1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
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Institute of technology
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An institute of technology is a type of university which specializes in engineering, technology, Applied Science, and possibly natural sciences. How the terms are used varies from country to country, the English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ meaning many and τεχνικός meaning arts, the oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology. Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794, in some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, in countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities, Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelors, masters and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees, the UKs first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as technical education schools. This is mostly the case in countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in education in general. The aspects of this debate can follow the lines, To what degree is technology defined as a concept. What is the scope of technology discourse, what is the place and relation of science with technology. How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa, can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions. Who ultimately is responsible for training and What is the role of technology in this. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned, 1970s–1990s During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system, in the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes, AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later. 1990s–today Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical, a recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
3.
Rector (academia)
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A rector is a term used in non-English-speaking countries for a university chancellor. In the sphere of academia, it is the highest academic official of universities and in certain other institutions of higher education. The term and office of a rector are called a rectorate, the title is used widely in universities in Europe. And is very common in Latin American countries and it is also used in Brunei, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel and the Middle East. In some universities, the title is phrased in an even loftier manner and this term is generally not used in English-speaking countries. In England and elsewhere in Great Britain, the head of a university is referred to as a chancellor. This pattern has been followed in the Commonwealth, the United States, in Scotland, many universities are headed by a chancellor, with the Lord Rector designated as an elected representative of students at the head of the university court. The head of a university in Germany is called a president, rector magnificus or rectrix magnifica, in Dutch universities, the rector magnificus is the most publicly prominent member of the board, responsible for the scientific agenda of the university. In the Netherlands, the rector is, however, not the chair of the university board, the chair has, in practice, the most influence over the management of the University. In some countries, including Germany, the position of teacher in secondary schools is also designated as rector. In the Netherlands, the rector and conrector are used commonly for high school directors. This is also the case in some Maltese secondary schools, in the Scandinavian countries, the head of a university or a gymnasium is called a rektor. In Sweden and Norway, this term is used for the heads of primary schools. For example, in Portugal, the rector of the University of Coimbra, the heads of Czech universities are called the rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the universitys affairs unless prohibited by law, the rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a majority of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret, the term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors, who act as deputies to the extent the Rector determines, Rectors salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education
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Graz
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Graz is the capital of Styria and second-largest city in Austria after Vienna. On 1 January 2017, it had a population of 320,587, in 2014, the population of the Graz Larger Urban Zone who had principal residence status stood at 605,143. Graz has a tradition as a university town, its six universities have more than 44,000 students. Its Old Town is one of the city centres in Central Europe. Politically and culturally, Graz was for more important for Slovenes than Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. In 1999, Graz was added to the UNESCO list of World Cultural Heritage Sites, Graz was sole Cultural Capital of Europe for 2003 and got the title of a City of Culinary Delights in 2008. The name of the city, Graz, formerly spelled Gratz, stems most likely from the Slavic gradec, some archaeological finds point to the erection of a small castle by Alpine Slavic people, which in time became a heavily defended fortification. The name thus follows the common South Slavic pattern for naming settlements as grad, the German name Graz first appears in records in 1128. Graz is situated on the Mur River in the southeast of Austria and it is about 200 km southwest of Vienna. The nearest larger urban center is Maribor in Slovenia which is about 50 km away, Graz is the capital and largest city in Styria, a green and heavily forested area. These towns and villages border Graz, The city of Graz is divided into 17 districts, however, no historical continuity exists of a settlement before the Middle Ages. During the 12th century, dukes under Babenberg rule made the town into an important commercial center, later, Graz came under the rule of the Habsburgs, and in 1281, gained special privileges from King Rudolph I. In the 14th century, Graz became the city of residence of the Inner Austrian line of the Habsburgs, the royalty lived in the Schloßberg castle and from there ruled Styria, Carinthia, most of todays Slovenia, and parts of Italy. In the 16th century, the design and planning were primarily controlled by Italian Renaissance architects and artists. One of the most famous buildings built in style is the Landhaus, designed by Domenico dellAllio. Karl-Franzens-Universität, also called the University of Graz, is the citys oldest university, for most of its existence, it was controlled by the Catholic church, and was closed in 1782 by Joseph II in an attempt to gain state control over educational institutions. Joseph II transformed it into a lyceum where civil servants and medical personnel were trained, in 1827 it was re-instituted as a university by Emperor Franz I, thus gaining the name Karl-Franzens Universität, meaning Charles-Francis University. Over 30,000 students currently study at this university, the astronomer Johannes Kepler lived in Graz for a short period
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Styria
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Styria is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. In area it is the second largest of the nine Austrian federated states and it borders Slovenia and the Austrian states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Burgenland, and Carinthia. The capital city is Graz which had 276,526 inhabitants at the beginning of 2015, the March of Styria derived its name from the original seat of its ruling Otakar dynasty, Steyr, in todays Upper Austria. In German, the area is still called Steiermark while in English the Latin name Styria is used, the ancient link between Steyr and Styria is also apparent in their nearly identical coats of arms, a white Panther on a green background. The term Upper Styria used by an Austrian refers to the northern and northwestern parts of the federal-state, the term West Styria is used for the districts to the west of Graz, the districts east of Graz are referred to as East Styria. The western and eastern parts of the district Graz-Umgebung may or may not be considered parts of West and East Styria, the southern parts of the Duchy of Styria, which have formed part of Yugoslavia or Slovenia since 1918, were referred to as Lower Styria. During early Roman times, Styria was inhabited by Celtic tribes, after its conquest by the Romans, the eastern part of what is now Styria was part of Pannonia, while the western one was included in Noricum. During the Barbarian invasions, it was conquered or crossed by the Visigoths, the Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Rugii, the Lombards, the Franks, in 595 the latter were defeated by the Slavs, who thenceforth ruled it. In 1180 Styria separated from the Duchy of Carinthia and became a Grand Duchy of its own, after the hereditary subdivision of the latter, Styria formed the central part of Inner Austria. Styria developed culturally and economically under John, Archduke of Inner Austria between 1809 and 1859, as elsewhere in the developed world, there has been a shift away from the manufacturing sector towards the service sector in Styria. This has had consequences for the industrial regions of upper Styria which have suffered a steady decline in population in recent years. Styria is home to more than 150 clean technology companies, of one dozen are world technology leaders in their field. The revenue of Styrian cleantech companies totals €2.7 billion and this equals to 8 percent of the Gross Regional Product, and is one of the highest concentrations of leading clean technology companies in Europe. The companies have a growth rate of 22 percent per year—well above the worldwide cleantech market growth of 18 percent per year. The region created roughly 2,000 additional green jobs in 2008 alone, the state is divided into 13 districts, one of them a statutory city. Graz however is a stronghold of the left-wing Communist Party, the governor has usually been an ÖVP member. In these elections, the KPÖ also received votes after it had gained much popularity through its role in local politics in Graz during the preceding few years. The two right-wing populist parties, the Freedom Party of Austria and the Alliance for the Future of Austria, gebirgsdivision Robert Stolz, composer born in Graz Getty Kaspers, lead vocals of Dutch band Teach-In, who won the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest
6.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
7.
Archduke John of Austria
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Archduke John of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, was an Austrian field marshal and Imperial regent of the emerging German Empire during the Revolutions of 1848. John was born in Florence, the child of the Habsburg grand duke Leopold of Tuscany. He was baptized with the name of John Baptist Joseph Fabian Sebastian, in 1790, Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph II as Holy Roman Emperor and his family moved from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to the Imperial court in Vienna. Only two years later, Johns elder brother Francis II ascended the Imperial throne, Johns native language was Italian, he learned to speak French and German fluently. Educated by the Swiss historian Johannes von Müller, he developed wide-ranging skills and interests, especially in the history, during the Napoleonic Wars, John was given command of the Austrian army in September 1800, despite his personal reluctance to assume the position. He showed personal bravery in the War of the Second Coalition, demoralized by defeat, the army nearly disintegrated in the subsequent retreat, which was only stopped by an armistice arranged on 22 December. After the Peace of Lunéville in 1801, Archduke John was made General Director of the Engineering and Fortification Service, in the War of the Third Coalition, John again fought the French and Bavarian forces. From 1805 he directed an able defence of several Tyrolean passes against the French and was awarded the Commander Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, however, according to the Peace of Pressburg, Austria had to cede Tyrol and Vorarlberg to Bavaria. John remained obliged to Tyrol and maintained contact with Baron Joseph Hormayr who forged a resistance movement against the Bavarian occupation. In 1808, John pressed for the creation of Tyrolean Landwehr forces based on the success of the Prussian Landwehr, which played a vital role in the Tyrolean Rebellion led by Andreas Hofer. At the commencement of the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809 he became commander of the Army of Inner Austria, under his command were the VIII Armeekorps led by Albert Gyulai and the IX Armeekorps headed by Alberts brother Ignaz Gyulai. After winning a significant victory at the Battle of Sacile on 16 April 1809, having detached forces to besiege Venice and other fortresses, Johns army was soon outnumbered by Eugènes heavily reinforced host. Worse, news of the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Eckmühl reached him, before withdrawing, he fought off Franco-Italian attacks at the Battle of Caldiero between 27 and 30 April. Attempting to blunt the Franco-Italian pursuit, he stood to fight on 8 May and was beaten at the Battle of Piave River, trying to defend the entire border, he sent Ignaz Gyulai to defend Ljubljana in Carniola, while holding Villach in Carinthia with his own forces. Eugènes pursuit overran the defenses at the Battle of Tarvis. Forced to flee northeast into Hungary, John offered battle again but was defeated at Raab on 14 June 1809, ordered to join his brother Archduke Charles at the Battle of Wagram on 5 and 6 July, Johns small army arrived too late to avert an Austrian defeat. His brother criticized him for tardiness, after the conclusion of the campaign, John again evolved plans for a widespread rebellion. However, upon the Treaty of Schönbrunn Austrian policies under Minister Klemens von Metternich sought a rapprochement to France, Johns friend Baron Hormayr and other conspirators were arrested, the archduke himself effectively was sidelined and retired to his estates in Thernberg
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Natural science
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Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence. Mechanisms such as review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two branches, life science and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, space science, chemistry and these branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches. Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to ancient Greece, galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences, philosophers of science have suggested a number of criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and this field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies, biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to periods of civilization. However, it was not until the 19th century that became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole, modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology looks at the internal structures, constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied, chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of techniques for manipulating materials, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, the science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The success of science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
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University of Graz
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The University of Graz, located in Graz, Austria, is the largest and oldest university in Styria, as well as the second-largest and second-oldest university in Austria. Karl-Franzens-Universität, also referred to as the University of Graz, is the citys oldest university, joseph II transformed it into a lyceum where civil servants and medical personnel were trained. In 1827 it was re-instituted as a university by Emperor Francis I, thus gaining the name Karl-Franzens-Universität, over 30,000 students are currently enrolled at this university. The university is sub-divided into six different faculties, the two largest ones being the Faculty of Arts and Humanities and Faculty of Natural Sciences, the other faculties are the faculties of Law, Social and Economic Sciences, Environmental, Regional Sciences and Education, and Catholic Theology. The Faculty of Medicine has been separated from the university by state legislation in 2004 and has become an independent university in the form of the Medical University of Graz. These six distinct faculties offer a range of undergraduate, graduate. Ludwig Boltzmann was professor at the University of Graz twice, once from 1869 to 1873 and once from 1876 to 1890, while he was developing his statistical theory of heat. Nobel Laureate Otto Loewi taught at the university from 1909 until 1938 and Victor Franz Hess graduated in Graz, furthermore, the physicist Erwin Schrödinger was briefly chancellor of the University of Graz in 1936. Students enrolled in one of these programmes attend lectures and seminars at both universities and are awarded a degree at the end of their studies. This tendency holds true for all state-funded universities in Austria, even including the three times as large University of Vienna, historically speaking, for most of its existence the University of Graz was controlled by the Catholic Church. Evidently, relations between the Catholic Church, especially the local bishop, and the universitys Faculty of Theology remain strong yet general policy is not influenced by these connections, geschichte der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, von den Anfängen bis in das Jahr 2005
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TU Wien
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The TU Wien is one of the major universities in Vienna, the capital of Austria. The university finds high international and domestic recognition in teaching as well as in research and is a highly esteemed partner of innovation oriented enterprises and it currently has about 26,200 students, eight facilities and about 4,000 staff members. The universitys teaching and research is focused on engineering and natural sciences, the education offered by TU Wien is rewarded by high international and domestic recognition. The chances of securing an attractive employment are very prosperous. The high demand for TU Wien graduates, from economic and industrial, governmental as well as research institutions are manifest evidence of this, TU Wien is one of the most prestigious universities of technology in the world by presenting a top level of research and education. TU Wien is among the most successful universities in Europe and is Austria’s largest scientific-technical research. For 200 years, TU Wien has been a place of research, by the QS World Rankings, the TU Wien is ranked 183th and 93th in the 2016 QS World University Ranking and QS World University Ranking by faculty of Engineering and Technology respectively. TU Wien is ranked 91th in the area of Engineering. In 2014, U. S. News ranked Computer Science at TU Wien as number 14 in Europe, the University is led by the Rector and four Vice Rectors. The University Council, consisting of seven members, acts as a supervisory board, development work in almost all areas of technology is encouraged by the interaction between basic research and the different fields of engineering sciences at the TU Wien. Also, the framework of cooperative projects with universities, research institutes. The TU Wien has sharpened its research profile by defining competence fields and setting up interdisciplinary collaboration centres, the EU Research Support provides services at the TU Wien and informs both researchers and administrative staff in preparing and carrying out EU research projects. The Main Library building was designed by the architects Justus Dahinden, Reinhard Gieselmann, Alexander Marchart, completed in 1987, it features owl sculptures by the Swiss artist Bruno Weber. The Main Library has six floors of open areas and reading rooms. The University hosted the IFIUS World Interuniversity Games in October 2007, austrian Universities of Technology Official website TU Wien on Youtube TISS Information System Curricula Continuing Education Center – TU Wien
12.
Campus
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A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
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Technische Hochschule
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A Technische Hochschule is a type of university focusing on engineering sciences in Germany. Previously, it existed in Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands. In the 1970s and the 1980s, the Technische Hochschule emerged into the Technische Universität or Technische Universiteit, since 2009, several German universities of applied sciences were renamed to Technische Hochschulen. Today, Universitäten as well as other Hochschulen call themselves Technische Hochschule for historical reasons, however, a Technische Hochschule with the status of a Universität is regarded as a Technische Universität despite the name. Since the Middle Ages, higher institutions in Europe were called a university only if a certain classical canon of subjects encompassing philosophy, medicine, law. This change of status was accompanied by a spectrum of academic disciplines. Starting in 2009, several German universities of applied sciences with a technical focus have changed their names to Technische Hochschule, examples include Teknillinen korkeakoulu in Espoo, Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu and Lappeenrannan teknillinen korkeakoulu. Similarly to German speaking countries, most of them changed their name to teknillinen yliopisto. However, Teknillinen korkeakoulu retained its old name until it merged with two universities to form the current Aalto University. TU9 German Institutes of Technology e. V
14.
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and many others from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation, in December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne at Olomouc as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenbergs plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Hungary. This allowed Ferdinands nephew Franz Joseph to accede to the throne, largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign and he concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, the Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Josephs annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin. On 28 June 1914, the assassination of his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungarys declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia and this activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years and he was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles. His name in German was Franz Joseph I and I and his names in other languages were, Croatian and Bosnian, Franjo Josip I. Ukrainian, Фра́нц Йо́сиф I, Romanian, Francisc Iosif Slovene, serbian, Фрања Јосиф Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl, and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, at the age of thirteen, Franzl started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style, Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Archduke Karl Ludwig, and Archduke Ludwig Viktor, and a sister, Maria Anna, who died at the age of four. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, by all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the setting of Innsbruck. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his bride, then a girl of ten. Following victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, but within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olomouc in Moravia. By now, Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz, the military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put on the throne. By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, at this time he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name
15.
Raimund Abraham
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Raimund Johann Abraham was an Austrian architect. Raimund Johann Abraham was born in 1933, in the town of Lienz, Tyrol in Austria, throughout a 40-year career, Abraham created visionary projects and built works of architecture, in Europe and the United States. Abrahams first book, the 1965 publication “Elementare Architektur” was made at a time of transition between architecture studies and practice, in 1964, Abraham emigrated to the United States. Abraham was an architect in his native Austria and the New York avant-garde. Abrahams poetic architectural vision was influenced by the Viennese tradition to align architecture with sculpture, Abraham theorized architecture on a collision course with the needs of humans, yet striving for coexistence, in a constant state of creative tension. Beginning in the late 1950s, his enigmatic architecture placed Abraham among the avant-garde, such as Hans Hollein, in 1958, Abraham collaborated with Friedrich St. Abraham criticized mainstream architectures preoccupation with style, its indifference to history, and the rigid definition of Modernism at that time. Abraham went on to generations of professional architects through architectural drawings, projects. In 1973, Abraham was awarded the commission for Rainbow Plaza in Niagara Falls, New York, a portfolio Untitled marked the occasion. Abraham explained the work as a tribute to a city of memories, hope, a City mutilated and fragmented by war, offended through reconstruction and isolated by political manipulations. Historical fragments remain, monuments of the past, elements for a new architectural beginning, first independent, then connected to form a dialectical topography of urban Architecture. Abraham contributed the design for Traviatagasse, in Vienna, with Carl Pruscha, in later years, Abraham designed his own home in Mazunte, Mexico. Abrahams City Of Twofold Vision, Cannaregio West, is sited in Cannaregio, in 2002, Abraham contributed a poetic artistic response to New Yorks World Trade Center attack on September 11,2001. Abrahams proposal is a poignant symbol to regain footing while envisioning a new architecture for the City of New York. Perhaps Abrahams best known work of architecture is the Austrian Cultural Forum New York, at 11 East 52nd Street, the built atop a former NATO missile base. Abraham adapted the site for reuse as a residence and exhibition gallery. Abrahams Musikerhaus was completed posthumously, under the supervision of Abrahams daughter Una, in 2015, The German Architecture Museum identified Abrahams Musikerhaus as a significant new building constructed in Germany. He also earned the Grand Prize of Architecture, and Gold Medal of Honor for meritorious service to the Province of Vienna, Abraham is known for creating visionary architectural hand-drawings. Throughout his career, he asserted the autonomous, fundamental value of a drawing as a manifestation of architecture
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Karl Kordesch
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Karl Kordesch was an Austrian chemist and inventor, most notable for jointly inventing the alkaline battery. He studied chemistry and physics at the University of Vienna, from 1948–53 he worked at the universitys Chemical Institute. He was then recruited as a member of Operation Paperclip and moved to the United States, in 1955 he joined Union Carbide in Ohio, working with two fellow Austrians. He led two groups, one concerned with the development of manganese dioxide batteries, the other devoted to fuel cells. During this time Kordesch filed 22 patents, in 1957, Karl Kordesch, Paul A. Marsal and Lewis Urry filed US patent for the alkaline dry cell battery, which eventually became the D-sized Eveready Energizer battery. Another fundamental contribution that changed the world was the creation of the thin carbon fuel cell electrode. He presented a fuel cell demonstration at the Brussels World Fair in 1958 and his development of thin electrodes for fuel cells came soon thereafter. In 1967 he built a fuel cell/NiCad battery hybrid electric motorcycle, the motorcycle was featured in television commercials for the program 21st Century, hosted by Walter Cronkite. He relished telling people how he had to join the union to ride in the commercials. It was fitted with a fuel cell, capable of 200 miles to the U. S. gallon. In 1970 he fitted his own Austin A40 with a fuel cell. The vehicle retained enough room inside for four passengers and had a range of 180 miles. His fuel cell design provided the basis for the 40 kWh alkaline hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell for the General Motors Electrovan, in 1977 he was granted early retirement by Union Carbide and returned to Austria, becoming director of the Institute for Inorganic Technology at the Graz University of Technology. From 1981–83 Kordesch was general secretary of the International Society of Electrochemistry, from 1985–87 he was Dean of the Science and Technology Faculty at TU Graz, in 1992 he became emeritus. In 1997 he became vice-president of Apollo Energy Systems, and was tasked with the development of fuel cells. His research continued at TU Graz on fuel cell electrode performance, low-cost fuel cell design, propulsion fuel. He was gratified to see the car and the hybrid-electric make a comeback in his last years. He was 40 years early with the hybrid vehicles that he enjoyed building and driving
17.
Fuel cell
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A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction of positively charged hydrogen ions with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied, the first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a later in NASA space programs to generate power for satellites. Since then, fuel cells have been used in other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and they are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines. There are many types of cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode. The anode and cathode contain catalysts that cause the fuel to undergo reactions that generate positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen ions are drawn through the electrolyte after the reaction, at the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen react to form water, Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are stacked, or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an applications requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide. The energy efficiency of a cell is generally between 40–60%, or up to 85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat is captured for use. The fuel cell market is growing, and in 2013 Pike Research estimated that the fuel cell market will reach 50 GW by 2020. The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838 and he used a combination of sheet iron, copper and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid. In a letter to the publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839. His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water, grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he used similar materials to todays phosphoric-acid fuel cell. In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell and this became known as the Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell. GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft and this was the first commercial use of a fuel cell
18.
Hubert Petschnigg
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Hubert Petschnigg was an Austrian architect. Petschnigg was born in Klagenfurt, and went to school in Villach, in 1934 he began to study architecture at the Vienna University of Technology, where he entered the Hansea Vienna branch of the Kösener Corps student society. Before he could graduate, however, he was called up for military service, after the Second World War he resumed his studies at the Graz University of Technology, under Karl Raimund Lorenz and Friedrich Zotter, and graduated with an engineering degree in 1947. In 1948 he began working at the firm of Helmut Hentrich. After Heusers death in 1953, Petschnigg became his replacement and founded the HP firm together with Hentrich, the firm was expanded to six partners in 1959 and renamed HPP Hentrich, Petschnigg & Partners. Over the following decades it became one of the most prolific, in 1962 Petschnigg was granted entry to the Corps Marchia Brünn branch of the Kösener Corps in Trier. He was named Honorary Senator of TU Graz in 1977, and in 1982 the government of West Germany awarded him the Federal Cross of Merit – a particular honour for Petschnigg, in 1988 he became an honorary member of the Engineers and Architects Association of North Rhine-Westphalia. Petschniggs particular passion was the maintenance of memorials and he also restored old buildings, including the Burg Pyrmont castle in the Eifel, in which he spent his final years, living with his wife as the castles keeper. Petschnigg produced his most important works as a partner of the HPP firm that he had founded with Helmut Hentrich, joachim Lübcke, in memoriam Hubert Petschnigg, Trier,1998, in Märkerbrief no.83. Hermann Kruse, Kösener Corpslisten 1996, Gesamtverzeichnis 1919-1996, Nuremberg-Fürth,1998
19.
Hanns Albin Rauter
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Johann Baptist Albin Rauter was a high-ranking Austrian-born Nazi war criminal. He was the highest SS and Police Leader in the occupied Netherlands and therefore the leading security and he reported directly to the Nazi SS-chief, Heinrich Himmler, and in the second instance to the Nazi governor of the Netherlands, Arthur Seyss-Inquart. After World War II he was convicted in the Netherlands of crimes against humanity, born in Klagenfurt, Rauter graduated from High school in 1912 and started training as an Engineer at the Graz University of Technology. At the outbreak of World War I Rauter volunteered for service in the Austro-Hungarian Army and he served with a Gebirgsschützenregiment and was discharged in 1919, having reached the rank of Oberleutnant. Rauter took part in the Kärntner Freiheitskampf of 1919, and from May until July 1921 he fought in the Freikorps Oberland in Oberschlesien. For his service during the war, Rauter received several decorations including Austrian Military Merit Cross 3rd Class with War decoration, Silver Medal for Bravery, Rauter first met Adolf Hitler in 1929 and joined the National Socialist cause in Austria. His forays in Austria forced him to flee to Germany in 1933 and he joined the SA, and was active in planning illegal NSDAP activities in Austria. In 1935 he left the SA to become a member of the SS, until 1940 he was the Leader of the SS Southeast department in Breslau. In May 1940 he was appointed Generalkommissar für das Sicherheitswesen and Höherer SS-und Polizeiführer for the occupied Netherlands and he had 300,000 Dutchmen deported to Germany for forced labour. He was the promoter of terror through summary arrests and internment in the Netherlands. The SS set up a camp named Herzogenbusch after the city of s-Hertogenbosch. In total this camp detained 31,000 people, of whom some 735 were killed, Rauters SS also managed the Kamp Westerbork, the place from which some 110,000 Dutch Jews were deported to Nazi concentration and extermination camps, mainly Auschwitz and Sobibor. Under Rauters guidance, a block was built for political prisoners in the Scheveningen prison. These were often held in indefinite detention, in total 28,000 people were detained here over 4 years, many were severely mistreated, some were tried and 738 men and 21 women died here or on the nearby execution field, the Waalsdorpervlakte. During 1944 these numbers increased with the rise of resistance violence. Kampfgruppe Rauter consisted of the Landstorm Nederland, Wachbataillon Nordwest and a regiment of the Ordnungspolizei, after the assault on Arnhem had been fought off by the Germans, Rauter was given the command of the Maas front as a General in the Waffen-SS. In the night of 7 to 8 March 1945 he was wounded by an attack staged by the Dutch resistance at Woeste Hoeve on the Veluwe. As a reprisal the Germans executed 117 political prisoners at the location of the attack as well as 50 prisoners in Kamp Amersfoort and 40 prisoners each in The Hague and Rotterdam
20.
Nikola Tesla
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He immigrated to the United States in 1884, where he would become a naturalized citizen. He worked for a time at the Edison Machine Works in New York City before he struck out on his own. With the help of partners to finance and market his ideas, attempting to develop inventions he could patent and market, Tesla conducted a range of experiments with mechanical oscillators/generators, electrical discharge tubes, and early X-ray imaging. He also built a boat, one of the first ever exhibited. Tesla became well known as an inventor and would demonstrate his achievements to celebrities and wealthy patrons at his lab, in 1893, he made pronouncements on the possibility of wireless communication with his devices. After Wardenclyffe, Tesla went on to try and develop a series of inventions in the 1910s and 1920s with varying degrees of success, having spent most of his money, he lived in a series of New York hotels, leaving behind unpaid bills. The nature of his work and the pronouncements he made to the press later in life earned him the reputation of an archetypal mad scientist in American popular culture. Tesla died in New York City in January 1943 and his work fell into relative obscurity following his death, but in 1960, the General Conference on Weights and Measures named the SI unit of magnetic flux density the tesla in his honor. There has been a resurgence in popular interest in Tesla since the 1990s, Tesla was born on 10 July 1856 into a Serb family in the village of Smiljan, Austrian Empire. His father, Milutin Tesla, was an Orthodox priest, Teslas mother, Đuka Tesla, whose father was also an Orthodox priest, had a talent for making home craft tools and mechanical appliances and the ability to memorize Serbian epic poems. Đuka had never received a formal education, Tesla credited his eidetic memory and creative abilities to his mothers genetics and influence. Teslas progenitors were from western Serbia, near Montenegro, Tesla was the fourth of five children. He had a brother, Dane, and three sisters, Milka, Angelina and Marica. Dane was killed in an accident when Tesla was aged five. In 1861 Tesla attended primary school in Smiljan, where he studied German, arithmetic, in 1862 the Tesla family moved to Gospić, Austrian Empire, where Teslas father worked as parish priest. Nikola completed primary school, followed by middle school, in 1870 Tesla moved to Karlovac to attend school at the Higher Real Gymnasium. The classes were held in German, as it was a school within the Austro-Hungarian Military Frontier, Tesla would later write that he became interested in demonstrations of electricity by his physics professor. Tesla noted that these demonstrations of this mysterious phenomena made him want to more of this wonderful force
21.
Soil mechanics
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Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and engineering mechanics that describes the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a mixture of fluids and particles but soil may also contain organic solids. Soil mechanics is used to analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are supported on or made of soil, example applications are building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles of soil mechanics are used in related disciplines such as engineering geology, geophysical engineering, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology. The shear strength of soils is primarily derived from friction between the particles and interlocking, which are sensitive to the effective stress. The article concludes with examples of applications of the principles of soil mechanics such as slope stability, lateral earth pressure on retaining walls. The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock, all rock types may be broken down into small particles to create soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering Human activities such as excavation, blasting, physical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks, rain, wind, impact and other mechanisms. Chemical weathering includes dissolution of matter composing a rock and precipitation in the form of another mineral, clay minerals, for example can be formed by weathering of feldspar, which is the most common mineral present in igneous rock. The most common constituent of silt and sand is quartz, also called silica. The reason that feldspar is most common in rocks but silicon is more prevalent in soils is that feldspar is much more soluble than silica, silt, Sand, and Gravel are basically little pieces of broken rocks. Particles larger than gravel are called cobbles and boulders, Soil deposits are affected by the mechanism of transport and deposition to their location. Soils that are not transported are called residual soils—they exist at the location as the rock from which they were generated. Decomposed granite is an example of a residual soil. The common mechanisms of transport are the actions of gravity, ice, water, wind blown soils include dune sands and loess. Water carries particles of different size depending on the speed of the water, silt and clay may settle out in a lake, and gravel and sand collect at the bottom of a river bed. Wind blown soil deposits also tend to be sorted according to their grain size. Erosion at the base of glaciers is powerful enough to pick up rocks and boulders as well as soil
22.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
25.
Danube University Krems
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Danube University Krems is an Austrian university specialized in postgraduate education. It is located in Krems an der Donau, Lower Austria, the first 93 students enrolled in 1995, when the institution began operation with programs in European Studies and journalism. In 2004, the Austrian parliament passed the Danube University Act granting the institution the rights of a full university, more than 19,000 students have already graduated from Danube University Krems. Danube University Krems has specialized in postgraduate education, the majority of the students already have a university degree and attend a postgraduate course at Danube University. 30 percent of the come from foreign countries. Danube University Krems is located in the Wachau region along the Danube, a renovated tobacco factory dating back to the onset of the 20th century and new buildings on Campus Krems provide students and educators room for research and studying. The design for the new buildings is the creation of Architekt Dietmar Feichtinger, in May 2007 Prof Heinrich Kern was assigned as the new rector. The interim rector, Prof Ada Pellert, who also had applied, was not considered on the shortlist of three by the nomination committee and this was followed by protests in the university senate claiming the decision to be gender-discriminating. On 8 August 2007, Danube University issued a statement that the discussions on the rectors nomination are based on problems in the university. So Danube University has decided to split the organisation into two universities, professors Kern and Pellert were asked to apply for the positions of the two universities rectors. On July,2008 the vice rectors Ada Pellert and Hanna Risku resigned, on August,2008, rector Heinrich Kern resigned according to an agreement with the university council. The former vice rector Jürgen Willer was elected as new rector of Danube University Krems, Willer took office in January,2009. He resigned from his office in September,2012, in its session held on 20 February 2013, the University Council of Danube University Krems elected Mag. Friedrich Faulhammer, the former General Secretary of the Federal Ministry for Science and Research, rector Faulhammer is in office since August 1,2013
26.
Johannes Kepler University Linz
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The Johannes Kepler University Linz is a public institution of higher education in Austria. It is located in Linz, the capital of Upper Austria and it offers bachelors, masters, diploma and doctoral degrees in business, engineering, law, science, and social sciences. Today,18,036 students study at the campus in the northeast of Linz. The university was the first in Austria to introduce an electronic student ID in 1998, the university is the home of the Johann Radon Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. In 2012, the Times Higher Education ranked the JKU at #41 in its list of the top 100 universities under 50 years old, according to the ranking, the JKU is the fifth best young university in German-speaking Europe. The university attained high scores for quotations, third-party funding, the JKU was established as the College of Social Sciences, Economics and Business in 1966. The Faculty of Sciences and Engineering was established three years later and in 1975, the college was awarded university status and the Faculty of Law was integrated on campus, at present, the campus added the JKU Science Park, an additional building for science and engineering institutes. JKUs campus is located in the northeast of Linz, in the Auhof area of the St. Magdalena district, the university buildings are placed in a 90-acre park centered around a pond. The campus is accessible by the Linz tram lines 1 and 2, on weekdays, trams travel every 7–8 minutes and a trip to the city center takes approximately 16 minutes. The JKU is also located close to Austrias autobahn network at theDornach exit on the A7 Mühlkreisautobahn, a bicycle path in the north-east corner of the town located along the north side of the Danube river provides direct access to the university and helps to reduce traffic in the area. Many larger dormitories are within walking distance of the university, such as the Julius Raab Heim, the WIST Haus, the Kepler Heim, the ESH and the KHG Heim. Several other dormitories are located in different parts of Linz, providing housing for more than 3,100 students in all of Linz, some of the dormitories become hotels during the summer holidays, most notably the Julius Raab Heim under the name Hotel Sommerhaus. The university Rector and Academic Senate are responsible for the universitys management, there are four vice rectors who are each assigned to specific task areas and who assist the Rector. The university board is an independent body that advises and counsels the Rector, deans and faculty committees are responsible for management on a faculty level. Rector and deans are elected for a 4-year period whereas faculty committees are elected for a 2-year period, in 2007 Richard Hagelauer was elected Rector. At present, Ferdinand Kerschner is head of the Academic Senate, the Johannes Kepler University has four faculties with a total of 110 institutes. The Faculty of Social Sciences, Economics and Business is the oldest and largest faculty in terms of students, the faculty consists of 32 institutes and offers academic degrees in Economics and Business Administration, Business Informatics, Business and Education, Social Economics, Sociology and Statistics. The facultys abbreviation SoWi is derived from the German name of the faculty, the Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences was established in 1969 and initially offered degrees in Technical Mathematics, Computer Science and Technical Physics
27.
University of Innsbruck
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The University of Innsbruck is a public university in Innsbruck, the capital of the Austrian federal state of Tyrol, founded in 1669. Significant contributions have made in many branches, most of all in the physics department. Further, regarding the number of Web of Science-listed publications, it occupies the third worldwide in the area of mountain research. In 1562 a Jesuit grammar school was established in Innsbruck by Peter Canisius and it was financed by the salt mines in Hall in Tirol, and was refounded as a university in 1669 by Leopold I with four faculties. In 1782 this was reduced to a lyceum, but it was reestablished as the University of Innsbruck in 1826 by Emperor Franz I. The university is named after both of its founding fathers with the official title Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck. In 1991 Lauda Air Flight 004 crashed in Thailand, killing all aboard, the passengers included professor and economist Clemens August Andreae, another professor, six assistants, and 13 students. Andreae had often led field visits to Hong Kong, in 2005, copies of letters written by the emperors Frederick II and Conrad IV were found in the universitys library. They arrived in Innsbruck in the 18th century, having left the charterhouse Allerengelberg in Schnals due to its abolishment. In the 1850s, the Habsburgs gradually closed the University of Olomouc as a consequence of the Olomouc students and professors participation in the 1848 revolutions, the ceremonial equipment of the University of Olomouc was then transferred to the University of Innsbruck. The original Olomouc ceremonial maces from the 1580s are now used as the maces of Innsbruck University, since the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918, the Czechs have been unsuccessfully requesting the return of the University of Olomoucs original ceremonial equipment. As of 1 January 2004, the Faculty of Medicine was sectioned off from the university to become a university in its own right. This is now called the Innsbruck Medical University, the university buildings are spread across the city and there is no university campus as such. The most important locations are, Theology faculty was opened 1562 as a Jesuit School in 1766, in 1924, main building and the university library opened. 1969 the scientific faculty and the faculty in Hotting west was opened. 1976 construction began on Geiwi tower for the former Philosophy faculty,1997 The Social Science faculty was opened. 2012 Center of Chemistry and Biomedicine was opened, several university clinics of the medical university in the area became Tyrolian national hospitals. He also succeeded in explaining the constitution of chlorophyll, fischer held chairs in Innsbruck, Vienna and Munich
28.
University of Salzburg
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Founded in 1622, the university has around 18,000 students and 2,800 employees and is largest educational institution in the Land Salzburg. Paris Lodron University, Salzburg, was founded by Prince Archbishop Paris von Lodron in 1622, five years earlier had established a Gymnasium. The University was initially built and maintained by a federation of Benedictine abbeys from Salzburg, Switzerland, in its early years, courses taught were theology, divinity, philosophy, law, and medicine. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Salzburg University was secularized, with Prince Ferdinand, after Bavaria annexed Salzburg in 1810, the university was closed on 24 December and replaced by a Lyzeum. The Lyzeum had sections for divinity, philosophy, and medicine, in 1816 Salzburg became part of the Austrian Empire again. Austria converted the divinity section to a Faculty and closed the Lyzeum in 1850, the University of Salzburg was formally re-established in 1962 with a Faculty of Catholic Theology and a Faculty of Philosophy. Classes resumed in 1964, with a Faculty of Law added the following year, in 1975, a new federal law regulated the organisation of all Austrian universities. Salzburg University created four divisions, the Faculty of Catholic Theology, the Faculty of Law, the Faculty of Humanities. A fifth division, the Faculty of Medicine was not realized, in 1995, the organisation of Austrian universities was further restructured with more faculty autonomy. The university gradually incorporated new academic programs through 2004 into 32 Fachbereiche or departments, Salzburg University has no central campus, occupying several buildings in the Altstadt, former parts of the Residenz Palace, the Toskanatrakt and in the Kapitelgasse. The university library is between the Kollegienkirche and the Festival Halls, attached to it is the “Große Aula”, or ceremonial hall, the traditional faculty building of Humanities is located by the Rudolfskai, only 100 metres from Mozartplatz and Papagenoplatz. The Faculty of Sciences is housed in the second largest building in Salzburg after the Hohensalzburg Fortress, completeted in 2011, the Unipark Nonntal is home to the departments of modern languages, and cultural and social sciences. The building is 17,000 square metres in size, with 5500 students and 300 academic staff, there is a library and an Audimax. Financing for the construction of the Unipark Nonntal was enabled by successful negotiations between Landeshauptmann Franz Schausberger and the ministry, originally designed in 2002 by architects Storch Ehlers Partners and constructed in three years. Smaller university offices and institutes are scattered throughout the city, with the arts and music taught at the Mozarteum Art University
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University of Vienna
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The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is one of the oldest universities in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich history, the University of Vienna has developed one of the biggest universities in Europe. It is associated with 15 Nobel prize winners and has been the home of a large number of figures both of historical and academic importance. The University was founded on 12 March 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, the University of Vienna was modelled after the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV and this was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, the first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire, in its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at the bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks, the students, but also all other Supposita, were divided into four Academic Nations. Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector and he presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of the nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor, being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered quite a setback during the Reformation. In addition, the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on the city, leading to a sharp decline, with only 30 students enrolled at the lowest point. For King Ferdinand I, this meant that the university should be tied to the church to a stronger degree. It was only in the Mid-18th century that Empress Maria Theresa forced the university back under control of the monarchy. Her successor Joseph II helped in the reform of the university. Big changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848, with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, the current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church, women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy
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Vienna University of Economics and Business
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The Vienna University of Economics and Business is the largest university focusing on business and economics in Europe and, in terms of student body, one of the largest universities in Austria. It has been ranked as one of the best business schools in Europe, WU was founded on October 1,1898 as k. u. k. Exportakademie to provide training to future businessmen and thus stimulate the Austro-Hungarian empires economy. From humble beginnings as a school, it quickly grew to become an important institution. At that time, it was renamed to Hochschule für Welthandel, in 1930, the Hochschule für Welthandel was granted the right to issue doctoral degrees. After World War II, the Hochschule für Welthandel increased its breadth in research and it started to become a very important institution in Austrian society at that time, most Austrian managers and many politicians received their university education here. From 1966 onward, it began to offer a more theoretical course of studies in economics, in 1975, it was renamed to Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien. At the same time, the number of students began to increase dramatically, in 1983, it moved to a campus in Viennas 9th District. Due to further increasing student numbers during the 1990s the campus became too small, as a consequence, new premises had to be built in Viennas 2nd district. The new Campus WU opened in October 2013, next to the Vienna Fair Ground, today, WU has more than 20,000 students and over 400 researchers and teachers, among those about 90 full professors. It increasingly draws students from outside Austria, mostly from Central, most of the faculty are of Austrian or German nationality. The new location is dubbed Campus WU and had its groundbreaking ceremony in October 2009, close to the Prater public park, and next to the exhibition centre of Vienna, the campus features 6 main building complexes resting on approximately 25 acres. The master plan was created by BUSarchitektur under the guidance of the architect Laura P. Spinadel, the buildings of the campus are designed by architectural firms from Spain, the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan and Austria. The dominant element of the campus is the Library & Learning Center, construction began in June 2010 and paved the way for the largest campus for business sciences in Europe. With a total investment of 492 million Euros and a construction period of 3 years. Campus WU is situated close to the transport hub Praterstern and is serviced by two stations of the underground line U2 and a number of buses. The LLC has five cores, each with a different complex geometry, the core walls are inclined at different angles and so are the corners which are also rounded with different radii. MEVA has developed and uses both standard and special formwork, or a combination of both, to meet the requirements for these complex building parts
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Art school
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An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art, especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools are institutions with elementary, secondary, post-secondary or undergraduate and they are distinguished from larger institutions which also may offer majors or degrees in the visual arts, but only as one part of a broad-based range of programs. Frances École des Beaux-Arts is, perhaps, the first model for such organized instruction, breaking with a tradition of master and they are Emily Carr University of Art and Design, NSCAD University, OCAD University, and Alberta College of Art and Design. Emily Carr University has the most active research program among the four with over $15 million in research over the last five years, OCAD Universitys research intensity has reached $3.2 million in 2011/12. All four schools teach in the major disciplines from painting through to new media, over the last five years, Emily Carr has garnered the most of the major awards for students and alums across the country. The most recent RBC Painting Competition was won by Vanessa Maltese, NSCAD University was founded in 1887 by Anna Leonowens and other Halifax women. The school gained international prominence in the 1970s for innovation in art under the leadership of Garry Kennedy. In spite of its modest size, Art in America suggested in 1973 that NSCAD was the best art school in North America, while more recently The Globe and Mail called it Canadas most illustrious. Claude Watson School for the Arts and Karen Kain School of the Arts are intermediate-age public art schools in Toronto, in Brampton, Mayfield Secondary Schools Regional Arts Program offers a public high school-level art school. Innovators like Voice of Purpose out of Toronto, Ontario are currently working on promoting the Purpose Driven Education pedagogy through the use of arts-based programming, in France, art schools have an quite old history. The oldest is Paris fine art school, established in 1682, some of those schools were called academies and were prestigious institutions, devoted to the education of great painters or sculptors. Others were called école gratuite de dessin, and were devoted to the education of arts, as today, there is in France 45 national or territorial public high schools of art, that deliver bachelor and Master degrees. Art schools have a history in Sweden since the first half of the 18th Century, students may attend the Royal Institute of Art, which got its start in 1735. There are also tertiary art schools attached to universities in Gothenburg, Malmö, others, whose existence ties in indelibly with that of larger, non-discipline-specific universities exist. Most art schools of either orientation are equipped to offer opportunities spanning from post-16 to postgraduate level, the range of colleges span from predominantly further education establishments to research-led specialist institutes. The University of the Arts London, for example, is a federally structured institution that comprises six previously independent schools situated in London, the Royal College of Art with its degree-awarding arm and singular focus on postgraduate awards being a most singular exception. Since the 1970s, degrees have replaced diplomas as the qualification in the field. In the case of wholly freestanding institutions, degree validation agreements in liaison with a university have long been the custom for Bachelor of Arts level upward
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Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
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The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna is a public art school of higher education in Vienna, Austria. In 1701 he was ennobled by Emperor Joseph I as Freiherr of the Empire, with his death in 1714, the academy temporarily closed. On 20 January 1725, Emperor Charles VI appointed the Frenchman Jacob van Schuppen as Prefect and Director of the Academy, hofakademie der Maler, Bildhauer und Baukunst. Upon Charles death in 1740, the academy at first declined, however during the rule of his daughter Empress Maria Theresa, a new statute reformed the academy in 1751. The prestige of the academy grew during the deanships of Michelangelo Unterberger and Paul Troger, in 1772, there were further reforms to the organisational structure. Chancellor Wenzel Anton Kaunitz integrated all existing art schools into the k. k. vereinigten Akademie der bildenden Künste, the word vereinigten was later dropped. In 1822 the art cabinet grew significantly with the bequest of honorary member Anton Franz de Paula Graf Lamberg-Sprinzenstein and his collection still forms the backbone of the art on display. In 1872 Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria approved a statute making the academy the supreme government authority for the arts, a new building was constructed according to plans designed by the faculty Theophil Hansen in the course of the layout of the Ringstraße boulevard. On 3 April 1877, the building on Schillerplatz in the Innere Stadt district was inaugurated. In 1907 and 1908, young Adolf Hitler, who had come from Linz, was denied admission to the drawing class. He stayed in Vienna, subsisting on his allowance. Soon he had withdrawn into poverty and started selling amateur paintings, mostly watercolours, during the Austrian Anschluss to Nazi Germany from 1938–1945, the academy was forced to heavily reduce its number of Jewish staff. After World War II, the academy was reconstituted in 1955 and it has had university status since 1998, but retained its original name. It is currently the only Austrian university that doesnt have the university in its name. The Academy currently has about 900 students, almost a quarter of which are foreign students and its faculty includes stars such as Peter Sloterdijk. 110,000 volumes and its etching cabinet has about 150,000 drawings, the collection is one of the biggest in Austria, and is used for academic purposes, although portions are also open to the general public. Official website website of the Media Server Study in Austria, A Guide
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University of Applied Arts Vienna
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The University of Applied Arts Vienna is an institution of higher education in Vienna, the capital of Austria. It has had university status since 1970, the predecessor of the Angewandte was founded in 1867 as the k. k. It was closely associated with the Österreichischen Museums für Kunst und Industrie and it was the first school of its kind on the continent. In 1941 it became an institution of higher education, in 1970 it was awarded the title of a university and in 1998 the school was renamed the Universität für angewandte Künste. Today its faculty includes many distinguished artists and teachers, such as Judith Eisler, Erwin Wurm, Hartmut Esslinger, Greg Lynn, Wolf D Prix, the university has currently c.1,800 students and c.340 faculty. The students come from 49 different countries to study in the 29 disciplines of the school and they form their creative ideas in 56 different languages. The outcome of their processes is made public in 200 exhibitions a year, Applied arts live art and technology as symbiosis. Applied arts live art and society in interaction, Applied arts live art as an experimental approach towards science
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University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna
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The University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna is an Austrian university located in Vienna, established in 1817. Today, with a student body of three thousand, it is the largest institution of its kind in Austria, and one of the largest in the world. In 1817, it was established by the Society for the Friends of Music and it has had several names, Vienna Conservatory, Vienna Academy and in 1909 it was nationalized as the Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts. In 1998, the university assumed its current name to reflect its university status, with a student body of more than 3000, the Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Wien is one of the largest arts universities in the world. The University consists of 24 departments including the Max Reinhardt Seminar, Vienna Film Academy, MDW facilities include the Schönbrunn Palace Theater, Antonio Vivaldi Room, Salesian Convent, St. Ursula Church, Lothringerstrasse and the Anton Von Webern Platz. Modern film studios were completed on the university campus in 2004, the University organizes around 10 competitions, including the International Beethoven Piano Competition. It also presents an acclaimed film festival every two years. The MDW may be considered an institution to all major orchestras in Austria. Calls for a conservatory in Vienna started in 1808. In 1811 an outline for an education institution for Vienna was published. A year later the Society for the Friends of Music was formed, the Vienna Conservatory was founded in 1817. It was meant to be modeled on the Paris Conservatory, but, due to a lack of funds, Antonio Salieri was the Conservatorys first director. In 1819, it hired violinist Joseph Böhm, and by 1827 offered courses in most orchestral instruments, the conservatorys finances were very unstable. Tuition fees were introduced in 1829, but by 1837 the institution was bankrupt, the state eventually funded the conservatory from 1841 to 1844 and from 1846 to 1848. In 1848 political unrest caused the state to discontinue funding, with support from the state and the city, finances again stabilized after 1851. Despite growing state subsidy, The Society for the Friends of Music, however, by a January 1,1909 imperial resolution the school was nationalized and became the Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts. Joseph Hellmesberger, Sr. was director from 1851 to 1893, from 1907 Wilhelm Bopp had been the director of Conservatory. The Conservatory was still dominated by the aging Robert Fuchs and Hermann Grädener, in 1912, attempting to rejuvenate the conservatory Bopp offered teaching positions to Franz Schreker and Arnold Schoenberg
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Medical school
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A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Doctor of Medicine, many medical schools offer additional degrees, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, Masters degree, a physician assistant program, or other post-secondary education. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers and operate hospitals, around the world, criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably. Medical schools are highly competitive, using standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point average and leadership roles. In most countries, the study of medicine is completed as a degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework. However, a number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses. In the United States and Canada, almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees, many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum. More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks, in preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequent clinical rotations usually include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, although medical schools confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a background check, checking references, paying a fee. Basic Medical education lasts 6 years in all the medical schools, Entry into these medical schools are highly competitive and it is usually based on successful completion of the Senior High School Examinations. The University of Ghana Medical School has however introduced a graduate medical program to admit students with mainly science-related degrees into a 4-year medical school program. Students graduating from any of these schools get the MBChB degree. For the First 3 years Students are awarded BSc in the field of Medical science for University of Ghana medical school, Medical graduates are then registered provisionally with the Medical and Dental Council of Ghana as House Officers. Upon completion of the mandatory 2-year housemanship, these doctors are permanently registered with the MDC. Medical officers are sometimes hired by the Ghana Health Service to work in the Districts/Rural areas as Primary Care Physicians. In Kenya, medical school is a faculty of a university, Medical education lasts for 5 years after which the student graduates with an undergraduate degree. The first two years of medical school cover the medical sciences while the last four years are focused on the clinical sciences
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Medical University of Graz
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The Medical University of Graz is a university in Graz, Austria. The faculty of medicine at the Karl-Franzens-University of Graz was established in 1863 by Franz Joseph I, in 2004 the former faculty became an independent university. On October 8,2012, the Medical University of Graz became the first university in Austria to celebrate a White Coat Ceremony of its third-year students, austrian National Students Union at the Medical University Graz LKH University Hospital Graz Students Portal & Forum at the Medical University Graz
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Medical University of Innsbruck
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The Medical University of Innsbruck is a university in Innsbruck, Austria, EU. It used to be one of the four faculties of the Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck. The medical tradition dates back long before the foundation of the university, a medical faculty was included in the initial university, established in 1669 by emperor Leopold I. In the 1850s the Habsburgs gradually closed the University of Olomouc as a consequence of the Olomouc students and professors participation on the 1848 revolutions, the ceremonial equipment of the University of Olomouc was then transferred to the University of Innsbruck. The original Olomouc ceremonial maces from the 1580s are now used as maces of the University of Innsbruck, its faculties, the Medical University uses the ceremonial mace of Olomouc Faculty of Philosophy from 1588 and Olomouc Rectors Chain made sometime between 1566-1573. The ceremonial mace used by the Medical University of Innsbruck was given by Olomouc bishop Stanislav Pavlovský to the University of Olomouc in ca. It is 163 centimeters high, it is made of silver and has gold plating and it bears inscription S. P. E. O. and other ornaments. Today, the Med-Uni has some 3,000 students and 1,800 employees and it is the most important medical research and training facility in western Austria and the home university of many Tyroleans, South Tyroleans and students from the Province of Vorarlberg. Fritz Pregl,1923 Adolf Windhaus,1928 Hans Fischer,1930 Medical University of Innsbruck University of Innsbruck Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Tirol Study in Austria, A Guide
