after the source, gum arabic is used as an emulsifier. Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the gum in varying amounts. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint, when all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers. If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity
Gum arabic
–
The
Senegalia senegal, pictured in a medicinal handbook:
Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen (1887)
Gum arabic
–
A selection of
gouaches containing gum arabic
Gum arabic
–
Moorish tribes meet to trade gum arabic at
Bakel on the
Senegal River, 1890 (illustration from " Côte occidentale d'Afrique du Colonel Frey ", pl. en reg. p. 100)
Gum arabic
–
Animal products
5.
Watercolor
–
Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
Watercolor
–
An artist working on a watercolor using a round brush
Watercolor
–
Albrecht Dürer,
Young Hare, 1502, watercolor and
body color,
Albertina, Vienna
Watercolor
–
Thomas Girtin,
Jedburgh Abbey from the River, 1798–99, watercolor on paper
Watercolor
–
An unfinished watercolor by
William Berryman, created between 1808 and 1816, using watercolor, ink, and pencil. The use of partial pigmentation draws attention to the central subject.
6.
Watercolor painting
–
Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
Watercolor painting
–
An artist working on a watercolor using a round brush
Watercolor painting
–
Albrecht Dürer,
Young Hare, 1502, watercolor and
body color,
Albertina, Vienna
Watercolor painting
–
Thomas Girtin,
Jedburgh Abbey from the River, 1798–99, watercolor on paper
Watercolor painting
–
An unfinished watercolor by
William Berryman, created between 1808 and 1816, using watercolor, ink, and pencil. The use of partial pigmentation draws attention to the central subject.
7.
Hygroscopic
–
Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb, not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10 Vol-% or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to damp and cakey when exposed to moist air. Because of their affinity for moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the purpose of maintaining moisture content. Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the side and increases in area. This is similar to the function of a thermostats bi-metallic strip, inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water, deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, the similar-sounding but unrelated word hydroscopic is sometimes used in error for hygroscopic. A hydroscope is a device used for making observations deep under water. The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials, some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not. The seeds of grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata, each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin
Hygroscopic
–
Apparatus for the determination of the hygroscopicity of fertilizer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, ca.1930
Hygroscopic
–
The
thorny dragon features hygroscopic grooves between the spines of its skin to capture water in its desert habitat.
8.
Propylene glycol
–
Propylene glycol, also called propane-1, 2-diol, is a synthetic organic compound with the chemical formula C3H8O2. It is a colorless liquid which is nearly odorless but possesses a faintly sweet taste. Chemically it is classed as a diol and is miscible with a range of solvents, including water, acetone. The compound is sometimes called α-propylene glycol to distinguish it from the isomer propane-1, propylene glycol is a clear, colorless and hygroscopic liquid. Propylene glycol contains a carbon atom, so it exists in two enantiomers. The commercial product is a racemic mixture, pure optical isomers can be obtained by hydration of optically pure propylene oxide. The freezing point of water is depressed when mixed with propylene glycol owing to the effects of dissolution of a solute in a solvent. In general, glycols are non-corrosive, have low volatility and very low toxicity, however. Industrially, propylene glycol is produced from propylene oxide, and global capacity in 1990 was 900,000 tonnes per year, final products contain 20% propylene glycol,1. 5% of dipropylene glycol and small amounts of other polypropylene glycols. Further purification produces finished industrial grade or USP/JP/EP/BP grade propylene glycol that is typically 99. 5% or greater, propylene glycol can also be converted from glycerol, a biodiesel byproduct. This starting material is usually reserved for use because of the noticeable odor. In this regard, propylene glycol reacts with a mixture of unsaturated maleic anhydride and this partially unsaturated polymer undergoes further crosslinking to yield thermoset plastics. Related to this application, propylene glycol reacts with propylene oxide to give oligomers and polymers that are used to produce polyurethanes, propylene glycol is used as a humectant, solvent, and preservative in food and for tobacco products. It is also one of the ingredients, along with vegetable glycerin, of the e-liquid and cartridges used in electronic cigarettes. Propylene glycol is used in various edible items such as coffee-based drinks, liquid sweeteners, ice cream, whipped dairy products. Vaporizers used for delivery of pharmaceuticals or personal-care products often include propylene glycol among the ingredients, propylene glycol is used as a solvent in many pharmaceuticals, including oral, injectable and topical formulations, such as for diazepam and lorazepam which are insoluble in water. Certain formulations of artificial tears, such as Systane, use proplyene glycol as an ingredient, like ethylene glycol, propylene glycol is able to lower the freezing point of water, and so it is used as aircraft de-icing fluid. Water-propylene glycol mixtures dyed pink to indicate the mixture is relatively nontoxic are sold under the name of RV or marine antifreeze, propylene glycol is frequently used as a substitute for ethylene glycol in low toxicity, environmentally friendly automotive antifreeze
Propylene glycol
–
Propylene glycol
9.
Lightness
–
In colorimetry and color theory, lightness, also known as value or tone, is a representation of variation in the perception of a color or color spaces brightness. It is one of the color appearance parameters of any color appearance model, various color models have an explicit term for this property. The Munsell color model uses the value, while the HSL color model, HCL color space. The HSV model uses the value a little differently, a color with a low value is nearly black. In subtractive color value changes can be achieved by adding black or white to the color, chiaroscuro and Tenebrism both take advantage of dramatic contrasts of value to heighten drama in art. Artists may also employ shading, subtle manipulation of value, the Munsell value has long been used as a perceptually uniform lightness scale. A question of interest is the relationship between the Munsell value scale and the relative luminance, aware of the Weber–Fechner law, Munsell remarked Should we use a logarithmic curve or curve of squares. The remainder of section is a chronology of lightness approximations. – Munsells V runs from 0 to 10, while Y typically runs from 0 to 100, typically, the relative luminance is normalized so that the reference white has a tristimulus value of Y =100. Since the reflectance of magnesium oxide relative to the perfect reflecting diffuser is 97. 5%,1943 Newhall, Nickerson, and Judd prepare a report for the Optical Society of America. They suggest a quintic parabola, Y =1.221,9 V −0.231,11 V2 +0.239,51 V3 −0.021,009 V4 +0.000,840,4 V5. 1943 Using Table II of the O. S. A, report, Moon and Spencer express the value in terms of the relative luminance, V =50.426 =1.4 Y0.426. 1944 Saunderson and Milner introduce a constant in the previous expression. Later, Jameson and Hurvich claim that this corrects for simultaneous contrast effects, V =2.357 Y0.343 −1.52. 1955 Ladd and Pinney of Eastman Kodak are interested in the Munsell value as a uniform lightness scale for use in television. After considering one logarithmic and five power-law functions, they relate value to reflectance by raising the reflectance to the power of 0.352, V =2.217 Y0.352 −1.324. Realizing this is close to the cube root, they simplify it to. 1958 Glasser et al. define the lightness as ten times the Munsell value,1964 Wyszecki simplifies this to, W ⋆ =25 Y1 /3 −17
Lightness
–
Three
hues in the
Munsell color model. Each color differs in value from top to bottom in equal perception steps. The right column undergoes a dramatic change in perceived color.
10.
Direct painting
–
Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
Direct painting
–
Franz Kline, Painting Number 2, 1954,
The Museum of Modern Art
Direct painting
–
Jackson Pollock,
No. 5, 1948, oil on
fiberboard, 244 x 122 cm. (96 x 48 in.), private collection.
11.
En plein air
–
En plein air, or plein air painting, is a phrase borrowed from the French equivalent meaning open air. It is particularly used to describe the act of painting outdoors, also called French, peinture sur le motif and this method contrasts with studio painting or academic rules, those might create a predetermined look. En plein air can also be used to other activities where a person partakes in an outdoor environment. Artists have long painted outdoors, but in the century, working in natural light became particularly important to the Barbizon school, Hudson River School. The Newlyn School in England is considered another major proponent of the technique in the latter 19th century, the popularity of painting en plein air increased in the 1840s with the introduction of paints in tubes. Previously, painters made their own paints by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil, the act of outdoor painting from observation has been continually popular well into the 21st century. It was during the century that the box easel, typically known as the French box easel or field easel, was invented. It is uncertain who developed it, but these highly portable easels with telescopic legs and built-in paint box and palette made it easier to go into the forest and up the hillsides. Still made today, they remain a popular choice since they fold up to the size of a brief case and thus are easy to store. The Pochade Box is a box that allows the artist to keep all of their supplies. Some designs allow for a canvas which can be held by clamps built into the lid. There are designs which can hold a few wet painting canvases or panels within the lid. These boxes have a rising popularity as while they are used for plein air painting, can also be used in the studio, home. Since pochade boxes are used for painting on location, the canvas or work surface may be small. Challenges include the type of paint used to paint outdoors, animals, bugs, onlookers, acrylic paint may harden and dry quickly in warm, sunny weather and it cannot be reused. On the opposite side of the spectrum is the challenge of painting in moist or damp conditions with precipitation, the advent of plein air painting predated the invention of acrylics. The traditional and well-established method of painting en plein air incorporates the use of oil paint, but enthusiasts of plein air painting were not limited to the Old World. American impressionists too, such as those of the Old Lyme school, were avid painters en plein air, american impressionist painters noted for this style during this era included Guy Rose, Robert William Wood, Mary DeNeale Morgan, John Gamble, and Arthur Hill Gilbert
En plein air
–
Painters gathered at
Slide Rock State Park,
Arizona, in 2006.
En plein air
–
Artist working en plein air, at
Pigeon Point Lighthouse in
California.
En plein air
–
En plein air painters painting in
Ringwood, New Jersey.
En plein air
–
Claude Monet Painting by the Edge of a Wood (1885) by
John Singer Sargent. Oil on canvas. 54.0 × 64.8 cm.
Tate Gallery, London.
12.
J. M. W. Turner
–
Joseph Mallord William Turner, RA was an English Romanticist landscape painter. Turner was considered a figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Although renowned for his oil paintings, Turner is also one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting and he is commonly known as the painter of light. Joseph Mallord William Turner was baptised on 14 May 1775, and it is generally believed he was born between late April and early May. Turner himself claimed he was born on 23 April, but there is no proof and he was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in London, England. His father, William Turner, was a barber and wig maker and his mother, Mary Marshall, came from a family of butchers. A younger sister, Mary Ann, was born in September 1778, the earliest known artistic exercise by Turner is from this period—a series of simple colourings of engraved plates from Henry Boswells Picturesque View of the Antiquities of England and Wales. Around 1786, Turner was sent to Margate on the north-east Kent coast, here he produced a series of drawings of the town and surrounding area foreshadowing his later work. Turner returned to Margate many times in later life, by this time, Turners drawings were being exhibited in his fathers shop window and sold for a few shillings. His father boasted to the artist Thomas Stothard that, My son, in 1789, Turner again stayed with his uncle who had retired to Sunningwell in Berkshire. A whole sketchbook of work from time in Berkshire survives as well as a watercolour of Oxford. The use of sketches on location, as the foundation for later finished paintings. By the end of 1789, he had begun to study under the topographical draughtsman Thomas Malton. Turner learned from him the tricks of the trade, copying and colouring outline prints of British castles. He would later call Malton My real master, topography was a thriving industry by which a young artist could pay for his studies. In the same year of 1789 he entered the Royal Academy of Art schools, when he was 14 years old, Sir Joshua Reynolds, president of the Royal Academy, chaired the panel that admitted him. At first Turner showed a keen interest in architecture, but was advised by the architect Thomas Hardwick to continue painting and his first watercolour painting A View of the Archbishops Palace, Lambeth was accepted for the Royal Academy summer exhibition of 1790 when Turner was 15. As a probationer in the academy, he was drawing from plaster casts of antique sculptures
J. M. W. Turner
–
Self-portrait, oil on canvas, circa 1799
J. M. W. Turner
–
Drawing of St John's Church, Margate by Turner from around 1786, when he would have been 11 or 12 years old. The ambitious but unsure drawing shows an early struggle with perspective, which can be contrasted with his later work
J. M. W. Turner
–
A View of the Archbishop's Palace, Lambeth – this watercolour was Turner's first to be accepted for the Royal Academy's annual exhibition in April 1790, the month he turned 15. The image is a technical presentation of Turner's strong grasp of the elements of perspective with several buildings at sharp angles to each other, demonstrating Turner's thorough mastery of Thomas Malton's topographical style.
J. M. W. Turner
–
Fishermen at Sea exhibited in 1796 was the first oil painting exhibited by Turner at the Royal Academy
13.
Animation
–
Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and the illusion of change by means of the rapid display of a sequence of images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon, animators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be recorded with either analogue media, a book, motion picture film, video tape, digital media, including formats with animated GIF, Flash animation. To display animation, a camera, computer, or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced. Animation creation methods include the traditional animation creation method and those involving stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects, paper cutouts, puppets and clay figures, Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24,25,30, or 60 frames per second. Computer animation processes generating animated images with the general term computer-generated imagery, 3D animation uses computer graphics, while 2D animation is used for stylistic, low bandwidth and faster real-time renderings. An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5, 200-year-old Shahr-e Sūkhté in southeastern Iran, the artifact bears five sequential images depicting a Persian Desert Ibex jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree. They may, of course, refer to Chinese shadow puppets, in the 19th century, the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope were introduced. A thaumatrope is a toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side. The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831, the phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk. John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph, the first animated projection was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888, on 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip, in 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. Stuart Blackton, who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation, in Europe, the French artist, Émile Cohl, created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects. There were also sections of live action in which the hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, the author of the first puppet-animated film was the Russian-born director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich
Animation
–
A
phenakistoscope disc by
Eadweard Muybridge (1893)
Animation
–
The bouncing ball animation (below) consists of these six frames.
Animation
–
A clay animation scene from a
Finnish television commercial
Animation
–
Toy Story zoetrope at
Disney California Adventure creates illusion of motion using figures, rather than static pictures.
14.
Airbrush
–
An airbrush is a small, air-operated tool that sprays various media, most often paint but also ink and dye, by a process of nebulization. Spray painting developed from the airbrush and is considered to employ a type of airbrush, the first airbrush, depending on the definition, was patented in 1876 by Francis Edgar Stanley of Newton, Massachusetts. Stanley and his brother later invented a process for continuously coating photographic plates but are perhaps best known for their Stanley Steamer. No artistic images that used this paint distributor / atomiser exist or are as yet known, the first instrument to be named the paint distributor was developed by Abner Peeler for the painting of watercolors and other artistic purposes and used a hand-operated compressor. It was rather crude, being based on a number of parts in a jewellers workshop such as old screwdrivers. It took 4 years of development before a working prototype was developed by Liberty Walkup of Mt. Morris, Illinois. Walkup repatented the work under the name of air-brush, a name his wife Mimi Walkup came up with and his wife would later go on to be the founder of the Illinois Art School where airbrushing was taught to students from all over the world. In that same rented 4 story building Rockford Air-Brush would be established under Liberty Walkup, the Walkups taught airbrush technique to American Impressionist master Wilson Irvine at the Air Brush School in Rockford, Illinois. The first certain atomising type airbrush was invented by Charles Burdick in 1893, Burdick founded the Fountain Brush Company in the US, and launched the first series of airbrushes onto the market. This device was essentially the same as an airbrush, resembling a pen. Aerograph, Burdicks original company, still makes and sells airbrushes in England, Thayer and Chandler were acquired by Badger Air-Brush Co. in 2000. Badger Air-Brush continues the Thayer and Chandler tradition of manufacturing quality airbrush guns, tools and compressors out of Franklin Park, for more a detailed academic study, the University of Wales Library holds a detailed PhD on airbrush history. The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, the Public Library in Rockford Illinois and this was authored by Dr. Andy Penaluna, now Professor of Creative Entrepreneurship at Swansea Metropolitan University. The high velocity of the air atomizes the paint into very tiny droplets as it blows past a very fine paint-metering component, the paint is carried onto paper or other surfaces. The operator controls the amount of paint using a trigger which opens more or less a very fine tapered needle that is the control element of the paint-metering component. An extremely fine degree of atomization is what allows an artist to create such smooth blending effects using the airbrush, the technique allows for the blending of two or more colors in a seamless way, with one color slowly becoming another color. Freehand airbrushed images, without the aid of stencils or friskets, have a floating quality, a skilled airbrush artist can produce paintings of photographic realism or can simulate almost any painting medium. Painting at this level involves supplementary tools, such as masks and friskets
Airbrush
–
Paasche F#1 Single-action external mix airbrush
Airbrush
–
Aerograph Super 63, a gravity-fed, double-action, internal mix airbrush
Airbrush
–
Yezhov is clearly visible to Stalin's left. The photo was later altered by censors.
Airbrush
15.
Cardboard
–
Despite widespread use in general English and French, the term is deprecated in business and industry. Material producers, container manufacturers, packaging engineers, and standards organizations, there is still no complete and uniform usage. Often the term cardboard is avoided because it does not define any particular material, the term has been used since at least as early as 1848, when Anne Brontë mentioned it in her novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. This marked the origin of the box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box rather than outside. Various types of cards are available, which may be called cardboard, paperboard is a paper-based material, usually more than about ten mils in thickness. It is often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, configurations of paperboard include, Containerboard, used in the production of corrugated fiberboard. Folding boxboard, made up of layers of chemical and mechanical pulp. Solid bleached board is made purely from bleached chemical pulp and usually has a mineral or synthetic pigment, solid unbleached board is typically made of unbleached chemical pulp. White lined chipboard is typically made from layers of paper or recycled fibers. Because of its content it will be grey from the inside. Binders board, a used in bookbinding for making hardcovers. Modernly, materials falling under these names may be made using any actual paper. Corrugated fiberboard is a combination of paperboards, usually two flat liners and one inner fluted corrugated medium and it is often used for making corrugated boxes for shipping or storing products. This type of cardboard is also used by artists as original material for sculpting, most types of cardboard are recyclable. Boards that are laminates, wax coated, or treated for wet-strength are often difficult to recycle. Clean cardboard is usually worth recovering, although often the difference between the value it realizes and the cost of recovery is marginal, cardboard can be recycled industrially, or for home uses. For example, cardboard may be composted or shredded for animal bedding, cardboard box Carton Corrugated box design Folding carton Juicebox cardboard furniture
Cardboard
–
Tubes made of cardboard
Cardboard
–
Corrugated cardboard
Cardboard
–
Playing cards
Cardboard
–
A postcard from 1908
16.
Decoupage
–
Decoupage or Découpage is the art of decorating an object by gluing colored paper cutouts onto it in combination with special paint effects, gold leaf and other decorative elements. Commonly, an object like a box or an item of furniture is covered by cutouts from magazines or from purpose-manufactured papers. Each layer is sealed with varnishes until the stuck on appearance disappears, the traditional technique used 30 to 40 layers of varnish which were then sanded to a polished finish. Pyramid decoupage is a similar to 3D decoupage. In pyramid decoupage, a series of images are cut into progressively smaller. The word decoupage comes from Middle French decouper, meaning to cut out or cut from something, the origin of decoupage is thought to be East Siberian tomb art. Nomadic tribes used cut out felts to decorate the tombs of their deceased, from Siberia, the practice came to China, and by the 12th century, cut out paper was being used to decorate lanterns, windows, boxes and other objects. Artisans in Florence, Italy have produced decorative objects using decoupage techniques since the 18th century and they combined decoupage with other decorative techniques already popular in Florence, such as gilt with gold leaf and carved wood designs. These older techniques were used to produce articles such as furniture, frames for paintings. Known as Florentine style crafts, these items are now collectible antiques. Florentine artisans made use of decoupage by adding it to the space within a gilt frame. Artisans used pasted reproductions of artworks, nearly always religious depictions. Florentine triptychs using decoupage images of such Biblical scenes as the Crucifixion are a common motif, common household materials can be used to create effects. Here is a short list of supplies, Something to decoupage onto, examples include, furniture, photograph albums, plates, ceramics, shelving, frames, mirrors. These can come from sources, newspapers, magazines, catalogs, books, printed clip art, wrapping paper, greeting cards, fabric, tissue paper, lace. Scissors, craft knife or razor blades can be used, standard white glue works best if it is diluted with a little water. Specialty glues can be found in most crafting stores, a brayer is a specialized tool like a miniature rolling pin designed to help remove wrinkles, remove excess glue and smooth pictures. Many things around the house can be use for this, cotton swabs, rags, sponges, tissue paper to help wipe up glue and other clean up
Decoupage
–
Henri Matisse,
Blue Nude II, 1952,
gouache découpée,
Pompidou Centre,
Paris
Decoupage
–
Decoupage Florentine style box
17.
Henri Matisse
–
Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
Henri Matisse
–
Henri Matisse, 1913, by
Alvin Langdon Coburn
Henri Matisse
–
Henri and Amélie Matisse, 1898
Henri Matisse
–
Woman Reading, 1894, Museum of Modern Art, Paris
Henri Matisse
–
Blue Pot and Lemon (1897),
Hermitage Museum,
St. Petersburg, Russia
18.
Oil paint
–
Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, Oil paints have been used in Europe since the 12th century for simple decoration, but were not widely adopted as an artistic medium until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. Thickness of coat has considerable bearing on time required for drying, the literature abounds with incorrect theories and information, in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders, the oldest known oil paintings date from 650 AD, found in 2008 in caves in Afghanistans Bamiyan Valley, using walnut and poppy seed oils. Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax. Greek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, when thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as an expensive alternative to gold leaf. Early Christian monks maintained these records and used the techniques in their own artworks, theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommended linseed oil but advocated against the use of olive oil due to its long drying time. Oil paint was used as it is today in house decoration, as a tough waterproof cover for exposed woodwork. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings, in the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early painters, however, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used. As public preference for naturalism increased, the quick-drying tempera paints became insufficient to achieve the very detailed and precise effects that oil could achieve. Van Eyck’s mixture may have consisted of piled glass, calcined bones, the new mixture had a honey-like consistency and better drying properties. This mixture was known as oglio cotto—cooked oil, leonardo da Vinci later improved these techniques by cooking the mixture at a very low temperature and adding 5 to 10% beeswax, which prevented darkening of the paint. Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto each may have altered this recipe for their own purposes, the use of any cooked oils or Litharge darkens an oil painting rapidly
Oil paint
–
View of Delft in oil paint, by
Johannes Vermeer.
Oil paint
–
Pigments for sale at a market stall in
Goa,
India.
19.
Tempera
–
Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium. Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium, Tempera paintings are very long lasting, and examples from the 1st centuries AD still exist. Egg tempera was a method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by the invention of oil painting. Tempera painting has been found on early Egyptian sarcophagi decorations, many of the Fayum mummy portraits use tempera, sometimes in combination with encaustic. A related technique has been used also in ancient and early medieval paintings found in several caves, high-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries AD and in the 7th century AD in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Orissa. Tempera painting was the panel painting medium for nearly every painter in the European Medieval. For example, every surviving panel painting by Michelangelo is egg tempera, oil paint, which may have originated in Afghanistan between the 5th and 9th centuries and migrated westward in the Middle Ages eventually superseded tempera. Oil replaced tempera as the medium used for creating artwork during the 15th century in Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe. Around 1500, oil paint replaced tempera in Italy, in the 19th and 20th centuries, there were intermittent revivals of tempera technique in Western art, among the Pre-Raphaelites, Social Realists, and others. Tempera painting continues to be used in Greece and Russia where it is the medium for Orthodox icons. Tempera is traditionally created by hand-grinding dry powdered pigments into an agent or medium, such as egg, glue, honey, water, milk. Tempera painting starts with placing an amount of the powdered pigment onto a palette, dish or bowl and adding about an equal volume of the binder. Some pigments require slightly more binder, some require less, a few drops of distilled water are added, then the binder is added in small increments to the desired transparency. The more egg emulsion, the more transparent the paint, the most common form of classical tempera painting is egg tempera. For this form most often only the contents of the egg yolk is used, the white of the egg and the membrane of the yolk are discarded. Egg yolk is never used by itself with pigment, it dries almost immediately, some agent is always added, in variable proportions. One recipe calls for vinegar, other recipes suggest white wine, some schools of egg tempera use various mixtures of egg yolk and water. The paint mixture has to be adjusted to maintain a balance between a greasy and watery consistency by adjusting the amount of water and yolk
Tempera
–
Madonna and Child by
Duccio, tempera and gold on wood, 1284,
Siena
Tempera
–
A
1367 tempera on wood by
Niccolò Semitecolo.
Tempera
–
Pietro Lorenzetti 's
Tarlati polyptych, Tempera and gold on panel, 1320
Tempera
–
The Birth of Venus,
Sandro Botticelli, Florence, Tempera on canvas, c. 1486
20.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
21.
Persian miniature
–
A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, the Persian miniature was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent. Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure and this was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. In Islamic art this is referred to as illumination, and manuscripts of the Quran, in later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums called muraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles, the bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Lighting is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro, walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or cutaways with exterior views of parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time, many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be larger than those around them. The dress of figures is shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air. This is used in all the manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts. The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal landscape format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, the rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and brown, text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of Shah Tahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these works for a wider circle of patrons
Persian miniature
–
Behzad 's Advice of the Ascetic (c. 1500-1550). As in Western
illuminated manuscripts, exquisitely decorated borders were an integral part of the work of art.
Persian miniature
–
Camp scene from late in the classic period, with no frame.
Majnun (at top wearing orange) spies on his beloved Layla (standing in tent doorway)
Persian miniature
–
Saki, album miniature by
Reza Abbasi, 1609
Persian miniature
–
Complex palace scene, 1539-43,
Mir Sayyid Ali
22.
Pastel
–
A pastel is an art medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder. The pigments used in pastels are the same as used to produce all colored art media, including oil paints. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process, Pastels have been used by artists since the Renaissance, and gained considerable popularity in the 18th century, when a number of notable artists made pastel their primary medium. An artwork made using pastels is called a pastel, Pastel used as a verb means to produce an artwork with pastels, as an adjective it means pale in color. Pastel sticks or crayons consist of powdered pigment combined with a binder. The exact composition and characteristics of an individual pastel stick depends on the type of pastel and it also varies by individual manufacturer. Dry pastels have historically used binders such as gum arabic and gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose was introduced as a binder in the twentieth century. Often a chalk or gypsum component is present and they are available in varying degrees of hardness, the softer varieties being wrapped in paper. Some pastel brands use pumice in the binder to abrade the paper, dry pastel media can be subdivided as follows, Soft pastels, This is the most widely used form of pastel. The sticks have a portion of pigment and less binder. The drawing can be readily smudged and blended, but it results in a proportion of dust. White chalk may be used as a filler in producing pale, Pan Pastels, These are formulated with a minimum of binder in flat compacts and applied with special Soft micropore sponge tools. A 21st-century invention, Pan Pastels can be used for the painting or in combination with soft. Hard pastels, These have a portion of binder and less pigment. These can be used with other pastels for drawing outlines and adding accents, hard pastels are traditionally used to create the preliminary sketching out of a composition. However, the colors are brilliant and are available in a restricted range in contrast to soft pastels. Pastel pencils, These are pencils with a pastel lead and they are useful for adding fine details. In addition, pastels using a different approach to manufacture have been developed, Oil pastels, These have a soft, buttery consistency and they are dense and fill the grain of paper and are slightly more difficult to blend than soft pastels, but do not require a fixative
Pastel
–
Commercial pastels
Pastel
–
A young woman with pastel box and painting
Pastel
–
Georg Anton Urlaub (1713–1759) holding a box of pastels in his hands. Selfportrait, 1735
Pastel
–
Ants Laikmaa Taebla landscape from 1936.
23.
Chinese white
–
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite, most zinc oxide is produced synthetically, ZnO is a wide-bandgap semiconductor of the II-VI semiconductor group. The native doping of the due to oxygen vacancies or zinc interstitials is n-type. This semiconductor has several properties, including good transparency, high electron mobility, wide bandgap. Pure ZnO is a powder, but in nature it occurs as the rare mineral zincite. Crystalline zinc oxide is thermochromic, changing from white to yellow when heated in air and this color change is caused by a small loss of oxygen to the environment at high temperatures to form the non-stoichiometric Zn1+xO, where at 800 °C, x =0.00007. Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide, ZnO forms cement-like products when mixed with a strong aqueous solution of zinc chloride and these are best described as zinc hydroxy chlorides. This cement was used in dentistry, ZnO also forms cement-like material when treated with phosphoric acid, related materials are used in dentistry. A major component of zinc phosphate cement produced by this reaction is hopeite, ZnO decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen at around 1975 °C with a standard oxygen pressure. In a carbothermic reaction, heating with carbon converts the oxide into zinc vapor at a lower temperature. ZnO + C → Zn + CO Zinc oxide can react violently with aluminium and magnesium powders, with chlorinated rubber and linseed oil on heating causing fire and it reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give zinc sulfide. ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O Zinc oxide crystallizes in two forms, hexagonal wurtzite and cubic zincblende. The wurtzite structure is most stable at ambient conditions and thus most common, the zincblende form can be stabilized by growing ZnO on substrates with cubic lattice structure. In both cases, the zinc and oxide centers are tetrahedral, the most characteristic geometry for Zn, ZnO converts to the rocksalt motif at relatively high pressures about 10 GPa. Hexagonal and zincblende polymorphs have no inversion symmetry and this and other lattice symmetry properties result in piezoelectricity of the hexagonal and zincblende ZnO, and pyroelectricity of hexagonal ZnO. The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm or C6v, and the space group is P63mc or C6v4. The lattice constants are a =3.25 Å and c =5.2 Å, as in most group II-VI materials, the bonding in ZnO is largely ionic with the corresponding radii of 0.074 nm for Zn2+ and 0.140 nm for O2−. This property accounts for the formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure
Chinese white
–
Zinc oxide
Chinese white
–
Hopeite
Chinese white
–
Synthetic ZnO crystals. Red and green color are associated with different concentrations of oxygen vacancies.
24.
Hide glue
–
An animal glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged boiling of animal connective tissue. These protein colloid glues are formed through hydrolysis of the collagen from skins, bones, tendons, the word collagen itself derives from Greek κόλλα kolla, glue. These proteins form a bond with the glued object. Stereotypically, the animal in question is a horse, and horses that are put down are often said to have sent to the glue factory. However, other animals are used, including rabbits and fish. Animal glue has existed since ancient times, although its usage was not widespread, the first known written procedures of making animal glue were written about 2000 BC. Between 1500–1000 BC, it was used for furnishings and mural paintings. Evidence is in the form of carvings depicting glue preparation and use. Egyptian records tell that animal glue would be made by melting it over a fire, greeks and Romans later used animal and fish glue to develop veneering and marquetry, the bonding of thin sections or layers of wood. Animal glue, known as taurokolla in Greek and gluten taurinum in Latin, were made from the skins of bulls in antiquity, broken pottery might also be repaired with the use of animal glues, filling the cracks to hide imperfections. About 906–618 BC, China utilized fish, ox, and stag horns to produce adhesives, animal glues were employed as binders in paint media during the Tang Dynasty. Records indicate that one of the components of lampblack ink was proteinaceous glue. Ox glue and stag-horn glues bound particles of pigments together, acting as a preservative by forming a film over the surface as the ink dried, the Chinese, such as Kao Gong Ji, also researched glue for medicinal purposes. During the medieval ages, fish glue remained a source for painting and illuminating manuscripts, since the 16th century, hide glue has been used in the construction of violins. Native Americans would use hoof glue primarily as a binder and as a water-resistant coating by boiling it down from leftover animal parts and they occasionally used hide glue as paint to achieve patterns after applying pigments and tanning to hides. Hoof glue would be used for purposes aside from hides, such as a hair preservative, the Assiniboins preferred longer hair, so they would plaster the strands with a mixture of red earth and hoof glue. It would also be used to bind feathers and equipment together, the first commercial glue factory opened in Holland circa 1700, manufacturing animal glue from hides. The United States’ first glue factory opened in 1899, established by the Milwaukee Tanning Industry, during the 18th and 19th centuries, ranchers disposed of old animals – horses in particular – to glue factories
Hide glue
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Animal glue in granules
Hide glue
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Hide glue at room temperature
Hide glue
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Hot hide glue
25.
Sizing
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Sizing or size is any one of numerous substances that is applied to, or incorporated into, other materials — especially papers and textiles — to act as a protective filler or glaze. Sizing is used in papermaking and textile manufacturing to change the absorption, sizing is used for oil-based surface preparation for gilding. It is used by painters and artists to prepare paper and textile surfaces for some art techniques, the term sizing also refers to the process of including or applying the substance. This provides a consistent, economical, and precise printing, painting. This is achieved by curbing the paper fibers tendency to absorb liquids by capillary action, in addition, sizing affects abrasiveness, creasibility, finish, printability, smoothness, and surface bond strength and decreases surface porosity and fuzzing. There are three categories of papers with respect to sizing, unsized, weak sized, and strong sized, waterleaf has low water resistance and includes absorbent papers for blotting. Slack sized paper is somewhat absorbent and includes newsprint, while hard sized papers have the highest water resistance, such as coated fine papers, there are two types of sizing, internal sizing, sometimes also called engine sizing, and surface sizing. Internal sizing is applied to almost all papers and especially to all those that are made, while surface sizing is added for the highest grade bond, ledger. Surface sizing solutions consists of mainly modified starches and sometimes other hydrocolloids, such as gelatine, surface sizing agents are amphiphilic molecules, having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends. Sizing improves the strength, printability, and water resistance of the paper or material to which it is applied. In the sizing solution, optical brightening agents may also be added to improve the opacity, internal sizing chemicals used in papermaking at the wet end are alkyl succinic anhydride, alkyl ketene dimer and rosin. By making the web more hydrophobic, the sizing agents influence dewatering. Next to paper quality, internal sizing agents main effect is on runability of the paper machine, while sizing is intended to make paper more suitable for printing, it also makes printing paper less durable and poses a problem for preservation of printed documents. D. 768 and its use continued until the fourteenth century when animal glue was substituted and it was necessary to size that paper so that it would be impervious to ink, but sizing was more needed in writing than in printing papers. Many books of the century were printed upon paper that had not been sized. The sizing was accomplished by a holding a number of sheets by the aid of two wooden sticks, and dipping the paper into the warm gelatinous liquid. The sheets were then pressed to extract the superfluous gelatine and this crude method of sizing the paper was extremely wasteful as many sheets were torn and bruised beyond use. The sizing room of the paper mills, was, for this reason
Sizing
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Sizing the warp
Sizing
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Weaves
26.
The Walters Art Museum
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The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th Century, located across the back alley, a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street. The following year, The Walters reopened its original building after a dramatic three-year physical renovation and replacement of internal utilities. The Archimedes Palimpsest was on loan to the Walters Art Museum from a collector for conservation. This was one of the largest and most comprehensive such releases made by any museum, the Walters collection of ancient art includes examples from Egypt, Nubia, Greece, Rome, Etruria and the Near East. In 1911, Henry Walters purchased almost 100 gold artifacts from the Chiriqui region of western Panama in Central America, the museum owns the oldest surviving Chinese wood-and-lacquer image of the Buddha. It is exhibited in a gallery dedicated solely to this work, the Museum holds one of the largest and finest collections of Thai bronze, scrolls, and banner paintings in the world. Islamic art in all media is represented at the Walters, the Walters Museum owns an array of Islamic manuscripts. Walters Art Museum, MS W.613 contains five Mughal miniatures from a very important Khamsa of Nizami made for the Emperor Akbar, Henry Walters assembled a collection of art produced during the Middle Ages in all the major artistic media of the period. This forms the basis of the Walters medieval collection, for which the Museum is best known internationally. Considered one of the best collections of art in the United States, the Museums holdings include examples of metalwork, sculpture, stained glass, textiles, icons. Sculpted heads from the royal Abbey of St. Denis are rare surviving examples of sculptures that are directly connected with the origins of Gothic art in 12th Century France. An ivory casket covered with scenes of jousting knights is one of about a dozen such objects to survive in the world, many of these works are on display in the Museums galleries. Works in the collection are the subject of active research by the curatorial and conservation departments of the museum. The collection of European Renaissance and Baroque art features holdings of paintings, sculpture, furniture, ceramics, metal work, arms, the museum has one of ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1750s and 1760s. William and Henry Walters collected works by late 19th Century French academic masters, Henry Walters was particularly interested in the courtly arts of 18th Century France. The museum’s collection of Sèvres porcelain includes a number of pieces that were made for members of the Royal Bourbon Court at Versailles Palace outside of Paris. Portrait miniatures and the examples of works, especially snuffboxes and watches, are displayed in the Treasury, along with some exceptional 19th-
The Walters Art Museum
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North Charles Street original main entrance to the Walters Art Museum
The Walters Art Museum
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Sculpture Garden (central "Great Hall") of the Walters Art Gallery (now Walters Art Museum) in the original Main Building of 1905-1909
The Walters Art Museum
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Sumerian male worshiper, c.2300 BC
The Walters Art Museum
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"
Padiiset's Statue ", illustrates
Canaan -
Ancient Egypt trade, c.1700 B.C. (inscription c.900 B.C.)
27.
Acrylic paint
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Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints are water-soluble, but become water-resistant when dry, acrylic paint is typically used for crafting, or in art classes in schools because it does not require any chemicals, and rinses away with just water. It also is likely to leave a stain on clothes than oil paint. As early as 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, the synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, combining some of the properties of oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint, acrylics were made commercially available in the 1950s. Following that development, Golden came up with an acrylic paint called Aquatec. Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which was transformed into acrylic paint. These two product lines were the very first acrylic emulsion artists paints, water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder, filler, pigment, exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, due to elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, artists and companies alike began to explore the potential of the new binders. Water-soluble artists acrylic paints were sold commercially by Liquitex beginning in the 1950s, in 1963, Rowney was the first manufacturer to introduce artist’s acrylic paints in Europe, under the brand name Cryla. Before the 19th century, artists mixed their own paints, which allowed them to achieve the color and thickness. While suitable media and raw pigments are available for the production of acrylic paint, hand mixing may not be practical because of the fast drying time. Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, watercolor and oil painters also use various media, but the range of acrylic media is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, in these cases it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. Acrylics can be applied in layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors. They can also be used to build layers of paint—gel and molding paste media are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features that are, quite literally. Acrylic paints are used in hobbies such as train, car, house
Acrylic paint
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Tubes of acrylic paint (made by
Caran d'Ache).
Acrylic paint
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Red acrylic paint squeezed from a tube.
Acrylic paint
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Detail of acrylic painting showing finishes that resemble both oil and watercolor
Acrylic paint
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Experimental pictures with floating acrylic paint.
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
29.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
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Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
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Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
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OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
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OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
30.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
_-_Walters_371413.jpg)
"Gouache". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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