1.
Terry McAuliffe
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Terence Richard Terry McAuliffe is an American politician and former businessman, who is currently serving as the 72nd Governor of Virginia. McAuliffe was previously a candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 2009 gubernatorial election. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, he ran unopposed in the Democratic primary and he defeated Republican Ken Cuccinelli and Libertarian Robert Sarvis in the general election, collecting 47. 8% of the vote, Cuccinelli garnered 45. 2% and Sarvis received 6. 5%. McAuliffe assumed office on January 11,2014, McAuliffe was born and raised in Syracuse, New York, the son of Mildred Katherine Lonergan and Jack McAuliffe. His father was an estate agent and local Democratic politician. The family is of Irish Catholic descent and he graduated from Bishop Ludden Junior/Senior High School in 1975. In 1979, he earned a degree from The Catholic University of America where he served as a resident adviser. After graduating, McAuliffe worked at President Jimmy Carters re-election campaign, following the campaign, McAuliffe enrolled at the Georgetown University Law Center, and received his juris doctor degree in 1984. At age of 14, McAuliffe started his first business, McAuliffe Driveway Maintenance, sealing driveways, according to The Washington Post, McAuliffe has earned millions as a banker, real estate developer, home builder, hotel owner, and internet venture capitalist. In 1985, McAuliffe helped found the Federal City National Bank, in January 1988, when McAuliffe was thirty years old, the banks board elected McAuliffe as chairman, making him the youngest chairman in the United States Federal Reserve Banks charter association. In 1991, McAuliffe negotiated a merger with Credit International Bank, McAuliffe became the vice-chairman of the newly merged bank. Shareholders questioned if he was special treatment, Chairman Richard V. Allen denied the allegation. In 1979, McAuliffe had met Richard Swann, a lawyer who was in charge of fundraising for Jimmy Carters presidential campaign in Florida, in 1988, McAuliffe married Swanns daughter, Dorothy. McAuliffe invested $800,000 in Swanns American Pioneer Savings Bank, the Resolution Trust Corporation, a federal agency, took over American Pioneers assets and liabilities. Under Swanns guidance, McAuliffe purchased some of American Pioneers real estate from the Resolution Trust Corporation, McAuliffes equal partner in the deal was a pension fund controlled by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the National Electrical Contractors Association. They purchased real estate, valued at $50 million, for $38.7 million, the deal was arranged by Jack Moore, a NECA trustee, and acquaintance of McAuliffe. Next, McAuliffe acquired a distressed house-building company, American Heritage Homes, McAuliffe served as chairman of American Heritage along with CEO Carl H. Linder. The Florida-based company came out of distress under a plan in which it built 800 homes a year, in 1997, McAuliffe invested $100,000 in Global Crossing, a Bermuda-registered telecommunications company
2.
Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio
3.
Official residence
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An official residence is the residence at which a nations head of state, head of government, governor or other senior figure officially resides. It may or may not be the location where the individual conducts work-related functions or lives. This has occurred in the 21st century in Detroit and New York City, in the case of Denver, no mayor has ever lived in the official residence, the city instead makes it available to certain non-profit groups for special functions. The President uses own private residence, - Its address is 1 Cheongwadae-ro, Jongro-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea. It is located next to Gyeongbokgung, the palace during the Joseon Dynasty. Cheong Nam Dae - Cheong Nam Dae used to be one of the two residences for the President of Republic of Korea. It was returned to public in 2003, - It is located in Cheongwon-gun, North Chungcheong Province. Cheong Hae Dae - Cheong Hae Dae used to be one of the two residences for the President of Republic of Korea. Although the president no longer uses this facility this compound is still under the administration of the Republic of Korea Navy, - It is located on one of the islands of Geoje-shi, South Gyeongsang Province. Chongri Gonggwan - This is the residence for the Prime Minister of Republic of Korea. The Prime Minister, however, does not work here, - Its address is 111-2 Samcheongdong-gil, Jongro-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea. It is located close to Cheong Wa Dae, gukhoeuijang Gonggwan - This is the official residence for the Speaker of the National Assembly of Republic of Korea. The Speaker, also, does not work here, - It is located in Hannam-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, where many foreign missions to Korea are located. Daebeobwonjang Gonggwan - This is the residence for the Chief Justice of Republic of Korea. The Chief Justice, also, does not work here, - It is also located in Hannam-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul. Most ministers of state and heads of administrative regions also have official residences, although they are not listed here. S
4.
Executive Mansion (Virginia)
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Designed by Alexander Parris, it is the oldest occupied governors mansion in the United States. It has served as the home of Virginia governors and their families since 1813 and this mansion is both a Virginia and a National Historic Landmark, and has had a number of successive renovations and expansions during the 20th century. Adjacent and immediately north of Capitol Square is the Court End neighborhood, during the Civil War, Virginias statehouse, also in Richmond, housed offices of the Confederacy. When Richmond became the capital of Virginia during 1779, there was no residence for the governor, the state was so poor that it could not pay the rent in time and blamed Jefferson for the problem. The state finally paid its rent and built a residence for the governor on the site of the present building, the law that provided for the construction of the current building was signed on February 13,1811 by James Monroe, with the building being completed in 1813. He was succeeded by George William Smith, Smith, however, was not the first governor to live in the mansion because he lost his life in the Richmond Theatre fire while he was saving others on December 26,1811. His successor, James Barbour, was the first governor to live in the mansion, the term mansion was not used in the law authorizing it to be built, but it has been used ever since. The gardens were redesigned in the 1950s, at the request of Governor Thomas B, stanley, by noted landscape architect Charles Gillette. Under Governor James S. Currently, Governor Terry McAuliffe occupies the mansion, Governor Tim Kaines wife, Anne Holton, lived in the mansion during the 1970s when her father, A. Linwood Holton Jr. was governor. It was featured on American Idol when Kaine and his wife, Anne Holton, welcomed Richmond-native and Idol-finalist Elliott Yamin, restoration and remodeling work on the Mansion was shown on Bob Vilas Home Again television shows tenth season, which aired in early 2000. The Mansions most notable appearance occurred on January 31,2006. The address was delivered from the Mansions historic ballroom, tours of the mansion are offered several days a week. HRH The Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II President Rutherford B
5.
Richmond, Virginia
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Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond Region and it was incorporated in 1742, and has been an independent city since 1871. As of the 2010 census, the population was 204,214, in 2015, the population was estimated to be 220,289, the Richmond Metropolitan Area has a population of 1,260,029, the third-most populous metro in the state. Richmond is located at the line of the James River,44 miles west of Williamsburg,66 miles east of Charlottesville. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, Major suburbs include Midlothian to the southwest, Glen Allen to the north and west, Short Pump to the west and Mechanicsville to the northeast. The site of Richmond had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737 and it became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America, the city entered the 20th century with one of the worlds first successful electric streetcar systems. The Jackson Ward neighborhood is a hub of African-American commerce. Richmonds economy is driven by law, finance, and government, with federal, state. Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, are headquartered in the city, in 1737, planter William Byrd II commissioned Major William Mayo to lay out the original town grid. The settlement was laid out in April 1737, and was incorporated as a town in 1742, Richmond recovered quickly from the war, and by 1782 was once again a thriving city. A permanent home for the new government, the Virginia State Capitol building, was designed by Thomas Jefferson with the assistance of Charles-Louis Clérisseau, after the American Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. The legacy of the canal boatmen is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag, on April 17,1861, five days after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the legislature voted to secede from the United States and joined the Confederacy. Official action came in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its capital to Richmond. It became the target of Union armies, especially in the campaigns of 1862. The Seven Days Battles followed in late June and early July 1862, during which Union General McClellan threatened to take Richmond, three years later, as March 1865 ended, the Confederate capitol became indefensible. On March 25, Confederate General John B, gordons desperate attack on Fort Stedman east of Petersburg failed
6.
Term of office
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A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office. Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdoms system of government are replicated in other countries. The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication, in the United Kingdom Members of Parliament in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, an election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, an MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election. The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned, prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Ministers request, the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is possible, but under much more limited circumstances. Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster, the office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit and this is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years. Federal judges have different terms in office, however, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts, serve for life. The terms of office for officials in state governments according to the provisions of state constitutions. The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire, the National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures,44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature at two years. Five had terms of office at four years,37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature at four years
7.
Patrick Henry
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Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779, Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act 1765 and is remembered for his Give me liberty, or give me death. After the Revolution, Henry was a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia and he opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it endangered the rights of the States as well as the freedoms of individuals, he helped gain adoption of the Bill of Rights. However, by 1798 he supported President John Adams and the Federalists and he denounced passage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions as he feared the social unrest and widespread executions that had followed the increasing radicalism of the French Revolution. After he married, Henry began acquiring extensive land holdings, by 1779, along with his cousin and her husband, Henry owned a 10, 000-acre plantation known as Leatherwood. He is also recorded having purchased up to 78 slaves, in 1794, he and his wife retired to Red Hill Plantation, comprising 520 acres in Charlotte County, which was also a functioning tobacco plantation. Henry was born at Studley, the farm, in Hanover County in the Colony of Virginia. His father was John Henry, an immigrant from Aberdeenshire, Scotland, settling in Hanover County, in about 1732 John Henry married Sarah Winston Syme, a wealthy widow from a prominent Hanover County family of English ancestry. Patrick Henry was once thought to have been of humble origins, Henry attended local schools for a few years, and then was tutored by his father. He tried to start in business but was not successful, in 1754 Henry married Sarah Shelton, reportedly in the parlor of her family house, Rural Plains. As a wedding gift, her father gave the couple six slaves, with his marriage, he became a slaveholder and landowner. Henry worked with his slaves on the land because it was a property, it was exhausted from tobacco cultivation. After the main house burned, the moved for a short time with their two children into the 20 by 60 foot Honeymoon Cottage, a one-story building with attic. They later moved to the Hanover Tavern, owned by Sarahs father and they sold Pine Slash Plantation in 1764, after Henry started working as a lawyer. The Henrys had six children together, one of whom married a brother of poet Thomas Campbell, in 1771 the family moved to Scotchtown Plantation, also in Hanover County. Sarah became mentally ill and died there in 1775, on October 25,1777, 41-year-old Henry married his second wife, 22-year-old Dorothea Dandridge. The next year moved to Williamsburg after his election as governor. In 1779 they moved to the 10, 000-acre Leatherwood Plantation, Henry began a career as a planter, but the soil was poor and their main house was destroyed by fire in 1757
8.
Commonwealth (U.S. state)
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Each was, prior to 1776, a British colony, or parts thereof, and share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The term Commonwealth does not describe or provide for any specific political status or legal relationship when used by a state and those that do use it are equal to those that do not. It refers to the common weal, or welfare, of the public and is derived from a translation of the Latin term res publica. Besides the four aforementioned states, other states may also, on occasion, vermont, for instance, uses the term commonwealth three times in its constitution, interchangeably with the term state. Also, while Delaware was primarily referred to as a State in its 1776 constitution, two U. S. territories are also designated as commonwealths, Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. When used in connection with areas under U. S, on June 1,1792, Kentucky County officially became a state. Kentucky is the state outside of the first 13 that uses commonwealth in its name. Massachusetts is officially named The Commonwealth of Massachusetts by its constitution, the name State of Massachusetts Bay was used in all acts and resolves up to 1780 and the first draft of the constitution. The current name can be traced to the draft of the state constitution. In Massachusetts, the term State is occasionally used in an official manner and this is evident in the name of the agency Massachusetts State Police, the Massachusetts State House and in Bridgewater State Hospital. The Seal of Pennsylvania does not use the term, but legal processes are in the name of the Commonwealth and it is a traditional official designation used in referring to the state. In 1776, Pennsylvanias first state constitution referred to it as both Commonwealth and State, a pattern of usage that was perpetuated in the constitutions of 1790,1838,1874 and 1958, one of Pennsylvanias two intermediate appellate courts is called the Commonwealth Court. A detailed history describing the origins of Pennsylvanias government, including its designation as a commonwealth from colonial times, is available from the Secretary of the Commonwealths office, the name Commonwealth of Virginia dates back to its independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. Virginias first constitution directed that Commissions and Grants shall run, In the Name of the commonwealth of Virginia, the Secretary of the Commonwealth still issues commissions in this manner. Among other references, the constitution furthermore dictated that criminal indictments were to conclude against the peace, in Virginia, the term State is occasionally used in an official manner, but usually in a compound structure rather than as a stand-alone noun. This is evident in the name of the agency Virginia State Corporation Commission and in Virginia State Police, the state university in Richmond is known as Virginia Commonwealth University. In Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, state-level criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the Commonwealth, in California, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan, and New York, they are brought in the name of the People
9.
William Smith (Virginia governor)
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William Extra Billy Smith was a lawyer, congressman, the 30th and 35th Governor of Virginia, and a Major General in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. On his appointment in January 1863, at the age of 65, Smith was born in Marengo, King George County, Virginia. He attended private schools in Virginia and Plainfield Academy in Connecticut and he then studied law and was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Culpeper, Culpeper County, Virginia, in 1818. Two years later, he married Elizabeth Hansbrough Bell and they would have eleven children, several of whom died in infancy or as young adults. He established a line of United States mail and passenger post coaches through Virginia in 1827 and then expanded the business into the Carolinas and it was in this role that he received his nickname. During an investigation of the Post Office department, Smiths extra fees were publicized by U. S, senator Benjamin W. Leigh, and he became known as Extra Billy in both the North and South. Smith served as a member of the Senate of Virginia from 1836 to 1841, Smith successfully contested as a Democrat the election of Linn Banks to the Twenty-seventh Congress and served from March 4,1841, to March 3,1843. He failed to be reelected in 1842 to the Twenty-eighth Congress and he then moved to Fauquier County. Smith served during the Mexican-American War as Governor of Virginia from 1846 to 1849 and was a candidate for election to the United States Senate during that period. He moved to California in April 1849 and was president of the first Democratic State convention in 1850 and he returned to Virginia in December 1852 and was elected to the Thirty-third Congress and to the three succeeding Congresses. His brother-in-law Peter Hansbrough Bell was a Texas Revolutionary and Mexican War veteran who served as the third Governor of Texas from 1849 through 1853. 1853, Smith was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives with 51. 79% of the vote,1855, Smith was re-elected with 78. 01% of the vote, defeating Independents P. Johnson Barbour and David Funsten. 1857, Smith was re-elected with 57. 5% of the vote,1859, Smith was re-elected with 49. 36% of the vote, defeating Independent Democrats Henry Wirtz Thomas and Henry Shackleford. 1863, Smith was elected Governor of Virginia with 47. 77% of the vote, defeating fellow Conservative Democrats Thomas Stanhope Flournoy and George W. Munford. When Virginia seceded from the Union, Smith declined to accept a commission as a general because he rightly admitted he was wholly ignorant of drill. A few weeks after the war started, he was present during a Union cavalry charge at the Battle of Fairfax Court House and he took command of the Confederate troops after the death of their commander John Quincy Marr, and found he enjoyed the experience. He requested a commission and was appointed colonel of the 49th Virginia Infantry regiment just three days before the First Battle of Bull Run, where the regiment and new commander performed well. Smith served in the Confederate Congress in 1862, but returned to the 49th Virginia at the start of the Peninsula Campaign and he was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines and his regiment received favorable notice in his commanders report
10.
Mills E. Godwin, Jr.
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Mills Edwin Godwin Jr. of Chuckatuck, Virginia, was an American politician who was the 60th and 62nd Governor of Virginia for two non-consecutive terms, from 1966 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1978. He was succeeded by A. Linwood Holton Jr. the first non-Democratic governor in over 80 years. By 1973, when he ran for a term, Godwin had switched to the Republican Party, as the dominance of the Democrats in Virginia politics receded. He was the first governor in the history of the United States to be elected as both a Democrat and a Republican and he married Katherine Thomas Beale of Holland, also in Nansemond County. They adopted one child, Becky Godwin, in 1974, the modern independent city of Suffolk was formed. It was the last of the cities of Hampton Roads to take their current form during a wave of consolidations in the Hampton Roads region which began in 1952. His boyhood home, the Godwin-Knight House, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985, Godwin served in the Virginia state senate between 1952 and 1962 and was the lieutenant governor between 1962 and 1966. However, after 1960, he was among leaders who became much more moderate as Virginia made the cultural transition. With an eye to the 1965 gubernatorial race, Godwin reached out to African American voters during the 1964 presidential campaign by campaigning for President Lyndon B, johnson, who had led the movement for enactment of the Civil Rights Act of that year. When he ran for governor in 1965, Godwin had no opposition from within the Democratic party and was nominated without a primary election. Godwins bid for governor in 1965 was endorsed by the affiliates of both the NAACP and the AFL-CIO. Despite the third-party challenge, Godwin defeated Republican Linwood Holton by a 48%-36% margin, after his first term ended in 1970, Godwin began to separate himself from the Democratic Party. He managed the U. S. Senate campaign of Harry F. Byrd Jr. who was running as an independent candidate, Howell was a self-styled populist, but many conservatives saw him simply as a liberal whose push to the governors office they believed had to be stopped. Former governor Godwin was persuaded to run again by conservative Republicans who saw him as the most likely candidate to beat Howell, Godwin narrowly defeated Howell by a margin of 15,000 votes, a 50. 7% to 49. 3% margin, to win his second term. Virginia law prohibits incumbent governors for running for reelection, Godwin became the only Virginia governor to be elected to two terms in the 20th century. As governor, Godwin abandoned the states pay as you go fiscal policy, on December 17,1975 Governor Godwin ordered the James River and its tributaries closed to fishing from Richmond to the Chesapeake Bay. This order was the result of the handling and dumping of kepone into the James. Kepone is a pesticide that was produced by Allied Signal Company in Hopewell, Virginia
11.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
12.
Virginia Militia
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The Virginia militia is an armed force composed of all citizens of the Commonwealth of Virginia capable of bearing arms. The Virginia militia was established in 1607 as part of the English militia system, Militia service in Virginia was compulsory for all free males. The main purpose of the Crowns militia was to repel invasions and insurrections, in 1661 Governor William Berkeley stated, All our freemen are bound to be trained every month in their particular counties. The British county lieutenant system was employed as the population grew, each county had a lieutenant, the militia system was originally used to defend against Native American tribes in the tidewater area. As the slave population grew in the Virginia Colony, the played a role in keeping slaves from running away or from revolting – through the use of militia patrollers. This Virginia militia system was put to the test in 1676 during Bacons Rebellion, the Crowns militia was victorious over Nathaniel Bacon who tried to seize power. WHEREAS it is necessary, in time of danger, that the militia of this colony should be well regulated and disciplined. On May 15,1776 the Virginia General Assembly voted unanimously for independence, colonel George Mason became the principal author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights which was published on June 12,1776. Mason drew from his own writings upon his founding of the Fairfax County Independent Company of Volunteers on September 21,1774. This company was an organization independent of the Crowns militia. At the beginning of the war, Kentucky County, Virginia was organized with George Rogers Clark as head of its local militia, Clark asked Governor Patrick Henry for permission to lead a secret expedition to capture the nearest British posts, which were located in the Illinois country. Governor Henry commissioned Clark as a lieutenant colonel and authorized him to raise troops for the expedition. The Illinois campaign began in July 1778, when Clark and about 175 men crossed the Ohio River at Fort Massac and marched to Kaskaskia, to counter Clarks advance, Henry Hamilton reoccupied Vincennes with a small force. In February 1779, Clark returned to Vincennes in a winter expedition and retook the town. The winter expedition was Clarks most significant military achievement, the Virginia militia system, as a compulsory service composed of the body of the people trained to arms as envisioned by George Mason, remained intact until the end of the American Civil War. Reconstruction governments forced upon Virginia an all-volunteer militia system in opposition to Virginias Bill of Rights, the militia became statutorily composed of the volunteer and the unorganized militia. Permanent faculty members of the Virginia Military Institute are normally offered commissions in the naval or unorganized militia of Virginia, the Superintendent of VMI is normally a Lieutenant General of the unorganized Virginia militia unless he or she is a regular US military officer of higher rank. The corps of cadets also serves as members of the unorganized militia
13.
Governor's Palace (Williamsburg, Virginia)
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The Governors Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia was the official residence of the Royal Governors of the Colony of Virginia. It was also a home for two of Virginias post-colonial governors, Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, until the capital was moved to Richmond in 1780, the main house burned down in 1781, though the outbuildings survived for some time after. The Governors Palace was reconstructed in the 1930s on its original site and it is one of the two largest buildings at Colonial Williamsburg, the other being the Capitol. Williamsburg was established as the new capital of the Virginia colony in 1699, during most of that period, the Governors Palace was the official residence of the royal governor. The palace was funded by the House of Burgesses in 1706 at the behest of Lt and it was built from 1706 onward. In 1710, its first official resident was Lt, governor Alexander Spotswood who served as acting governor, the governor proper, George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney was absentee and is not known to have visited Virginia. Spottwood continued to improve on it until ca, 1720–1722, adding the forecourt, gardens, and various decorations. Under Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie, from 1751 to 52, it was repaired and renovated, the proposal would have added a temple-like portico to the front and back. However, in 1780, Jefferson urged that the capital of Virginia be relocated to Richmond for security reasons during the American Revolution. The new lodging for the adjacent to the current Virginia State Capitol building in Richmond is more modest in size and style. On December 22,1781, the building was destroyed by a fire. At the time, it was being used as a hospital for wounded American soldiers following the nearby Siege of Yorktown, some brick outbuildings survived the fire, but were demolished during the American Civil War so they could be salvaged for building materials by occupying forces. The possible architectural influence of the Governors Palace could be Nether Lypiatt Manor, Gloucestershire, through the efforts of Reverend Dr. W. A. R. The reconstruction was based on numerous surviving pieces of evidence, archaeological excavations of the site revealed the original foundations and cellar, together with architectural remnants that had fallen in during the fire. Jeffersons drawings and plans from his proposed renovation have survived, conveying the interior plan, in 1929, while the project was already in planning, a copperplate engraving nicknamed the Bodleian Plate was discovered in Englands Bodleian Library. The plate included renderings c.1740 of the exterior of the palace, along with the Capitol, additional evidence included original artifacts and Virginia General Assembly records. The house, outbuildings, and gardens opened as an exhibition on April 23,1934, in early 1981, the Governors Palace underwent significant interior renovation and refurnishing to reflect updated scholarship of the building and its furnishings. The renovation reduced the influence of the Colonial Revival style in favor of historical evidence, Colonial Williamsburg, Governors Palace web page
14.
Williamsburg, Virginia
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Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
15.
Jamestown, Virginia
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The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
16.
Virginia Company of London
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The London Company was an English joint stock company established in 1606 by royal charter by King James I with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America. The territory granted to the London Company included the coast south America from the 34th parallel north to the 41st parallel, as part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100-square-mile settlement within this area, the portion of the companys territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles of each other. The London Company made landfall on April 26,1607, at the edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Deciding to move the encampment, on May 4,1607, later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present-day Maine, but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved, as a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from sea to sea of the previously-shared area between the 38th and 40th parallel. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Somers Isles, the London Company struggled financially, especially with labor shortages in its Virginia colony. Its profits improved after sweeter strains of tobacco than the variety were cultivated. By 1619 a system of indentured service was developed in the colony. In 1624, the company lost its charter, and Virginia became a royal colony, in Renaissance England, wealthy merchants, eager to find investment opportunities, established a number of companies to trade in various parts of the world. Each company was made up of individuals who purchased shares of company stock, the Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, trade or settle a particular region of the world. Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock each owned, between 1585 and 1630, more than 6,300 Englishmen and women invested in joint stock companies trading with Russia, Turkey, Africa, the East Indies, the Mediterranean and North America. Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the resources of the New World. In 1606 Captain Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of King James I a charter for two companies, the first, for the South-Virginia or London Company, covered what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North. Gosnolds principal backers were Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Edward Wingfield, the second Company, the Plymouth Adventurers, were empowered to settle as far as 45° North, encompassing what are present day Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England. The Company paid all the costs of establishing each colony, and in return controlled all land and resources there, the first leader of the Virginia Company in England was its treasurer, Sir Thomas Smythe, who arranged the 1609 charter. He had been governor of the East India Company since 1603, in an extensive publicity campaign, Wingfield, Gosnold and a few others, circulated pamphlets, plays, sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments. Shareholders could buy stock individually or in groups, almost 1700 people purchased shares, including men of different occupations and classes, wealthy women, and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds, towns and cities
17.
Edward Maria Wingfield
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Edward Maria Wingfield, sometimes hyphenated as Edward-Maria Wingfield was a soldier, Member of Parliament, and English colonist in America. He was the son of Thomas Maria Wingfield, and the grandson of Richard Wingfield and he recruited about forty of the 104 would-be colonists, and was the only shareholder to sail. On the return of the Supply Boat on April 10,1608, Wingfield was sent back to London to answer the charge of being an atheist, Smiths prime biographer, Philip L. Barbour, however, wrote of the superlative pettiness of the charges. None of the accusations amounting to anything, Wingfield cleared his reputation, was named in the Second Virginia Charter,1609, and was active in the Virginia Company until 1620, when he was 70 years old. He died in 1631, ten weeks before fellow Jamestown settler John Smith, Wingfield was born in 1550 at Stonely Priory, near Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, the eldest son of Thomas Maria Wingfield, the Elder, and Margaret. And was raised as a Protestant His middle name, Maria, derived from Mary Tudor, Queen of France, sister of King Henry VIII, not Henry VIIIs same named devoutly Catholic daughter, Mary Tudor. Edwards father, Thomas Maria Wingfield, MP, died when Edward was seven years old, jacques Wingfield was from 1559–60 until his death in 1587, Master of the Ordnance in Ireland, Constable of Dublin Castle and an Irish Privy Councillor. In 1575–76, Wingfield returned to England, where in 1576 he was admitted to Lincolns Inn, before completing his legal training, the lure of the drum called him to the Low Countries. He, his brother and Sir William Drury, were noted in the Army Roll of 1589 as captains of success. Nine weeks later his brother captured two Spanish officers at Bergen, but was not permitted by the Allied Commander-in-Chief, Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby and he and Gorges were, however, no earlier than June 1589, released as part of a prisoner exchange. Lane was Wingfields fathers old neighbour in Orlingbury, near Kimbolton and he may have sat on a committee considering cloth in March, but this he decided was not for him, and he returned shortly afterward to the soldiers life at the Dundalk Garrison in Ireland. Despite his pleas, Queen Elizabeth I never permitted Sir Edward to return home, Gosnold may have been Captain Gosnell who, in 1604 at a dinner in the Isle of Wight made some intemperate comment about the King, so perhaps causing important people to shun him. There is no record of Smith doing anything special, but Gabriel Archer, Wingfield was involved in fundraising and was one of the biggest backers of the venture, with family friends, Sir Thomas Gates, Sir William Waad, Sir Thomas Smythe, John Martin, Sr. Sir Oliver Cromwell and Captain John Ratcliffe, Barbour wrote, John Smith was unaware, always, of the importance of the lever – the legal and financial backing that got the voyage going. In 1606, without Wingfields input through his influential contacts. In 1605–06 Wingfield and his cousin Bartholomew Gosnold, recruited about 40% of the 105 settlers, most of the would-be gentlemen settlers were impecunious younger sons without prospects, but more than a dozen gentleman, and Captain John Martin. Clearly were gentlemen with other motives, perhaps just the adventure in its own right, Wingfield obtained the approval of Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, his old London vicar at St. Andrews, Holborn, for the Reverend Robert Hunt of Old Heathfield. This recruitment may have been with the help of Richard Hakluyt, the Archbishops approval was dated as late as November 24,1606 – yet, sadly, at the very last moment Hakluyt, the senior of the two priests, backed out
18.
John Smith of Jamestown
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Captain John Smith, Admiral of New England, was an English soldier, explorer, and author. He was knighted for his services to Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania and he was considered to have played an important part in the establishment of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North America. He was a leader of the Virginia Colony between September 1608 and August 1609, and led an exploration along the rivers of Virginia and he was the first English explorer to map the Chesapeake Bay area and New England. His books and maps were important in encouraging and supporting English colonization of the New World and he gave the name New England to the region and noted, Here every man may be master and owner of his owne labour and land. If he have nothing but his hands, he may. by industries quickly grow rich, when Jamestown was Englands first permanent settlement in the New World, Smith trained the settlers to farm and work, thus saving the colony from early devastation. He publicly stated He that will not work, shall not eat, quoting from the Bible, harsh weather, lack of water, living in a swampy wilderness and attacks from the Powhatan Indians almost destroyed the colony. The Jamestown settlement survived and so did Smith, but he had to return to England after being injured by an explosion of gunpowder in a boat. John Smith was baptized on 6 January 1580 at Willoughby near Alford, Lincolnshire and he claimed descent from the ancient Smith family of Cuerdley, Lancashire, and was educated at King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth from 1592–1595. After his father died, Smith left home at the age of sixteen and he served as a mercenary in the army of Henry IV of France against the Spaniards, fighting for Dutch independence from Spanish King Phillip II. He then set off for the Mediterranean, there he engaged in both trade and piracy, and later fought against the Ottoman Turks in the Long Turkish War. Smith was promoted to a captain while fighting for the Austrian Habsburgs in Hungary in the campaign of Michael the Brave in 1600 and 1601. After the death of Michael the Brave, he fought for Radu Șerban in Wallachia against Ottoman vassal Ieremia Movilă, however, in 1602, he was wounded in a skirmish with the Tartars, captured, and sold as a slave. As Smith describes it, we all sold for slaves, like beasts in a market, Smith claimed that his master, a Turkish nobleman, sent him as a gift to his Greek mistress in Constantinople, who fell in love with Smith. In 1606, Smith became involved with the Virginia Company of Londons plan to colonize Virginia for profit, it had granted a charter by King James. The expedition set sail in three ships, the Discovery, the Susan Constant, and the Godspeed, on 20 December 1606. His page was a 12-year-old boy named Samuel Collier, during the voyage, Smith was charged with mutiny, and Captain Christopher Newport had planned to execute him. The English arrived at Jamestown in April 1607 and, by the summer of that year, the search for a suitable site ended on 14 May 1607 when Captain Edward Maria Wingfield, president of the council, chose the Jamestown site as the location for the colony. After the four-month ocean trip, their stores were sufficient only for each to have a cup or two of grain-meal per day
19.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
20.
Commonwealth of England
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The republics existence was declared through An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth, adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament, the Rump was created by Prides Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army. Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, with the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive and legislative power. The English Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council and it was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had an uneasy relationship. After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and it declared the people of England and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging to be henceforth under the governance of a Commonwealth, effectively a republic. In Prides Purge, all members of parliament who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed, thus the Rump never had more than two hundred members. Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a proportion of lesser gentry. Less than one-quarter of them were regicides and this left the Rump as basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made it unlikely to want to reform them. For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland, by 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats. There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump, some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of Englands traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as a government made up of regicides. However, they were aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry, limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals. Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, by 1653, France and Spain had recognised Englands new government. Though the Church of England was retained, episcopacy was suppressed, mainly on the insistence of the Army, many independent churches were tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church. Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure, for example, however, there were no widespread reforms of the common law. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the law as reinforcing their status
21.
English Restoration
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The term Restoration is used to describe both the actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and the period of several years afterwards in which a new political settlement was established. It is very used to cover the whole reign of Charles II. Richard Cromwells main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the army, after seven months, an army faction known as the Wallingford House party removed him on 6 May 1659 and reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, on 9 June 1659, he was nominated lord-general of the army. However, his leadership was undermined in Parliament, which chose to disregard the armys authority in a fashion to the post-First Civil War Parliament. A royalist uprising was planned for 1 August 1659, but it was foiled, however, Sir George Booth gained control of Cheshire, Charles II hoped that with Spanish support he could effect a landing, but none was forthcoming. Booth held Cheshire until the end of August when he was defeated by General Lambert, the Commons, on 12 October 1659, cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut, on 26 October a Committee of Safety was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, the Committee of Safety sent Lambert with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms. It was into this atmosphere that Monck, the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, lamberts army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Prides Purge of 1648, were recalled, Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before Parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London, Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody on Guernsey in 1694, Ingoldsby was indeed pardoned. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649. Constitutionally, it was as if the last nineteen years had never happened, Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday, to celebrate his Majestys Return to his Parliament,29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, some contemporaries described the Restoration as a divinely ordained miracle. The sudden and unexpected deliverance from usurpation and tyranny was interpreted as a restoration of the natural, the Cavalier Parliament convened for the first time on 8 May 1661, and it would endure for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679
22.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
23.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
24.
Francis Harrison Pierpont
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Francis Harrison Pierpont, called the Father of West Virginia, was an American lawyer, politician, and Governor of the Union-controlled parts of Virginia during the Civil War. After the war, he was the Governor of all of Virginia during the years of Reconstruction. He was the son of Francis Peirpoint and was born at the Peirpoint Plantation in the Forks of Cheat on the Morgantown-Ices Ferry Road. His middle name, Harrison, was added later by the father in honor of his commanding officer. Virginia lawyers advised the family that in order to hold their grandfathers land they must spell their last name as recorded in the patent, thus Francis used the name Peirpoint throughout all of his life. Francis Harrison also utilized Peirpoint throughout most of his life, including during his terms as the Civil War. In 1880, when President Garfield appointed him Collector of Internal Revenue, Pierpont writes that He consented to the change of his name because it was right. While Frank was a boy, his family moved their business to what is today Marion County. He was a great-grandson of Morgantowns founder Zackquill Morgan, Frank Pierpont was educated in a one-room schoolhouse and by his own reading. Pierpont became linked with the history for the rest of his life. After walking to Pennsylvania, he enrolled in and graduated from Allegheny College, later, he taught school in Harrison County. Then he traveled and became an abolitionist after seeing slaverys abuses in Mississippi and he returned home to Fairmont and handled the familys tanning business as well as became active in the Methodist Church and began studying law. He was admitted to the bar in 1841, in 1848, Pierpont became the local attorney for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Before entering politics, he helped found Fairmont Male and Female Seminary. An active supporter of Abraham Lincoln, Pierpont became more involved in politics as an opponent of Virginias secession from the Union. When Virginia seceded and entered the war, delegates from the counties of Virginia. Declaring that their officials had abandoned their posts, a rump government was established in Wheeling. Claiming to be the government of the entire Commonwealth of Virginia
25.
Reconstruction era of the United States
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
26.
James L. Kemper
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James Lawson Kemper was a lawyer, a Confederate general in the American Civil War, and the 37th Governor of Virginia. He was the youngest of the commanders, and the only non-professional military officer, in the division that led Picketts Charge. Kemper was born at Mountain Prospect plantation in Madison County, Virginia and his fathers family had emigrated from near what became Siegen, Germany, in the early 18th century. By the time young James was born, his paternal grandmother, Kemper later founded Kemper Military School). P. Hill, who became a lifelong friend, from 1830-1840, Kemper boarded during winters at Locust Dale Academy, which had a military corps of cadets. Kemper later attended Washington College and also took engineering classes at nearby Virginia Military Institute. At Washington Colleges graduation ceremony in 1842, 19-year-old Kemper gave the commencement address and he was admitted to the Virginia bar on October 2,1846. After Congress had declared war on Mexico in 1846, President James K. Polk called for nine regiments of volunteers, Kemper and his friend Birkett D. Fry of Kanawha County traveled to the capital on December 15,1846. After traveling to Richmond and back to Washington for more networking, Kemper learned that he had appointed the units quartermaster. Honorably discharged from the U. S. Army on August 3,1848, Kemper returned to law in Madison County. He represented many fellow veterans making land claims, as well as speculated in real estate and helped form the Blue Ridge Turnpike Company (between Gordonsville, interested in politics, Kemper first campaigned for office in 1850, but lost the contest to become clerk of the Commonwealths constitutional convention. Promoting himself as pro-slavery, anti-abolitionist, and pro-states rights, Kemper defeated Marcus Newman and was elected to represent Madison County in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1853. A strong advocate of military preparedness, as well as an ally of Henry A. Wise. By 1858 he was a general in the Virginia militia. In early 1861 Kemper became Speaker, a position he held until January 1863, much of his term as Speaker coincided with his service in the Confederate States Army. At First Bull Run, Kemper led the regiment as part of Jubal Earlys brigade. His regiment was assigned to Brig. Gen. A. P. Hills brigade in Maj. Gen. James Longstreets division of the Confederate Army of the Potomac from June 1861 to March 1862
27.
A. Linwood Holton Jr.
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Abner Linwood Lin Holton Jr. is a Virginia political figure and attorney. He served as the 61st Governor of Virginia, from 1970 to 1974 and he was the first Republican governor of Virginia in the 20th Century. He was also the first Republican who won an election as governor. Holton is the father of Anne, and the father-in-law of Tim Kaine, a. Linwood Holton Jr. was born on September 21,1923 in Big Stone Gap, Virginia. His father was the executive of a small coal-hauling railroad, Holton entered Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, in 1941. After the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, he enlisted in the United States Navy on July 4,1942 and he received a commission after graduating in 1944 and served on active duty submarine service throughout World War II and in the reserves for more than two decades afterwards. He graduated from Harvard Law School in 1949, prior to entering politics, he was an attorney in Roanoke, Virginia. Holton was active in the Republican Party when it existed in Virginia. He was one of the leading Republicans who fought the Byrd Organization during the three decades it dominated Virginia politics, in 1965, Holton ran for governor as the Republican candidate and was defeated by Democrat Mills E. Godwin Jr. In 1969, Holton won 52. 51% of the vote in the gubernatorial election, mcDowell, American Independent William A. Pennington, and Independent George R. Walker. He became the first Republican governor of Virginia since 1869, a moderate Republican, Holton was against welcoming conservative Byrd Democrats into the Virginia Republican Party, and the increasingly conservative GOP turned its back on Holton. That eventually led to the nomination of Ray Garland, Byrd went on to win the three-way election with an absolute majority. In 1973, Mills Godwin, the conservative former Democrat who had defeated Holton in the 1965 election, was the Republican nominee, Godwin had supported massive resistance to racial integration and had first identified himself as a Republican in his speech accepting the Virginia Republican conventions nomination for governor. Holton was not eligible to run in 1973, as Virginia does not allow governors to serve consecutive terms, following his term as governor, Holton served one year in the Nixon Administration as the Assistant Secretary of State for Congressional Relations. After leaving Washington, he practiced law as a shareholder at McCandlish Holton and he later served as President of the Center for Innovative Technology. Holton later unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for the United States Senate in 1978, finishing third in a race against Richard D. Obenshain, John Warner, Warner later become the nominee after Obenshains death in a plane crash. After his retirement, Holton had supported moderate Republicans, including John Warner, Holton endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential contest. The Holtons have four children, Tayloe, Anne, Woody, Anne Holton is married to U. S
28.
William E. Cameron
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William Evelyn Cameron was a soldier, lawyer, journalist, and politician. He served as the 39th Governor of Virginia from 1882–1886, elected as the candidate of the Readjuster Party headed by William T. Mahone, William Evelyn Cameron was born in Petersburg, Virginia. His parents were Walker Anderson Cameron and Elizabeth Page Walker and he attended local schools, then a military academy in Hillsboro, North Carolina. Cameron briefly attended Washington College in St. Louis, Missouri and he received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. When the American Civil War started, Cameron abandoned his studies and joined the Confederate Army. After the war, Cameron returned to Petersburg, where he married Louisa Clarinda Egerton on October 1,1868, Cameron read the law and passed the bar. He started to practice law, but decided to pursue a career in journalism and he was an editor for newspapers in Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond, Virginia. They passed into North Carolina, where they fought on the 12th of June with pistols, Cameron was hit in the breast at the first fire, the ball striking a rib and glancing. Hughes demanded another fire, but the surgeons declared that Cameron could not deliver another shot, Cameron became active in the Readjuster Party. He was elected as mayor of Petersburg, serving from 1876 to 1882, in 1881, he was the gubernatorial candidate of the Readjuster Party and elected governor with biracial support defeating John Warwick Daniel by nearly 6% of the vote. During his term from 1882–1886, he attempted to implement his partys programs of debt reduction, in 1882 it led passage of legislation for a land-grant college for blacks, what is now Virginia State University in Ettrick, near Petersburg. Cameron led an anti-oyster pirate expedition of two boats and armed militia in the ongoing Oyster Wars of the Chesapeake Bay. The state had attempted to license and control traffic in the popular seafood, after his term as governor ended in 1886, Cameron briefly left Virginia. He returned and resumed a career in politics, but as a conservative Democrat, Cameron represented Petersburg in the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1901–1902. At this time, the Democrat-dominated legislature created a disfranchising constitution, the Republican Party, which had made a brief and small comeback after the collapse of the Readjusters, ceased to be competitive in the state. Cameron served as editor of the Norfolk Virginian-Pilot newspaper from 1906 to 1919, William Evelyn Cameron died on January 25,1927 at the home of one of his sons in Louisa County, Virginia. He was buried at Blandford Cemetery in Petersburg, a Guide to the Executive Papers of Governor William E. Cameron, 1882–1885, The Library of Virginia
29.
Readjuster Party
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The Readjuster Party was a political biracial coalition formed in Virginia in the late 1870s during the turbulent period following the Reconstruction era. Readjusters aspired to break the power of wealth and established privilege among the elite of white men in the state. The party was led by Harrison H. Riddleberger of Woodstock, an attorney, and William Mahone, Mahone was a major force in Virginia politics from around 1870 until 1883, when the Readjusters lost control to white Democrats. Immediately after Virginias adoption of a new constitution and readmission into the United States in 1870. This affirmed the states debt by issuing bonds at 6% interest for 2/3 of the debts face value at that same interest rate. Virginias governor elected at that time, Gilbert Carlton Walker was a banker in Norfolk and he had the support of the Conservative Party formed by the Committee of Nine and characterized the issue as a matter of honor. Confederate bonds were worthless, and by this time prewar debt had mostly been bought by out-of-state. By 1861, those $34 million in investments with deferred 6% interest totaled about $46 million, during the American Civil War, most of the railroads had been used for military purposes by armies on both sides, and had become strategic targets. Railroad lines were ripped up, terminals burned, bridges blown up, several northwestern counties also seceded from Virginia to remain in the Union as the State of West Virginia. Much of what little railroad and canal infrastructure remained was in West Virginia, Virginia needed its infrastructure rebuilt to restore its economic base, especially to get crops and manufactured goods to market. Executive officials also allowed corporations to self-assess for other tax purposes, however, the state still needed money to pay the debt as well as to operate the government and particularly public schools. The Funding Act also contained a provision allowing coupons to be used at full value to pay taxes, in 1872, the General Assembly reduced the interest rate to 4%, but debt interest still constituted more than half of government expenditures, and the state ran a significant deficit. By the end of the decade, the auditor was paying the bond debt. As much of the debt was held by Northern banks and investors. Those who supported a readjustment of the debt, were known as Readjusters, whereas those in favor of funding the entire debt, became known as Funders. The Readjuster Party promised to readjust the state debt, repeal the tax which had suppressed voting by blacks and poor whites. Public education had been established for the first time under the Reconstruction-era legislature, Harrison Riddlebergers law limiting bond interest to 3% was also vetoed. After the American Civil War, Mahone tried to combine many southern Virginia railroads into a system leading to the port of Norfolk, however, the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad competed with the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and went bankrupt in the Panic of 1873
30.
Populism
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Populism is a political doctrine that proposes that the common people are exploited by a privileged elite, and which seeks to resolve this. The underlying ideology of populists can be left, right, or center and its goal is uniting the uncorrupt and the unsophisticated little man against the corrupt dominant elites and their camp of followers. It is guided by the belief that political and social goals are best achieved by the actions of the masses. Political parties and politicians often use the terms populist and populism as pejoratives against their opponents, such a view sees populism as demagogy, merely appearing to empathize with the public through rhetoric or unrealistic proposals in order to increase appeal across the political spectrum. Populism is most common in democratic nations, historically, academic definitions of populism vary, and people have often used the term in loose and inconsistent ways to reference appeals to the people, demagogy, and catch-all politics. The term has also used as a label for new parties whose classifications are unclear. In recent years, academic scholars have produced definitions that facilitate populist identification and comparison, in the United States and Latin America, populism has generally been associated with the left, whereas in European countries, populism is more associated with the right. In both, the tenet of populism—that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people—means it can sit easily with ideologies of both right and left. Cas Mudde says, Many observers have noted that populism is inherent to representative democracy, after all, most recently, many observers have categorized the rise of Donald Trump in the U. S. and Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines as populist in nature. Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views. The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as the trial lawyer lobby. Subsistence peasant movements, such as the Eastern European Green Rising militias, intellectuals who romanticize hard-working farmers and peasants and build radical agrarian movements like the Russian narodniki. Populist democracy, including calls for political participation through reforms such as the use of popular referenda. Politicians populism marked by non-ideological appeals for the people to build a unified coalition, reactionary populism, such as the white backlash harvested by George Wallace. Populist dictatorship, such as established by Getúlio Vargas in Brazil. Scholars have argued that populist elements have appeared in authoritarian movements. Conspiracist scapegoating employed by various populist movements can create a seedbed for fascism, National Socialist populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany. In this case, distressed middle–class populists mobilized their anger against the government, the Nazis parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery, scapegoating, and conspiracism
31.
Douglas Wilder
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Lawrence Douglas Wilder is an American politician, who served as the first African American to be elected as governor of Virginia and first African-American governor of any state since Reconstruction. Wilder served as the 66th Governor of Virginia from 1990 to 1994, when earlier elected as Lieutenant Governor, he was the first African American elected to statewide office in Virginia. His most recent political office was Mayor of Richmond, Virginia, Wilder was born on January 17,1931 in the segregated Church Hill neighborhood of Richmond. He is the son of Beulah Olive and Robert Judson Wilder, the seventh of eight brothers and sisters, Wilder was named for the African American writers Paul Laurence Dunbar and Frederick Douglass. Wilder’s father sold insurance, his mother worked as a maid, Wilder worked his way through Virginia Union University by waiting tables at hotels and shining shoes, graduating in 1951 with a degree in chemistry. Drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War, he volunteered for combat duty and he was a Sergeant at the time of his discharge in 1953. Following the war, Wilder worked in the medical examiners office. In 1956 he changed his plans and entered Howard University Law School. After graduating in 1959 he established a law practice in Richmond, Wilder married Eunice Montgomery in 1958. The couple had three children before divorcing in 1978, Lynn Diana, Lawrence Douglas Jr. and Loren Deane, Douglas Wilder began his career in public office by winning a 1969 special election for the Virginia State Senate from a Richmond-area district. He was the first African American elected to the Virginia Senate since Reconstruction, a 1970 redistricting gave Wilder a predominantly African-American district, and he became a liberal in a predominantly conservative legislature. In 1985 Wilder was narrowly elected the 35th Lieutenant Governor of Virginia on a Democratic ticket headed by Attorney General Gerald L. Baliles, Wilder was the first African American to win a statewide election in Virginia. Wilder was elected governor on November 8,1989, defeating Republican Marshall Coleman by a spread of less than half a percent, the narrow victory margin prompted a recount, which reaffirmed Wilders election. He was sworn in on January 13,1990 by former U. S. Supreme Court Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. In recognition of his achievement as the first elected African American governor. Wilder had a lead in the last polls before the election. The unexpected closeness of the election may have due to the Republicans strong get out the vote efforts. Wilder had been candid about his position in relation to abortion
32.
African-American
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
33.
Voter turnout
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Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Eligibility varies by country, and the population should not be confused with the total adult population. Age and citizenship status are often among the criteria used to determine eligibility, after increasing for many decades, there has been a trend of decreasing voter turnout in most established democracies since the 1980s. In general, low turnout is attributed to disillusionment, indifference, low turnout is usually considered to be undesirable. As a result, there have been efforts to increase voter turnout. In spite of significant study into the issue, scholars are divided on the reasons for the decline and its cause has been attributed to a wide array of economic, demographic, cultural, technological, and institutional factors. Different countries have very different voter turnout rates, for example, turnout in the United States 2012 presidential election was about 55%. In both Belgium, which has compulsory voting, and Malta, which not, participation reaches about 95%. The chance of any one vote determining the outcome is low, some studies show that a single vote in a voting scheme such as the Electoral College in the United States has an even lower chance of determining the outcome. Other studies claim that the Electoral College actually increases voting power, Studies using game theory, which takes into account the ability of voters to interact, have also found that the expected turnout for any large election should be zero. Since P is virtually zero in most elections, PB is also near zero, for a person to vote, these factors must outweigh C. Experimental political science has found that even when P is likely greater than zero, enos and Fowler conducted a field experiment that exploits the rare opportunity of a tied election for major political office. Informing citizens that the election to break the tie will be close has little mobilizing effect on voter turnout. Riker and Ordeshook developed the understanding of D. Other political scientists have since added other motivators and questioned some of Riker, all of these concepts are inherently imprecise, making it difficult to discover exactly why people choose to vote. Recently, several scholars have considered the possibility that B includes not only a personal interest in the outcome, note that this motivation is distinct from D, because voters must think others benefit from the outcome of the election, not their act of voting in and of itself. There are philosophical, moral, and practical reasons that people cite for not voting in electoral politics. High voter turnout is often considered to be desirable, though among scientists and economists specializing in public choice
34.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
35.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed many landmark bills. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
36.
United States presidential election, 2012
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The United States presidential election of 2012 was the 57th quadrennial American presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 6,2012, as the incumbent president, Obama secured the Democratic nomination with no serious opposition. Romney effectively secured the nomination by early May as the economy improved, the campaign was marked by a sharp rise in fundraising, including from new nominally independent Super PACs. The campaigns focused heavily on issues, debate centered largely around sound responses to the Great Recession in terms of economic recovery. Other issues included long-term federal budget issues, the future of social programs. Obama defeated Romney, winning both the popular vote and the college, with 332 electoral votes to Romneys 206. Obama carried all states and districts that he had won in the 2008 presidential election except North Carolina, Indiana, as such, his margin of victory decreased from 2008. Consequently, Obama became the first incumbent since Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944 to win reelection with fewer electoral votes, nonetheless, Obama also became the first two-term president since Ronald Reagan to win both his presidential bids with an absolute majority of the nationwide popular vote. Not since 1820 had three consecutive American presidents succeeded in securing two consecutive terms, as of 2017, this is the last time Florida, Iowa, Ohio, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania voted for the Democratic candidate. September–October 2012, Early voting begins in some states and continue as late as November 5, November 6,2012, Election Day, at around 11,15 p. m. EST, the networks call Ohio for Obama, projecting him the winner of the election. November 7,2012, Romney concedes the election to Obama at around 1,00 a. m, November 10,2012, The electoral outcomes of all 50 states and the District of Columbia have been definitively projected. Obama won 332 electoral votes while Romney won 206 electoral votes, december 17,2012, The Electoral College formally re-elects President Obama and Vice President Biden. January 3,2013, The 113th Congress is sworn in, January 4,2013, Electoral votes are formally counted before a joint session of Congress. The re-election of President Obama and Vice President Biden is certified, January 20,2013, President Obama and Vice President Biden take the oaths of office, Obamas second presidential term begins at noon. January 21,2013, The inauguration ceremonies are held, Florida, Georgia, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginias state legislatures approved measures to shorten early voting periods. Florida and Iowa barred all felons from voting, kansas, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Wisconsin state legislatures passed laws requiring voters to have government-issued IDs before they could cast their ballots. This meant, typically, that people without drivers licenses or passports had to gain new forms of ID, Obama, the NAACP, and the Democratic Party fought against many of the new state laws. Clinton said the moves would effectively disenfranchise core voter blocs that trend liberal, including students, Blacks
37.
Tim Kaine
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Timothy Michael Tim Kaine is an American attorney and politician who is the junior United States Senator from Virginia. A Democrat, Kaine was elected to the Senate in 2012 and was the nominee of his party for Vice President of the United States in the 2016 election. He was first elected to office in 1994, when he won a seat on the Richmond. He was then elected Mayor of Richmond in 1998, and was in position until being elected Lieutenant Governor of Virginia in 2001. Kaine was elected Governor of Virginia in 2005 and was in office from 2006 to 2010. He was chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 2009 to 2011, Kaine was born at Saint Josephs Hospital in St. Paul, Minnesota. He is the eldest of three born to Mary Kathleen, a home economics teacher, and Albert Alexander Kaine, Jr. a welder. One of Kaines great-grandparents was Scottish and the seven were Irish. Kaines family moved to Overland Park, Kansas, when Kaine was two old, and he grew up in the Kansas City area. In 1976, he graduated from Rockhurst High School, a Jesuit all-boys preparatory school in Kansas City, at Rockhurst, Kaine joined the debate team and was elected student body president. Kaine received his B. A. in economics from the University of Missouri in 1979 and he was a Coro Foundation fellow in Kansas City in 1978. While running a vocational center that taught carpentry and welding, he helped increase the schools enrollment by recruiting local villagers. Kaine is fluent in Spanish as a result of his nine months in Honduras, after returning from Honduras, Kaine met his future wife, first-year Harvard Law student, Anne Holton. He graduated from Harvard Law School with a J. D. degree in 1983, Kaine and Holton moved to Holtons hometown of Richmond, Virginia, after graduation, and Kaine was admitted to the Virginia Bar in 1984. After graduating from law school, Kaine was a law clerk for Judge R. Lanier Anderson III of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, in Macon, Kaine then joined the Richmond law firm of Little, Parsley & Cluverius, P. C. In 1987, Kaine became a director with the law firm of Mezzullo & McCandlish, Kaine practiced law in Richmond for 17 years, specializing in fair housing law and representing clients discriminated against on the basis of race or disability. Kaine won a $100.5 million verdict in the case, the judgment was overturned on appeal, Kaine did regular pro bono work. In 1988, Kaine started teaching legal ethics as a professor at the University of Richmond School of Law
38.
List of Governors of Virginia
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The following is a list of the Governors of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The governor is the head of the branch of Virginias state government. The first constitution of 1776 created the office of governor, to be elected annually by the state legislature, the governor could serve up to three years at a time, and once out of office, could not serve again for four years. The 1830 constitution changed the thrice renewable one-year term length to a non-renewable three-year term and this constitution also prevented governors from succeeding themselves, a prohibition that exists to the present day. The 1851 constitution increased terms to four years and made the office elected by the people, if the office of governor is vacant due to disqualification, death, or resignation, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1851, prior to that a Council of State existed, it chose from among its members a president who would be Lieutenant-Governor and would act as governor when there was a vacancy in that office. Officially there have been 72 governors of Virginia, the governors are not counted. The most recent governor of Virginia to die was Mills E. Godwin, the most recently serving governor of Virginia to die was John N. Dalton, on July 30,1986. Living former Governors * Denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take and this is a table of congressional, confederate and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Virginia except where noted, general Virginia State Government Website Congressional Quarterly Virginia governors. In Congressional Quarterly, American political leaders 1789–2000, retrieved January 10,2006, from CQ Electronic Library, CQ Voting and Elections Collection. The Federal and State Constitutions, Virginia-Wyoming, national Governors Associations list of Virginia Governors Constitutions Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Archived from the original on May 30,2008, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. West Virginia Division of Culture and History, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia
39.
List of colonial governors of Virginia
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This is a list of colonial governors of Virginia. Note, Some of those who held the role as governor of Virginia never visited the New World. Others, such as Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, held the role for many years. Probably for those reasons, in historical documents and references. Also, transportation from England routinely took several months, and occasionally, thus, dates may appear to overlap. The first English attempt to colonize Virginia was the Lost Colony of Roanoke, two unsuccessful settlements were established under two different governors, and the final fate of the colonists remains unknown. Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord and Governor of Virginia Ralph Lane John White From 1606 until 1624, most were styled President of the Council, although some were styled governor by the proprietors. Governors were appointed by the monarch to oversee the interests of the Crown. During the interregnum period, when England came under commonwealth rule and the rule of Oliver and Richard Cromwell. William Berkeley, who was governor at the time of the execution of King Charles I, Berkeley was returned to office by votes of the Virginia assembly and by appointment of the restored King Charles II in 1660
40.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
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John Ratcliffe (governor)
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John Ratcliffe was captain of the Discovery, one of three ships that sailed from England on 19 December 1606 to Virginia to found a colony, arriving 26 April 1607. He later became the president of the colony which later became Jamestown. He was killed by the Pamunkey Native Americans when he was going to trade them in 1609. Many people say he used the alias John Sicklemore, but this was never confirmed and he served as a seaman before going to Virginia, and he may be the Captain Ratcliffe taken prisoner with Sir Henry Cray and Captain Pigott at Mulheim in 1605. Ratcliffe commanded the Discovery and became a councillor of the Jamestown Colony, the Discovery was the smallest of all three ships, it only had a crew of 21 men. He became president of the colony upon the deposition of Edward Maria Wingfield on 10 September 1607, Ratcliffe was a wise and insightful president, but he fell out of favour with many colonists after enlisting men to build a governors house. Many colonists also disagreed with how he handled trade with the natives, Ratcliffe was removed in July 1608 and succeeded by Matthew Scrivener. During the administration of George Percy, Ratcliffe was sent in October 1609 to build a fort at Old Point Comfort, Ratcliffe worked with explorer John Smith to remove Edward Wingfield from the presidency because he was hiding food for himself that the colony needed. Ratcliffe was elected president and asked Smith to organise work details, by January 1608, only 40 colonists were alive, and Ratcliffe and the Council planned to return to England on the Discovery. Ratcliffes overgenerous trading provoked Smith to complain that they would run out of items to trade. Ratcliffe left office in July 1608, two months before the end of his term, at that point, Ratcliffe had lost the faith of the colonists, who accused him of hoarding rations. The colonists were also enraged that as they were sick and dying, the colonists dubbed the project Ratcliffes Palace. Ratcliffe accompanied Christopher Newport when he sailed from Virginia in 1608, in May 1609, he commanded the Diamond, one of the ships in the Third Supply fleet of Sir Thomas Gates. In December 1609, Ratcliffe and 14 fellow colonists were invited to a gathering with the tribe of Powhatan Indians, the Powhatans promised the starving colonists would be given corn, but it was a trap. Ratcliffe suffered a gruesome fate, he was tied to a stake in front of a fire. Women removed the skin from his body with mussel shells. They skinned his face last and finally burned him at stake and this story was documented in an eyewitness account that is included in The Jamestown Adventure, Accounts of the Virginia Colony, 1605–1614, edited by Ed Southern. There is documented evidence in Beaufort County, North Carolina of a John Ratcliffe owning hundreds of acres of land which are documented to be out only to the colonists
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Matthew Scrivener
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Matthew Scrivener was an English colonist in Virginia. He served briefly as acting governor of Jamestown, when he was succeeded by Captain John Smith, Scrivener was the son of barrister and city bailiff Ralph Scrivener of Ipswich and of Belstead, in Suffolk, England. His mother was Mary Dowsing Smith, Matthew Scriveners sister was married to the cousin of the first President of Jamestown, Edward Maria Wingfield. Scrivener, listed as Matthew Scrivener, gentleman in early Virginia records, was a supporter, Scrivener arrived on the first supply ship after the colony had been established. Apparently he was supplanted as governor by his friend Smith, due to his young age, at the time of his death at the age of 28, Matthew Scrivener was the first secretary for the Colony of Jamestown
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Virginia statewide elected officials
