1.
Metropolitan area
–
As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
Metropolitan area
–
Greater Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Metropolitan area
–
Paris (
France), one of Europe's major centres
Metropolitan area
–
Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area,
Israel
Metropolitan area
–
Perth, Western Australia, an isolated metropolitan area
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
Egypt
–
Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
Egypt
–
The
Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the
ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Egypt
–
Flag
Egypt
–
The Greek Ptolemaic queen
Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar,
Caesarion at the
Temple of Dendera.
Egypt
–
The 1803
Cedid Atlas, showing
Ottoman Egypt.
4.
Cairo Governorate
–
Cairo Governorate is the most populated of the governorates of Egypt. Its capital, the city of Cairo, is the capital of Egypt. Because it is urbanized, the governorate is considered a city proper. However, there are uninhabited desert areas, parts of the governorate were separated in April 2008 to form the Helwan Governorate. The Cairo Governorate is divided into 41 administrative divisions, called qism in Arabic, uN-Habitat is promoting alternative methods of transportation with the aim of relieving these issues. In a program began on August 28,2012, the European Union invested 40 million Euros on upgrading the infrastructure of informal areas in Cairo Governorate. Greater Cairo Cairo Governorate Official website City subdivisions List of previous governors
Cairo Governorate
–
Flag
5.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
6.
Africa
–
Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
Africa
–
Map of Africa
Africa
–
Africa
Africa
–
Lucy, an
Australopithecus afarensis skeleton discovered on November 24, 1974, in the
Awash Valley of
Ethiopia 's
Afar Depression
Africa
–
Colossal statues of
Ramesses II at
Abu Simbel, Egypt, date from around 1400 BC.
7.
Muslim world
–
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, comprising all those who adhere to the religion of Islam, or to societies where Islam is practiced. In a modern sense, these terms refer to countries where Islam is widespread. In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under influence or colonial domination of European powers. The nation states emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models. As of 2015, over 1.7 billion or about 23. 4% of the population are Muslims including the 4. 4% who live as minorities. Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion, the history of Islam began in Arabia with the Islamic prophet Muhammads first recitations of the Quran in the 7th century in the month of Ramadan. However, Islam under the Rashidun Caliphate grew rapidly, a century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Spain in the west to Indus in the east. The Islamic Golden Age coincided with the Middle Ages in the Muslim world, starting with the rise of Islam and establishment of the first Islamic state in 622. The end of the age is given as 1258 with the Mongolian Sack of Baghdad, or 1492 with the completion of the Christian Reconquista of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr, that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba became the intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine. Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of glaze was prevalent in Islamic art. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters, the first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th century Iraq, other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat, Damascus and Tabriz. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype Hezār Afsān that relied on particular Indian elements and it reached its final form by the 14th century, the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in The Book of One Thousand and this work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Imitations were written, especially in France, various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba. A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance is Layla and Majnun and it is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layla and Majnun to an extent
Muslim world
–
The
Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by
Al-Idrisi in 1154, one of the most advanced
ancient world maps. Al-Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands.
Muslim world
–
The Muslim population of the world map by percentage of each country, according to the
Pew Forum (assessed in 29 June 2014).
Muslim world
–
Mir Sayyid Ali, a scholar writing a commentary on the
Quran, during the reign of the
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
Muslim world
–
Portrait of a painter during the reign of
Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II.
8.
Jakarta
–
Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
Jakarta
–
(From top, left to right):
Jakarta Old Town,
Hotel Indonesia Roundabout, Jakarta Skyline,
Gelora Bung Karno Stadium,
Taman Mini Indonesia Indah,
Monumen Nasional,
Merdeka Palace,
Istiqlal Mosque
Jakarta
–
The 5th century
Tugu inscription discovered in Tugu district, North Jakarta
Jakarta
–
The former Stadhuis of Batavia, the seat of Governor General of
VOC. The building now houses the
Jakarta History Museum,
Jakarta Old Town.
Jakarta
–
Dutch Batavia built in what is now Jakarta, by
Andries Beeckman c. 1656
9.
Karachi
–
Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been inhabited for millennia, the city was founded as a village named Kolachi that was established as a fortified settlement in 1729. By the time of the Partition of British India, the city was the largest in Sindh with a population of 400,000. Immediately following the independence of Pakistan, the population increased dramatically with the arrival of hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India. The city experienced economic growth following independence, attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan. Karachi is now Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre, the city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $113 billion as of 2014. Karachi collects over a third of Pakistans tax revenue, and generates approximately 20% of Pakistans GDP, approximately 30% of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi, while Karachis ports handle approximately 95% of Pakistans foreign trade. Approximately 90% of the corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi. Up to 70% of Karachis workforce is employed in the informal economy, Karachi is one of Pakistans most secular and socially liberal cities. It is also the most linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse city in Pakistan, Karachi is considered to be one of the worlds fastest growing cities, and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan. Karachi is also home to over 2 million Bangladeshi migrants,1 million Afghans, the citys murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75% compared to 2013, and kidnappings decreased by 90%, with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices. Karachi was reputedly founded in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi, the new settlement is said to have been named in honour of Mai Kolachi, whose son is said to have slayed a man-eating crocodile in the village after his elder brothers had already been killed by it. The citys inhabitants are referred to by the demonym Karachiite in English, the earliest inhabitants of the Karachi region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers, with ancient flint tools discovered at several sites. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the ancient Greeks. The region may be the site of Krokola, where Alexander the Great once camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia, in 711 C. E. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the Arabs as Debal. Under Mirza Ghazi Beg the Mughal administrator of Sindh, development of coastal Sindh, under his rule, fortifications in the region acted as a bulwark against Portuguese incursions into Sindh
Karachi
–
Clockwise from top:
Karachi Skyline,
KPT HQ,
PRC Towers & PNSC,
Karachi Market,
Manora Lighthouse,
Nagan Interchange and
MA Jinnah Tomb.
Karachi
Karachi
–
D. J. Science College in the 19th century
Karachi
–
Elphinstone Street in 1930
10.
Giza Governorate
–
Giza Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. It is in the center of the country, situated on the west bank of the Nile River opposite Cairo and its capital is the city of Giza. The Giza Governorate is also home to the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, according to population estimates from 2015 the majority of residents in the governorate live in urban areas, with an urbanization rate of 58. 6%. Out of an estimated 7,585,115 people residing in the governorate,4,446,805 people lived in areas as opposed to only 3,138,310 in rural areas. It is located in the Giza pyramid complex, in a program that began on August 28,2012, the European Union invested 40 million Euros on upgrading the infrastructure of informal areas in Giza Governorate. Media related to Giza Governorate at Wikimedia Commons
Giza Governorate
–
Flag
11.
Qalyubia Governorate
–
Qalyubia Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. Located in Lower Egypt, it is situated north of Cairo in the Nile Delta region, banha and several other settlements blend into the neighboring Cairo Governorate, as a result, parts of Qalyubia are generally considered to form part of the Greater Cairo metropolitan area. According to population estimates from 2015 the majority of residents in the live in rural areas. Out of an estimated 5,105,972 people residing in the governorate,2,825,045 people live in areas as opposed to only 2,280,927 in urban areas. The most important of these crops include maize, cotton, wheat, citrus fruits, bananas, oranges, Qalyubia is also the leading Egyptian governorate in the production of poultry and eggs. In 1981, the Basic Village Service Program had several projects going on in the Qalyubia Governorate. In a program began on August 28,2012, the European Union invested 40 million Euros on upgrading the infrastructure of informal areas in Qalyubia Governorate
Qalyubia Governorate
–
Flag
12.
Hot desert climate
–
An area that features this climate usually experiences from 25 to 200 mm per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all. Averages may be even less such as in Arica, Chile, there are usually two or three variations of a desert climate, a hot desert climate, a cold desert climate and, sometimes, a mild desert climate. To determine whether a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold is determined. If the areas precipitation is less than half the threshold. Hot desert climates are found under the subtropical ridge where there is largely unbroken sunshine for the whole year due to the stable descending air. These areas are located between 30 degrees south and 30 degrees north latitude, under the subtropical latitudes called the horse latitudes, hot desert climates are generally hot, sunny and dry year-round. Hot desert climates also reach similar latitudes in the Middle East, North Africa, hot desert climates usually feature hot, sometimes exceptionally hot, periods of the year. In many locations featuring a hot climate, maximum temperatures of over 40 °C are not uncommon in summer. The world absolute heat records, over 50 °C, are generally in the hot deserts, some desert locations consistently experience very high temperatures all year long, even during wintertime. These locations feature some of the highest annual average temperatures recorded on Earth and this last feature is seen in some parts of deserts of Africa and Arabia. During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the radiation loss under the clear skies. However, very rarely do temperatures drop far below freezing, only one region in Europe has a hot desert climate, Province of Almeria, Province of Alicante and Province of Murcia in South Eastern Spain. Cold desert climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though summers typically are not quite as hot as summers in hot desert climates, unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold winters with rare snow. Cold desert climates are found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates. A cold desert climate is found in temperate zones, usually in the rain shadow of high mountains. A classic example of this is the Patagonian Desert in Argentina bounded by the Andes to its west, in the case of Central Asia, mountains restrict precipitation from the monsoon. The Gobi desert in Mongolia is an example of this. Though hot in summer, it shares the cold winters of the rest of Central Asia
Hot desert climate
–
Namib Desert, Namibia
Hot desert climate
–
A dusting of snow in the Atacama Desert.
Hot desert climate
–
Cold deserts do get the occasional blanket of snow, such as
Snake Valley, Utah and Nevada
13.
Climate of Egypt
–
Egypt generally has a desert climate. Because of the effect, average low wind vary from 9.5 °C in wintertime to 23 °C in summertime, some mountainous locations in Sinai, such as Saint Catherine, have cooler night temperatures, due to their high elevations. Every year, sometime from March to May, a hot, dry. When this wind blows over Egypt, it causes high temperatures to soar temporarily at dangerous levels, usually over 45 °C, the khamasīn causes sudden, early heat waves and the absolute highest temperature records in Egypt. The cloudiest, rainiest places are in and around Alexandria and Rafah and it usually snows on the Sinai mountains, but it almost never snows in the cities of Giza, Cairo, and Alexandria. For example, in December 2013, Cairo received an overnight snowfall for the first time since 1901
Climate of Egypt
–
Satellite map
14.
Urban heat
–
An urban heat island is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities. The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day, UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter. The main cause of the heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces. Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor, as a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The less-used term heat island refers to any area, populated or not, monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities, partially due to the UHI. Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons, the UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone, and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems. Not all cities have an urban heat island. Mitigation of the heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas. There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming, research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30%. On the other hand, one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends. Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change, the phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the 1810s, although he was not the one to name the phenomenon. This causes a change in the budget of the urban area. Another major reason is the lack of evapotranspiration in urban areas, with a decreased amount of vegetation, cities also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees, and the removal of carbon dioxide. Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects, the tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the urban canyon effect, another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents pollution from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to the UHI, high levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere. As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it increases the concentration of ozone. Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night, seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter
Urban heat
–
Thermal (top) and vegetation (bottom) locations around New York City via infrared satellite imagery. A comparison of the images shows that where vegetation is dense, temperatures are cooler.
Urban heat
–
Tokyo, an example of an urban heat island. Normal temperatures of Tokyo go up more than those of the surrounding area.
Urban heat
–
Image of
Atlanta, Georgia, showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white.
Urban heat
15.
Ground frost
–
Ground frost refers to the various coverings of ice produced by the direct deposition of water vapor on objects and trees, whose surfaces have a temperature below the freezing point of water. The three main types of ground frost are radiation frost, advection frost and evaporation frost, the latter is a rare type which occurs when surface moisture evaporates into drier air causing its temperature at the surface to fall at or under the freezing point of water. Rime is technically not a type of ground frost, ground frost may also refer to the condition when the temperature of the upper layer of the soil falls below the freezing point of water. Since 1961 the statistics have referred to the number of days with minimum temperature below 0°C. Occasionally, the ground frost can still be seen
Ground frost
–
Ground frost in the
highest town in Venezuela,
Apartaderos. Because its location in an
alpine tundra ecosystem called
páramo, they often undergo a sudden and drastic change in a daily freeze-and-thaw cycle, sometimes described as "summer every day and winter every night."
16.
Soft hail
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Graupel, also called soft hail or snow pellets, is precipitation that forms when supercooled droplets of water are collected and freeze on falling snowflakes, forming 2–5 mm balls of rime. The term graupel comes from the German language, the METAR code for graupel is GS. Under some atmospheric conditions, snow crystals may encounter supercooled water droplets and these droplets, which have a diameter of about 10 µm, can exist in the liquid state at temperatures as low as −40 °C, far below the normal freezing point. Contact between a crystal and the supercooled droplets results in freezing of the liquid droplets onto the surface of the crystal. This process of growth is known as accretion. Crystals that exhibit frozen droplets on their surfaces are referred to as rimed. When this process continues so that the shape of the snow crystal is no longer identifiable. Graupel was formerly referred to by meteorologists as soft hail, however, graupel is easily distinguishable from hail in both the shape and strength of the pellet and the circumstances in which it falls. Ice from hail is formed in hard, relatively uniform layers, graupel forms fragile, oblong shapes and falls in place of typical snowflakes in wintry mix situations, often in concert with ice pellets. Graupel is also fragile enough that it will fall apart when touched. However, observations of snow crystals with a scanning electron microscope clearly show cloud droplets measuring up to 50 µm on the surface of the crystals. The rime has been observed on all four forms of snow crystals, including plates, dendrites, columns. As the riming process continues, the mass of frozen, accumulated cloud droplets obscures the form of the snow crystal. Graupel commonly forms in high-altitude climates and is denser and more granular than ordinary snow, due to its rimed exterior. Macroscopically, graupel resembles small beads of polystyrene, the combination of density and low viscosity makes fresh layers of graupel unstable on slopes, and layers of 20–30 cm present a high risk of dangerous slab avalanches. In addition, thinner layers of graupel falling at low temperatures can act as ball bearings below subsequent falls of more stable snow. Graupel tends to compact and stabilise approximately one or two days after falling, depending on the temperature and the properties of the graupel, merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, accessed September 12,2006. The Weather Channel, accessed September 12,2006, national Snow and Ice Data Center, accessed September 12,2006
Soft hail
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Handful of graupel pellets.
Soft hail
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Falling graupel
Soft hail
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Graupel encasing an unseen snow crystal.
Soft hail
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Rime on both ends of a columnar snow crystal.
17.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
Cairo
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Cairo القاهرة al-Qāhirah
Cairo
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Louis Comfort Tiffany (American, 1848-1933). On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, 1872. Oil on canvas.
Brooklyn Museum
Cairo
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A rendition of
Fustat from A. S. Rappoport's History of Egypt
Cairo
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Cairo map 1847
18.
Helwan
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Helwan, is a city in Egypt and part of Greater Cairo, on the bank of the Nile, opposite the ruins of Memphis. Originally a southern suburb of Cairo, it served as the capital of the now defunct Helwan Governorate from April 2008 to April 2011, the kism of Helwan had a population of 643,327 at the 2006 population census. Around 3000 to 2600 BC there was a cemetery near Helwan serving the city of Memphis, the Khedivial Astronomical Observatory was built here 1903-1904, and was used to observe Halleys comet. Egypts oldest and largest private psychiatric clinic, the Behman Hospital, was constructed here in 1939. During the early part of the 20th century, the city was the site of RAF Helwan, a major British airfield, in 1959 Helwan was chosen to serve as a site of a major industrial city, as part of President Gamal Abdel Nassers attempts to industrialize Egypt. Throughout the 1960s it developed into a steel works zone. The site continues to use electricity from the Aswan Dam and iron ore from Egypts western deserts, Helwan was gradually transformed into a mass suburb of Cairo for the working class. In April 2008, the Helwan Governorate was split from the Cairo Governorate and it encompassed most of the suburbs, new compounds and villages located in the southern part of Cairo. The city of Helwan became the capital of the new governorate, following the dissolution of the Helwan Governorate in April 2011, the city of Helwan was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate. Alphocranon was important enough in the Late Roman province of Arcadia Aegypti to be a suffragan of its Metropolitan Archbishop of Oxyrhynchus and its bishop Harpocration participated in the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The bishopric is mentioned in two Notitiae Episcopatuum, no longer a residential diocese, Alphocranon is today listed by the Catholic Church as a Latin Catholic titular bishopric, nominally restoring the diocese since 1933, but no incumbent is recorded. The now defunct Helwan Governorate encompassed the cities or districts, Maadi, Helwan, 15th of May, El Shorouk, New Cairo. The city of Helwan itself includes districts such as Wadi Hof, Hadayek Helwan, local industry includes iron, steel, textiles and cement. The area has hot springs, an astronomical observatory, the Helwan University. It is the terminus of Cairos light rail Metro Line 1, also trams in Helwan serve the people. Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert, sadd el-Kafara, one of the earliest prehistoric man made dams in the world. Harold Knox-Shaw, one of the earliest Astronomy specialists in Helwan Observatory, john Reynolds, one of the earliest Astronomy specialists in Helwan Observatory & president of the English Royal Astronomical Society between 1935 and 1937. Operation Priha Helwan was targeted in Priha-1, tewfik Pasha died in his palace at Helwan
Helwan
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President
Gamal Abdel Nasser inaugurating the Al Nasr automobile factory in Helwan, 1963
19.
New Cairo
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New Cairo is a city covering an area of about 30,000 hectares on the southeastern edge of Cairo Governorate,15 miles from Maadi. New Cairo is one of the new cities, which have built, in. It was established in the year 2000 by presidential decree number 191, located in what was formerly Helwan, and located between affluent Maadi and Heliopolis, New Cairo ranges in elevation between 250 and 307 metres above sea level. The city could eventually host a population of 5 million, when compared to 6th of October, also built with the hopes of alleviating the strain on Cairo, more homes are being rented out in New Cairo than in 6th of October. On April 27,2016 President Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi inaugurated the new headquarters of the Ministry of Interior in New Cairo, the complex covers about 20,000 square miles. Of particular significance to geologists is the Petrified Forest Protected Area, because of its elevation and the fact that it is not as congested as Cairo, New Cairo enjoys cooler weather, than Cairo. There are dozens of factories in New Cairo, google Egypt has its headquarters in New Cairo. GE is working with the American University in New Cairo on energy initiatives, el Sewedy Electric has its headquarters in the Fifth Settlement of New Cairo. The city is connected to cities by a vast network of bus lines. The city gets its water from a water plant in Obour City. A championship golf course with tennis facilities lies in the Katameya section of New Cairo, at the entrance of New Cairo is Cairo Festival City, a 700 acres real estate development. It has parks, pools, gardens, walkways, business space, a large mall. There are several mosques in New Cairo, but currently only one church, the city is also home to a Coptic monastery, the Patmos Monastery of St. John the Beloved. In September 2016, the president approved the construction of a new Coptic Orthodox church in the city
New Cairo
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Design drawing of New Cairo
New Cairo
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Administration building,
Future University in Egypt
New Cairo
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New Cairo Map
20.
List of radio stations in Egypt
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Radio broadcasting in Egypt began in the 20th century, in 1924 as privately owned and operated community stations. Later, in 1934 private ownership and operation were abolished and radio broadcasting was nationalized ever since, by the early 1990s, Egypt had only 4 FM stations in Greater Cairo, but the number increased to 6 in Greater Cairo by the end of the decade. The increase in the number was merely a rebroadcast of the already AM radio stations, in 2000, AM stations started a phase of simulcasting to FM band, as of 2013, only one or two stations broadcast on AM without FM simulcasts. All broadcast media are somehow state controlled, even if partly or fully private, as of 2002, there were only 8 radio stations broadcast on FM to Greater Cairo, none of them was specialized in popular songs. In March 23,2002, VOA had changed its shortwave Arabic service to a station for the youth, named Radio Sawa. The two were Nogoum FM and Nile FM, all local radio stations in Egypt are also simulcasted on the series of the satellites, Nilesat at 7 degrees west, except El Gouna Radio. Local stations are typically broadcast on FM, very few radio stations use the Radio Data System to broadcast the station name, but receiving the RDS is very rare in FM receivers in Egypt. Very few available mobile phones in Egypt which have an FM receiver,90.9 MHz is the only station to broadcast the current song or show title, but when the title is long, it is partly displayed. All of the stations are state-controlled, unless otherwise noted. Greater Cairo has the most number of FM stations in Egypt, a few of the following stations are broadcast on other frequencies in other regions in Egypt. All stations which broadcast popular songs are mainly Egyptian songs with very few Levantine hits or other north African,88.2 MHz Radio Hits – popular songs with occasional foreign songs. 88.7 MHz Radio Masr – popular songs and news briefs,89.5 MHz Middle East Radio – spoken content and songs. 90.9 MHz El Radio FM909 – popular songs,91.5 MHz Cultural Program – spoken content, rarely classical music, some affiliate foreign stations programs. 92.7 MHz Mega FM – popular songs and foreign songs,95 MHz Shaabi FM – traditional and old Egyptian songs. 95.4 MHz European Program – spoken content with western hits,98.2 MHz Al-Quraan Al-Kareem Radio 98.8 MHz Musical Program – classical international music, folk and old Egyptian songs, soft music and foreign songs. 100.6 MHz Nogoum FM – popular songs,102.2 MHz Greater Cairo Radio – spoken content. 104.2 MHz Nile FM – Full-time English-speaking, syndicated American and British shows as well as local talk shows in English. 105.3 MHz Nagham FM – popular songs,105.8 MHz Specialty Songs – mainly old Egyptian songs
List of radio stations in Egypt
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Radio portal
21.
Cairo Metro
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The Cairo Metro is the rapid transit system in Greater Cairo, Egypt. It was the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and only four in the Arab world and it was opened in 1987 as Line 1 from Helwan to Ramsis square with a length of 29 kilometres. As of 2014, the Cairo Metro has 61 stations, of which 3 are transfer stations, the system consists of three operational lines numbered from 1 to 3. As of 2013, the metro carried nearly 4 million passengers per day, the Cairo Metro is run by the National Authority for Tunnels. Since 1989, the two cars of each train are reserved for women. There are blue signs at every station that signify the position of these cars and these cars are used as an option for women who do not wish to ride with men in the same car, however, women can still ride other cars freely. This policy was introduced for protection of women from harassment by men. Cairo Metro operates from 05,00 till 01,00, the ticket price was EGP1.00 for each journey, regardless of distance. Line 1 is the oldest line of the Cairo Metro, with its first 29-kilometre segment having opened in 1987, the line is 44. 3-kilometre long, and serves 35 stations. This line carries trains with 3 units, which have a headway of 3,30 to 4 minutes, the line can carry 60,000 passengers per hour in each direction. Line 1 had a driving simulator supplied by Transurb Technirail that won the international tender issued by Cairo Metro in December 2011. Line 2 is the line of the Cairo Metro. The line is 21. 6-kilometre long, of which 13 kilometres is in tunnels and it serves 20 stations, of which 12 are underground. It is mostly in bored tunnel, with two exceptions, a section at the northern end approaching Shubra El Kheima which is elevated. Line 2 uses the rail electrification system instead of the overhead line used in the first line. The communication extension for line 2 was provided by Alcatel in 2005, the minimum headway for the line is 2 minutes 40 seconds to 3 minutes. Line 2 has a simulator installed in Shubra since 2002 which was delivered by French company CORYS, the first tunnel to be built under the Nile River carries line 2 across the river. Line 3 presently operates from Attaba to Ahram, with construction under way for the line to the northwest of Greater Cairo
Cairo Metro
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Cairo Metro turnstile gates (standard ticket)
Cairo Metro
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Cairo Metro ticket (front side)
Cairo Metro
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Cairo Metro ticket (back side)
Cairo Metro
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The Cairo Metro (line 2)
22.
Azbakeya
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Azbakeya is one of the districts of Cairo, Egypt in the centre of Cairo, and contains many historically important establishments. One of these is the Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, which was inaugurated by Pope Mark VIII in 1800, Azbakeya was the place where the first Cairo Opera House was established, until it was burnt in 1970. By the time of Barquq, the first Circassian Mamluk Sultan, in 1384 AD, when Barquq started his madrassa in Bayn al-Qasrayn, markets were rebuilt, and Khan al-Khalili, the most famous touristic market in Cairo, was established. The Maqrisi showed that the cemetery, founded by al-Nasir Muhammad. When al-Nasir Muhammad in 1320 abandoned the area between Bab al-Nasr cemetery and Muqattam, a number of buildings started to be built in the northern cemetery. The lack of opposition allowed for the construction of striking religious buildings of monumental scale in the northern cemetery, examples include Khanqa of Faraj Ibn Barquq, Madrasas of Inal, Qurqumas, Barsbay and Qaitbay. During the latter half of the 15th century, two major transformations took place in Cairo, the port of Bulaq, and a district called Azbakeya in the northwest section of the city. By the end of the 15th century, Bulaq was even able to take over the role as the commercial port from Old Cairo. With Al Khalij always serving as the boundary of the city and feeding nearby ponds. After each flooding, surrounding lands would be transformed into green areas with vegetation. Cairo was often referred to as Misr, or Egypt, which implies that Cairo was often considered to be synonymous to Egypt whereas other cities in Egypt were of far less significance. By the Ayyubid period, the Iqtaa or feudal system was established and was continued by the Mamluks as an important source of revenue. Although the Mamluk Amirs owned large pieces of lands in various parts of Egypt. In comparison with the European of that time, the majordomo residing on the land, the Mamluks used to visit their lands infrequently either for supervision or the collection of the profits. The Mamluk class was not a community, as Max Weber explains that class is a number of people have in common a specific component of their life chances. This component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods, Cairo was the center of trade for the caravans, joining the east with the west and most of the profitable commercial deals were done in through its commercial centers. The Ambitious Mamluks preferred to live in Cairo seeking a power that guarantees a social class within the amires. This social benefit may lead to better position in the royal hierarchy, the conspiracies, murders and imprisoning were phenomenon that subsisted for the entire period of the Mamluk rule
Azbakeya
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Azbakeya theater in 1928
Azbakeya
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Ismail Pasha
23.
Bulaq
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Bulaq, Arabic, بولاق, is a district of Cairo, Egypt. It neighbours Downtown Cairo, Azbakeya, and the River Nile and it is populated with a mixed working class from all parts of Egypt, who migrated to the city during the 19th century to work on Muhammad ‘Ali’s projects. To the north of the district is located the bulk of the newer industrial plants. The history of Bulaq goes back to the Mamluk rule of the century when the site was the main port of Cairo filled with several Wikalas. The new Egyptian Museum of Antiquities was established at Bulaq in 1858 in a former warehouse, the building lay on the bank of the Nile River, and in 1878 it suffered significant damage in a flood. In 1892, the collections were moved to a royal palace. They remained there until 1902 when they were moved, for the last time, the Museums former location is indicated by the continued existence of a Maspero Street, named after the second head of the Antiquities Department. Schools in Bulaq, International Italian School Leonardo da Vinci Kalousdian Armenian School Media related to Bulaq at Wikimedia Commons
Bulaq
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Boulaq from Ghezireh, 1902.
Egypt
