1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
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New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district
4.
Richard M. Upjohn
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Richard Michell Upjohn, FAIA, was an American architect, co-founder and president of the American Institute of Architects. Uphohn was born on March 7,1828 in Shaftesbury, England and he was the son of the famous architect Richard Upjohn and joined his fathers New York architectural firm in 1853. The earliest building that architectural scholars credit to him alone is Madison Square Presbyterian Church in New York City and he became best known, much like his father, for his High Gothic Revival style of architecture. He, again like his father, was a founding member, a number of noteworthy architects trained in his office, including Clarence Fagan True. His son, Hobart Upjohn, practiced as a civil engineer, Richard M. Upjohn died on March 3,1903 in Brooklyn, New York. He was buried in Green-Wood Cemetery, for which he and his father had done design work many years before, a number of buildings that he designed are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Four are listed as National Historic Landmarks, St. John Chrysostom Church in Delafield, Wisconsin, on the NRHP St. Peters Episcopal Church in Albany, New York, a National Historic Landmark Trinity-St
5.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
6.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
David Bates Douglass
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David Bates Douglass was a civil and military engineer, who worked on a broad set of projects throughout his career. He was the president of Kenyon College, and when he died in 1849 he was the chair of the Mathematics Department at Hobart College. Douglass was born to Nathaniel and Sarah Douglass in Pompton Township, New Jersey and his mothers brother was the notable civil engineer, David Stanhope Bates. Although his early education was ordinary, being taught by his mother. He graduated from Yale College in 1813, shortly after graduation, he entered service in the War of 1812 and received a commission as Second Lieutenant in command of a corps of miners and sappers. He distinguished himself in the war, participating in the Battle of Lundys Lane, from 1815 until 1831, Douglass was a professor at the United States Military Academy at West Point. During this time, he worked on a variety of other government-sponsored as well as private projects. He consulted on the section of the Erie Canal, at the request of Governor DeWitt Clinton. In 1815 he married Ann Ellicott, the daughter of Andrew Ellicott, in 1820, he was a member of the Lewis Cass expedition to explore the south shore of Lake Superior. Other members of the expedition included Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Charles C, by most accounts, the expedition successfully completed and even exceeded its mission, particularly in regard to unexpected ethnological observations. Douglass was charged by Cass to lead the project to write, under joint authorship, in 1831, Douglass submitted his resignation to the academy and it was accepted, as his outside projects were becoming more of a distraction. First and foremost was as an engineer for the Morris Canal. As the Newark Eagle reported, the 1830 test of the device was a success, The machinery was set in motion under the direction of Major Douglass. As the forward wheels of the car commenced their descent, the boat seemed gently to bow to the spectators and these inclined planes became an internationally renowned tourist attraction. One of the Douglasss most significant lasting legacies is Green-Wood Cemetery in New York and it established a style of peaceful, natural setting for a cemetery that was copied several times by Douglass himself as well as his admirers. Douglass was the president of Kenyon College, serving from 1841-1845. He wrote two monographs concerning the reasons for his departure, Douglass was also originally awarded the design of the High Bridge of the Croton Aqueduct system, but was later fired. In October 1848, Douglass was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Hobart College, in October 1849, he died of a stroke
9.
Warren and Wetmore
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Whitney Warren was a cousin of the Vanderbilts and spent ten years at the École des Beaux Arts. There he met fellow architecture student Emmanuel Louis Masqueray, who would, in 1897 join the Warren and he began practice in New York City in 1887. Warrens partner, Charles Delevan Wetmore, was a lawyer by training and they were the preferred architects for Vanderbilts New York Central Railroad. Whitney Warren retired in 1931 but occasionally served as consultant and this post-war propaganda was never added to the building. The library was damaged by British and German forces during World War II. The architectural records of the firm are held by the Dept. of Drawings & Archives at the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, the firms most important work by far is the Grand Central Terminal in New York City, completed in 1913 in association with Reed and Stem. Warren and Wetmore were involved in a number of related hotels in the surrounding Terminal City. C, Grand Central Palace, New York City,1913 with Reed and Stem, demolished 1964 Warren & Wetmore built the Kirby Hill Estate 1902 on the Gold Coast of Long Island. The estate has been renamed to The Eric Kuvykin Mansion, the estate was used in the fillming of Robert Di Neros The Good Shepard and numerous other movies. Filming took place prior to the sale of the estate to the Kuvykin Family, consolidated Edison Building at 4 Irving Place in Manhattan,1928 Notes Bibliography Pennoyer, Peter and Walker, Anne. The Architecture of Warren & Wetmore New York, W. W. Norton,2006
10.
Rural cemetery
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The rural cemetery or garden cemetery is a style of burial ground that uses landscaping in a park-like setting. As a reaction to this, the first landscaped cemetery was opened in 1804, the garden cemetery in the US was a development of this style. Prior to this, urban burial grounds were generally located on small plots within cities. Its first manifestation in the US was Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, founded by Dr. Jacob Bigelow, supreme Court Justice Joseph Story delivered the dedication address on September 24,1831. Mount Auburn inspired dozens of rural cemeteries across New England, the northeast. Many were accompanied by dedication addresses similar to Storys, which linked the cemeteries to the mission of creating a Christian republic, Mount Auburn quickly grew as popular site for both burials and public recreation, attracting locals as well as tourists from across the country and Europe. These cemeteries often became the home of tall obelisks, spectacular mausoleums, the Ohlsdorf was transformed from a treeless, sandy plain into 92 acres of sculpted, wooded landscape by its first director, architect Wilhelm Cordes. In 2016 it stands as the largest rural cemetery in the world, as of 1911 rural cemeteries were still unusual in Germany. Other examples include the Waldfriedhof Dahlem in Berlin,1931, rural cemeteries, from their inception, were intended as civic institutions designed for public use. Today, many of historic cemeteries are designated landmarks and are cared for by non-profit organizations
11.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
12.
Urbanization
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Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to the change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed, the United Nations projected that half of the worlds population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and that is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities. Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, the phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can be seen as a condition at a set time or as an increase in that condition over time. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many years ago. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the few decades. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, London, New York City, Lagos, in England the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia, spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class. Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, at the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the population were living in cities. Living in a city can provide opportunities of proximity, diversity, as against this, there may be alienation issues, stress, increased cost of living, and negative social aspects that result from mass marginalization. In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized, many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, many people move into cities for the economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. Rural flight is a factor to urbanization. Farm living has always been susceptible to environmental conditions, and in times of drought, flood or pestilence
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Prospect Park (Brooklyn)
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Prospect Park is a 585-acre public park in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, and the largest public park in Brooklyn. The park is situated between the neighborhoods of Park Slope, Prospect Lefferts Gardens, Ditmas Park and Windsor Terrace, as well as Flatbush Avenue, Grand Army Plaza, Prospect Park is run and operated by the Prospect Park Alliance and New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. It is part of the Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Prospect Park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux after their completion of Manhattans Central Park. There is also a private Society of Friends cemetery on Quaker Hill near the ball fields, the area was originally forested, but became open pasture after two centuries of European colonization. Significant stands of trees remained only in the peat bogs centered south of Ninth Street and Flatbush Avenues, and in a large bog north of Ninth Avenue and contained chestnut, white poplar, and oak. Some of these stands were preserved in the Parks Ravine and have been popularized as The Last Forest of Brooklyn, during the American Revolution the Park was a site of the Battle of Long Island. American forces attempted to hold Battle Pass, an opening in the terminal moraine where the old Flatbush Road passed from Brooklyn to Flatbush and it fell after some of the heaviest fighting in the engagement, and its loss contributed to George Washingtons decision to retreat. Even though the Continental Army lost the battle, they were able to hold the British back long enough for Washingtons army to escape to Manhattan, there are plaques north of the zoo that honor this event. The City of Brooklyn built a reservoir on Prospect Hill in 1856, preserving the Battle Pass area and keeping the lots around the reservoir free of buildings were two reasons for establishing a large park in the area. This was due to Brooklyn becoming the worlds first commuter suburb, during this time, concepts concerning public parks gained popularity. In 1858 Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux created Central Park in Manhattan and it became the first landscaped park in the United States. He also believed that a park would attract wealthy residents. Of the seven sites mentioned in their February,1860 proposal, by the end of 1860, land had been purchased for Vieles plan, but the Civil War stopped further activity. Vaux included a plaza at the northern end of the park. It would be incorporated as Mount Prospect Park in 1940, the change in plans was not without consequences. The lots, however, constitute just over five percent of the parks acreage, much of this very expensive acreage houses the maintenance yards and is rarely seen by the public. Despite the repercussions of Vauxs revisions, Stranahan championed the plan, Vaux recruited Olmsted and formally presented their proposal in January 1866 and it was accepted in May, with work commencing in June. The park commissioners opened the park to the public on October 19,1867, work continued for another six years until it was substantially complete in 1873, though certain facets of the original design were never undertaken
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Park Slope
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Park Slope is a neighborhood in northwest Brooklyn, New York City. Park Slope is roughly bounded by Prospect Park and Prospect Park West to the east, Fourth Avenue to the west, Flatbush Avenue to the north, the neighborhood takes its name from its location on the western slope of neighboring Prospect Park. Fifth Avenue and Seventh Avenue are its primary streets, while its east-west side streets are lined with brownstones. The neighborhood had a population of about 62,200 as of the 2000 census, resulting in a density of approximately 68, 000/square mile, or approximately 26. Park Slope is considered one of New York Citys most desirable neighborhoods, Park Slope is part of Brooklyn Community Board 6. The area that comprises the neighborhood of Park Slope was first inhabited by the Native Americans of the Lenape people. The Dutch colonized the area by the 17th century and farmed the region for more than 200 years, during the American Revolutionary War, on August 27,1776, the Park Slope area served as the backdrop for the beginning of the Battle of Long Island. In this battle, over 10,000 British soldiers and Hessian mercenaries routed outnumbered American forces, the historic site of Battle Pass is now preserved in Prospect Park, and on Fifth Avenue there is a reconstruction of the stone farmhouse where a countercharge covered the American retreat. In the 1850s, a lawyer and railroad developer named Edwin Clarke Litchfield purchased large tracts of what was then farmland. Through the American Civil War era, he sold off much of his land to residential developers, during the 1860s, the City of Brooklyn purchased his estate and adjoining property to complete the West Drive and the southern portion of the Long Meadow in Prospect Park. However, Park Slope’s bucolic period ended soon after, many of the large Victorian mansions on Prospect Park West, known as the Gold Coast, were built in the 1880s and 1890s to take advantage of the beautiful park views. Today, many of these buildings are preserved within the 24-block Park Slope Historic District, by 1883, with the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge, Park Slope continued to boom and subsequent brick and brownstone structures pushed the neighborhoods borders farther. The 1890 census showed Park Slope to be the richest community in the United States, in 1892, President Grover Cleveland presided over the unveiling of the Soldiers and Sailors Arch at Grand Army Plaza, a notable Park Slope landmark. The Park Slope Armory was completed in 1893, nearby, Old Stone House is a 1930 reconstruction of the Vechte-Cortelyou House which was destroyed in 1897. It is located on Third Street between Fourth and Fifth Avenues, beside the former Gowanus Creek, realtors and community members saw a clear connection between Park Slopes bucolic setting and the comfort of living there. Baseball had also played a prominent role in the history of the Park Slope area, from 1879 to 1889, the Brooklyn Atlantics played at Washington Park on 5th Avenue between 3rd and 4th Streets. When the park was destroyed by a fire, the moved to their part-time home in Ridgewood, Queens. In 1898, the New Washington Park was built between Third and Fourth Avenues and between First and Third Streets near the Gowanus Canal, the team, by this point known as the Dodgers, played to an ever-growing fan base at this location
15.
Windsor Terrace, Brooklyn
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Windsor Terrace is a small residential neighborhood in the northwestern part of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. As of the 2010 United States Census, Windsor Terrace had 20,988 people living within its 0. 503-square-mile area and its ZIP codes are 11215 and 11218. Windsor Terrace is situated between Prospect Park on the east and northeast, Park Slope to the northwest, Green-Wood Cemetery to the southwest and it is considered to be within the area historically known as South Brooklyn. A part of Community Board 7, the neighborhood is patrolled by the NYPDs 72nd Precinct, before the coming of Europeans to the New World, the area which is now Windsor Terrace was inhabited by the Canarsee Indians. Specifically, the Gowanus and Werpos tribes inhabited the surrounding area, the land, which was then in the far northwestern corner of the Town of Flatbush, was purchased as a farm by John Vanderbilt. Some parts of the land were also maintained by the Martense family, following Vanderbilts death, his land was divided in two. Vanderbilts land were sold to William Bell, a real estate developer, Bell subdivided the land into 47 building lots, and, unlike some other developers in the general area, was able to sell them rather quickly. Bell then renamed the area one of the multiple places named Windsor in England. Bell sold part of the land to Edward Belknap in 1851, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle first referred to the area as Windsor Terrace in March 1854. By 1856, Belknap had lost his land due to foreclosure, additional blocks were developed in 1862, when the village had 30 inhabitants living in twelve houses. The village kept growing through the 1870s, boasting a Protestant chapel by 1874, a school by 1876. The village remained rural in feel until around 1900, when row houses began to be throughout the area. Between 1902 and 1919, builder and future Republican U. S, senator for New York State, William M. Calder, erected 700 two-story homes along Prospect Park SW. Development began to pick up pace around 1925 as rumors circulated that the neighborhood would soon be served by the New York City Subway. There were a lot of single-family and two-family houses being built, as well as stores being opened on 11th Avenue, many of the new occupants of these residences were Irish-American workers, some of whose families then remained there for generations. The 1933 arrival of the Independent Subway System ushered in an era of apartment-building construction, even into the 1960s, Windsor Terrace was an isolated neighborhood with a quiet small-town feel to it, although the construction of the Prospect Expressway brought more through traffic into the area. Gentrification of the began in the 1980s, with families who could not afford the prices in Brooklyn Heights. Additional two-family housing funded with public assistance was built and sold by lottery, in the late 1980s, the neighborhood was rezoned to prevent the construction of high-rise buildings
16.
Borough Park, Brooklyn
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Borough Park is a neighborhood in the southwestern part of the borough of Brooklyn, in New York City in the United States. As the average number of children in Hasidic and Hareidi families is 6.72 and it is an economically diverse neighborhood. Originally, the area was called Blythebourne, a hamlet composed of cottages built and developed in 1887 by Electus Litchfield. It was served by the Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island, a railroad that is todays elevated BMT West End Line. This line was put on a structure in 1917. The Sea Beach Railroad was another steam railroad and this railroad was named after the Sea Beach Palace Hotel, its southern terminal in 1879. In 1913, it was electrified and placed in an open cut, in 1902, State Senator William H. Reynolds bought the land northeast of Blythebourne. The new area was then named Borough Park, Blythebourne was absorbed into Borough Park by the 1920s. Jewish immigrants began populating Borough Park at the turn of the 20th century, through the 1930s, 13th Avenue was lined with pushcart vendors and pickle sellers. In the late 1930s the city opened a market on 42nd Street to force an end to the pushcart trade. Thirteenth Avenue gentrified into an avenue of specialty shops interspersed with regular merchandise stores, in the 1980s, the neighborhood changed demographically from one of Italian, Irish, and Modern Orthodox Jewish to Hasidic Jewish families. By 1983, an estimated 85 percent of the residents of Borough Park were Jewish, New shops and restaurants opened on 13th Avenue to serve the expanding Haredi community. In 1987, two of the most popular stores debuted, Eichlers Judaica bookstore and Kosher Castle Dairy Cafeteria, New stores also opened selling imported goods and computer technology. At the end of the 1990s, businesses began selling electronics and Jewish books, music, the area continued developing into a very large Jewish enclave around that time period. In a 2000 Census study, it was reported that an estimated 76,600 Jews lived in Borough Park, since that time, Borough Park has grown significantly, and has earned the title of baby boom capital of New York City because of its high birth rate. The population in 2011 was 140,000, the neighborhood recorded 4,523 births in 2004, the highest in the city. The closest Brooklyn neighborhood in terms of growth was Williamsburg, home to many Satmar Hasidim. Borough Parks birth rate,24.4 per 1,000 residents, has translated into major growth in the neighborhood, many of these births occur at Maimonides Medical Center, a hospital in the Borough Park area
17.
Kensington, Brooklyn
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Kensington is a neighborhood in the center of the New York City borough of Brooklyn in the zip code 11218. It is the south of Prospect Park and the Green-Wood Cemetery. Kensington is a residential area that consists of housing types that run the gamut from brick rowhouses to detached one-family Victorians to apartment buildings. Pre-war brick apartment buildings dominate the Ocean Parkway and Coney Island Avenue frontage, the main commercial streets are Coney Island Avenue, Church Avenue, Ditmas Avenue and McDonald Avenue. Ocean Parkway bisects the neighborhood east-west, Kensington is served by the NYPDs 66th Precinct. More than 300 immigrants from Darfur have also settled in Kensington as of 2010, the land where Kensington now sits was first colonized by Dutch farmers during the seventeenth century within the Town of Flatbush. It was re-settled by British colonists in 1737, developed in 1885 after the completion of Ocean Parkway, the neighborhood was named after the place and borough in West London, at the turn of the century. Homebuilding began in earnest in the 1920s and attracted Italian and Irish immigrants to the neighborhood, brick and brownstone townhouses coexist with single- and two-family homes with yards and garages. Five- and six-story pre- and post-war apartment buildings and co-ops are also common, the New York City Subways IND Culver Line runs along the western part of the neighborhood and stops underground at Fort Hamilton Parkway and at Church Avenue. The line rises above ground to a structure to serve the Ditmas Avenue. In addition, Kensington is served by the B8, B16, B35, B67, B68, B69, B70, B103 local buses, as well as the BM1, BM2, BM3, BM4 express buses to Manhattan. Founded as a station in 1908 by the Mothers Kindergarten Club of P. S. 134 and the Kensington Improvement League, Kensingtons branch library quickly outgrew two locations before becoming a branch at 770 McDonald Avenue in 1912. The branch moved again in 2012, opening on November 15 at its new facilities at 4207 18th Avenue, New York City Public Schools in Kensington include, four public primary schools, P. S.130, P. S. There are two schools, J. H. S. The area has no high schools. Sid Luckman, Hall of Fame quarterback for the Chicago Bears from 1939 to 1950, according to the 1940 Federal Census, Luckman lived at 318 East 8th Street in Kensington. Frank Terpil Rogue CIA agent, arms trader, international felon, media related to Kensington, Brooklyn at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Sunset Park, Brooklyn
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Sunset Park is a neighborhood in the western part of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Because it was close to the southern boundary of the City of Brooklyn. However, until the 1960s, the part of Sunset Park was considered to be part of Gowanus. The neighborhood received its own name in that decade, the 24. 5-acre public Sunset Park, for which the neighborhood was named, was founded in the 1890s, and is located between 41st and 44th Streets and 5th and 7th Avenues. The parks elevated location offers views of New York Harbor, Manhattan, the Statue of Liberty, and, more distantly, the hills of Staten Island and New Jersey. One of Brooklyns least heterogeneous neighborhoods, Sunset Parks population is composed of Puerto Ricans, Mexicans and other Hispanics, in addition to Chinese, Indians and Norwegians. The core of the Hispanic population is west of 5th Avenue, the area between 5th and 7th Avenues is mostly mixed. The ethnic diversity of the neighborhood is celebrated annually with the Sunset Park Parade of Flags down 5th Avenue, the neighborhood is part of Community Board 7, and served by the New York City Police Departments 72nd Precinct. Fire services are provided by Engine Company 201, Engine Company 228, the Brooklyn Public Library has a branch located on 4th Avenue at 51st Street. The area is home to the Jackie Gleason Bus Depot. Outside of it stands a statue of Gleason dressed as Kramden, in February 2016, Sunset Park West was one of four neighborhoods featured in an article in The New York Times about New York’s Next Hot Neighborhoods. The area which is now Sunset Park was purchased from the Canarsee Indians by Dutch settlers in the 1640s and their first farms were laid out along the waterfront. The area was primarily agriculture in the 1830s, at which time streets were laid out and development began. A ferry pier and railroad terminal, popular as a point for those traveling to Coney Island, was built in the 1870s. Portions of the neighborhood known as Finn Town and Little Norway. The Finns brought with them the concept of housing. The Irish subjected the other groups, especially the non-Catholic Finns and Norwegians to harassment and abuse, the areas residential construction took place primarily in the late 19th and early 20th century, and included limestones and brownstones, as well and brick and wood rowhouses. The neighborhood grew up around the Bush Terminal of Irving T, the neighborhood began to decline in the 1930s and 1940s, with the depredations of the Great Depression
19.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
20.
Central Park
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Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
21.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
22.
Mount Auburn Cemetery
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Mount Auburn Cemetery is the first rural cemetery in the United States, located on the line between Cambridge and Watertown in Middlesex County, Massachusetts,4 miles west of Boston. With classical monuments set in a rolling landscaped terrain, it marked a break with Colonial-era burying grounds. The appearance of this type of landscape coincides with the popularity of the term cemetery. This language and outlook eclipsed the previous view of death. The 174-acre cemetery is important both for its historical aspects and for its role as an arboretum and it is Watertown’s largest contiguous open space and extends into Cambridge to the east, adjacent to the Cambridge City Cemetery and Sand Banks Cemetery. It was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 2003 for its role in 19th-century cemetery development. The land that became Mount Auburn Cemetery was originally named Stones Farm, Mount Auburn Cemetery was inspired by Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and was itself an inspiration to cemetery designers, most notably at Abney Park in London. Mount Auburn Cemetery was designed largely by Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn with assistance from Jacob Bigelow, Bigelow came up with the idea for Mount Auburn as early as 1825, though a site was not acquired until five years later. Bigelow, a doctor, was concerned about the unhealthiness of burials under churches as well as the possibility of running out of space. With help from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mount Auburn Cemetery was founded on 70 acres of land authorized by the Massachusetts Legislature for use as a garden or rural cemetery, the original land cost $6,000, it later extended to 170 acres. The main gate was built in the Egyptian Revival style and cost $10,000, the first president of the Mount Auburn Association, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, dedicated the cemetery in 1831. Storys dedication address, delivered on September 24,1831, set the model for many more addresses in the three decades. Garry Wills focuses on it as an important precursor to President Lincolns Gettysburg Address, the cemetery is credited as the beginning of the American public parks and gardens movement. It can be considered the link between Capability Browns English landscape gardens and Frederick Law Olmsteds Central Park in New York, Mount Auburn was established at a time when Americans had a sentimental interest in rural cemeteries. It is still known for its tranquil atmosphere and accepting attitude toward death. Many of the more traditional monuments feature poppy flowers, symbols of blissful sleep, in the late 1830s, its first unofficial guide, Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitors Guide Through Mt. In the 1840s, Mount Auburn was considered one of the most popular tourist destinations in the nation, along with Niagara Falls, a 16-year-old Emily Dickinson wrote about her visit to Mount Auburn in a letter in 1846. 60,000 people visited the cemetery in 1848 alone, the cemetery has three notable buildings on its grounds
23.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
24.
English landscape garden
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The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. The work of Lancelot Capability Brown was particularly influential, by the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a influence on the form of the public parks. These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture and these gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur. William Kent was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian style architecture to England and his gardens were designed to complement the Palladian architecture of the houses he built. He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions, Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river, for the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature. Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished, the patron was General Dormer, who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of gardens, including a grotto of Venus, on the slope along the river Cherwell, finally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama. Stowe, in Buckinghamshire, was a more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, bridgemans design included an octagonal lake and a Rotunda designed by Vanbrugh. In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and it became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent. Stourhead, in Wiltshire, created by banker Henry Hoare, was one of the first picturesque gardens, Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside and he created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a designer to that of a poet or composer. Here I put a comma, there, when its necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis, there I end it with a period, the most important were, Petworth in 1752, Chatsworth in 1761, Bowood in 1763, Blenheim Palace in 1764. Humphry Repton was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, to help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced Red Books with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show before and after views
25.
Moraine
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A moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions on Earth, through geomorphological processes. Moraines are formed from debris previously carried along by a glacier, lateral moraines are formed at the side of the ice flow and terminal moraines at the foot, marking the maximum advance of the glacier. Other types of moraine include ground moraines, till-covered areas with irregular topography, moraines may be composed of debris ranging in size from silt-sized glacial flour to large boulders. The debris is typically sub-angular to rounded in shape, moraines may be on the glacier’s surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted. Moraines may form through a number of processes, depending on the characteristics of sediment, the dynamics on the ice, moraine forming processes may be loosely divided into passive and active. Passive processes involve the placing of chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with limited reworking and these moraines are composed of supraglacial sediments from the ice surface. Active processes form or rework moraine sediment directly by the movement of ice and these form push moraines and thrust-block moraines, which are often composed of till and reworked proglacial sediment. Moraine may also form by the accumulation of sand and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating from the ice margin and these fan deposits may coalesce to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin. Several processes may combine to form and rework a single moraine, moraines can be classified either by origin, location with respect to a glacier or former glacier, or by shape. Some moraine types are only from ancient glaciers, while medial moraines of valley glaciers are poorly preserved. Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier, the unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by frost shattering of the valley walls and/or from tributary streams flowing into the valley. The till is carried along the glacial margin until the glacier melts, lateral moraines stand high because they protect the ice under them from the elements, causing it to melt or sublime less than the uncovered parts of the glacier. Multiple lateral moraines may develop as the glacier advances and retreats, ground moraines are till-covered areas with irregular topography and no ridges, often forming gently rolling hills or plains. They are accumulated at the base of the ice as lodgment till, in alpine glaciers, ground moraines are often found between the two lateral moraines. Ground moraines may be modified into drumlins by the overriding ice, Rogen moraines or ribbed moraines are a type of basal moraines that form a series of ribs perpendicular to the ice flow in an ice sheet. The depressions between the ribs are sometimes filled with water, making the Rogen moraines look like tigerstripes on aerial photographs, Rogen moraines are named after Lake Rogen in Härjedalen, Sweden, the landform’s type locality. End moraines, or terminal moraines, are ridges of unconsolidated debris deposited at the snout or end of the glacier and they usually reflect the shape of the glaciers terminus. Glaciers act much like a belt, carrying debris from the top of the glacier to the bottom where it deposits it in end moraines
26.
Battle of Long Island
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The Battle of Long Island is also known as the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Brooklyn Heights. It was fought on August 27,1776 and was the first major battle of the American Revolutionary War to take place after the United States declared its independence on July 4,1776. It was a victory for the British Army and the beginning of a campaign that gave them control of the strategically important city of New York. In terms of troop deployment and fighting, it was the largest battle of the entire war, Washington understood that the citys harbor would provide an excellent base for the British Navy during the campaign, so he established defenses there and waited for the British to attack. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guan Heights, unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, resulting in twenty percent losses through casualties and captures, the remainder of the army retreated to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. In the first stage of the war, the British Army was trapped in the city of Boston and they abandoned it on March 17, setting sail to Halifax. Washington then began to transfer regiments to New York City which he believed the British would next attack because of its strategic importance. Washington left Boston on April 4, arrived at New York on April 13, Washington had sent his second in command Charles Lee ahead to New York the previous February to establish the citys defenses. Lee remained in New York City until March, when the Continental Congress sent him to South Carolina, troops were in limited supply, so Washington found the defenses incomplete, but Lee had concluded that it would be impossible to hold the city with the British commanding the sea. He reasoned that the defenses should be located with the ability to inflict casualties upon the British if any move was made to take. Barricades and redoubts were established in and around the city, Lee also saw that the immediate area was cleared of Loyalists. Washington began moving troops to Brooklyn in early May, and there were several thousand of them there in a short time. Three more forts were under construction on the side of the East River to support Fort Stirling. These new fortifications were Fort Putnam, Fort Greene, and Fort Box and they lay from north to south, with Fort Putnam farthest to the north, Greene slightly to the southwest, and Box slightly farther southwest. Each of these structures was surrounded by a large ditch, all connected by a line of entrenchments. Fort Defiance was also being constructed at this time, located farther southwest, past Fort Box, hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways
27.
Frederick Ruckstull
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Frederick Wellington Ruckstull was a French-born American sculptor and art critic. Born Ruckstuhl in Breitenbach, Alsace, France, his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri and he worked at a variety of unsatisfying jobs until his early twenties when an art exhibition in St. Louis inspired him to become a sculptor. He studied art locally, visited Paris and then worked for years as a toy store clerk to save enough to study in Paris for three years, in 1885, Ruckstull entered the Académie Julian, and studied under Gustave Boulanger, Camille Lefèvre, Jean Dampt and Antonin Mercié. He considered studying with Auguste Rodin, but claimed to be disgusted with his style, on returning to U. S. in 1892, Ruckstull opened a studio in New York City. His work Evening won the medal for sculpture at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition. As a result of national exposure, he was commissioned to make an equestrian statue of Major-General John F. Hartranft for the Pennsylvania State University. In 1893, Ruckstull was appointed to teach modeling and marble carving at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Schools in New York City, Ruckstull was a founding member of the National Sculpture Society as well as the editor of the magazine Art World. In 1925 he wrote the book Great Works of Art and What Makes Them Great, a collection of essays he had published previously and his sculpture was in the figurative Beaux-Arts style, with its realism, and detailed modeling. He and other prominent sculptors of the era such as Daniel Chester French championed the French style of studio system teaching, art societies, following the Armory Show of 1913, he continued to represent the old guard of academic sculpture, a perspective clearly expressed in his book. Ruckstull married in 1896 and had one son and he died in New York at the age of 89 and was cremated. Capitol, Harrisburg Confederate Monument, Baltimore, Maryland Phoenicia New York Custom House Defense of the Flag, Little Rock, Arkansas Angels of the Confederacy, Columbia, frederick Ruckstull in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website
28.
Minerva
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Minerva was the Roman goddess of wisdom and sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She was born with weapons from the head of Jupiter, after impregnating the titaness Metis, Jupiter recalled a prophecy that his own child would overthrow him. Fearing that their child would grow stronger than he and rule the Heavens in his place, the titaness forged weapons and armor for her child while within the father-god, and the constant pounding and ringing gave him a headache. To relieve the pain, Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiters head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, whole, adult, from the 2nd century BC onwards, the Romans equated her with the Greek goddess Athena. She was the goddess of music, poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving. She is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named as the owl of Minerva, stemming from an Italic moon goddess *Meneswā, the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, *Menerwā, thereby calling her Menrva. It is assumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology, Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena, like Athena, Minerva was born from the head of her father, Jupiter. The word mens is built from the Proto-Indo-European root *men- mind, the Etruscan Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Capitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva. Minerva was the daughter of Jupiter, as Minerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and doctors. As Minerva Achaea, she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts, in Fasti III, Ovid called her the goddess of a thousand works. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere and her worship was also spread throughout the empire—in Britain, for example, she was syncretized with the local goddess Sulis, who was often invoked for restitution for theft. The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the plural, Quinquatria, the fifth after the Ides of March, the nineteenth. A lesser version, the Minusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, in 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus, the Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic. When it was founded, the emperor himself was present and was believed to be of divine nature as a result of its construction, Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman Emperors. She is often represented on the side of a coin holding an owl
29.
Statue of Liberty
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The Statue of Liberty is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the statue was dedicated on October 28,1886. The Statue of Liberty is a female figure representing Libertas. She holds a torch above her head, and in her left arm carries a tabula ansata inscribed July 4,1776, a broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, due to the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue, Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions. The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project attracted more than 120,000 contributors. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, the statues completion was marked by New Yorks first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War, public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, in order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, according to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulayes comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Sketches and models were made of the work, though it was never erected. There was a precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet high, any large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed, Bartholdis home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France
30.
Brooklyn Historical Society
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The Brooklyn Historical Society, founded in 1863, is a museum, library, and educational center preserving and encouraging the study of Brooklyns 400-year history. The societys Romanesque Revival building, located at Pierrepont and Clinton Streets in Brooklyn Heights, was designed by George B, post and built in 1878-81, is a National Historic Landmark and part of New York Citys Brooklyn Heights Historic District. The Brooklyn Historical Society houses materials relating to the history of Brooklyn and its people, the Brooklyn Historical Society was founded in 1863 by Henry Pierrepont as the Long Island Historical Society, with a charter from the New England Historical Society in Boston. In 1985, the society changed its name to the Brooklyn Historical Society, in December 2007, BHS opened the first gallery in the United States devoted to oral history. The first exhibition installed in the gallery was an installation of oral histories, photographs, documents, the societys headquarters building, on the corner of Pierrepoint and Clinton Streets, was built in 1878–81 and was designed by George B. Post in the Renaissance revival style, post was selected as a result of a competition between 14 architects. The building has been described as one of the Citys great architectural treasures, in October 1999, BHS began a full-scale restoration of the building, supervised by architect Jan Hird Pokorny, and reopened in 2003. Principal activities of BHS include education programs, which are organized around an educational concept of encouraging students to understand that history is connected to their lives. BHS programs link the study of American history to events and sites in the students’ own communities by introducing the investigation of primary source documents and neighborhood histories. BHS’s education programs focus on the ability of students to “read” primary source documents, including works of art, maps, photographs. Up to eight exhibitions each year are presented by BHS, ranging from retrospectives and historical surveys to more focused presentations that explore specific themes, installations from the collection have included a gallery of family portraits and another of landscape paintings. These installations rotate over time, providing visitors with access to BHS’ fine arts collections. The Brooklyn Historical Society possesses a collection of historical maps spanning the years ca, the geographic coverage of the collection includes the five boroughs of New York City, Long Island, New York State, New Jersey, New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the Eastern United States. The Oral History Collections contain interviews with over 300 narrators, a 2013 Oral History Project is called Crossing Borders, Bridging Generations. It is a public programming series and oral history project about mixed-heritage families, with historical perspective
31.
Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
32.
DeWitt Clinton
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DeWitt Clinton was an American politician and naturalist who served as a United States Senator and was the sixth Governor of New York. In this last capacity, he was responsible for the construction of the Erie Canal. Clinton was the leader of New Yorks Peoples Party and was a rival of Martin Van Buren. Clinton believed that improvements could transform American life, drive economic growth. He heavily influenced the development of New York State and the United States, DeWitt Clinton was born on March 2,1769, the second son born to James Clinton and his wife Mary DeWitt. He began his education at Princeton University, and then transferred to Kings College, Kings was renamed Columbia University, and Clinton was the first to graduate under the schools new name. He was the brother of George Clinton, Jr. who served in Congress, the half-brother of James G. Clinton, who served in Congress. He became the secretary to his uncle George Clinton, who was governor of New York. Soon after, he became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party and he was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1798, and of the New York State Senate from the Southern District in 1798–1802 and 1806–1811. He was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention in 1801 and he was a member of the Council of Appointments in 1801–1802 and 1806–1807. He won election by the New York State Legislature to the U. S. Senate seat left vacant by the resignation of John Armstrong, Jr. and served from February 9,1802 to November 4,1803. He resigned, unhappy with living conditions in newly built Washington and he served as Mayor from 1803 to 1807,1808 to 1810, and 1811 to 1815. While serving as Mayor, he organized the New-York Historical Society in 1804 and was its president and he also helped re-organize the American Academy of the Fine Arts in 1808, and served as its president between 1813 and 1817. He was a Regent of the University of the State of New York from 1808 to 1825, Clinton was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, and served as its vice president from 1821 to 1828. In 1816 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, from 1810 to 1824, he was a member of the Erie Canal Commission. He was among the first members, appointed in 1810, who projected and surveyed the route to be taken, after 1816, he became the driving force during the construction of the canal. In 1811, the death of John Broome left a vacancy in the office of Lieutenant Governor of New York. In a special election, Clinton defeated the Federalist Nicholas Fish, Clintons uncle, George Clinton, had attempted to challenge James Madison for the presidency in 1808, but was chosen as the partys vice presidential nominee instead
33.
SS Arctic
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SS Arctic was a 2, 856-ton paddle steamer, one of the Collins Line, which operated a transatlantic passenger and mail steamship service during the 1850s. She was the largest of a fleet of four, built with the aid of US government subsidies to challenge the supremacy of the British-backed Cunard Line. During its four-year period of service, the ship was renowned both for its speed and for the luxury of its accommodation. In September 1854, while on passage to New York from Liverpool, Arctic collided in fog with the French steamer Vesta off the coast of Newfoundland, from around 400 on board,24 male passengers and 61 crew survived, all the women and children died. No one was called to account for the disaster, and no enquiry was held. Lifeboat provision on passenger-carrying ships remained inadequate until well into the 20th century, thus, in 1845, the United States Postmaster General asked shipowners to tender for the right to operate a subsidized passenger and mails service between the US to Europe. The successful bidder, announced on March 3,1847, was Edward Knight Collins, the William H. Brown and the Jacob Bell shipyards were each contracted to build two large wooden paddle steamers, for use by Collins in a regular twice-monthly transatlantic mail service. The Collins line would receive a subsidy, initially of $385,000 a year. Arctic, built at Browns shipyard and designed by George Steers, was the third of the four ships to be launched, following SS Atlantic and SS Pacific, and was marginally the largest of the four. She was 284 feet in length, and measured at 2,856 tonnage by the US Custom House measurement then in use. Her two side-lever steam engines, which accounted for $250,000 of the construction cost of $700,000, were built and fitted by Stillman, Allan. Each generated 1,000 horsepower, turning the giant paddle wheels at 16 revolutions a minute at full speed, like her sister ships, Arctic was built to a luxurious standard, a contemporary description refers to her furnishings and fittings as giving an air of almost Oriental magnificence. The ladies saloon was described as a gorgeous yet beautiful apartment, brilliant with light as cheerful a scene as the heart could crave, Arctic was launched on January 28,1850, from Browns yard on New Yorks East River, before a large crowd. According to an account, she was the most stupendous vessel ever constructed in the United States, or the world. The New York Heralds reporter described the reaction as the ship slid into the water, Men waved their hats, ladies their handkerchiefs. The thousands who witnessed her launch for nearly half an hour, under her captain, James F. Luce, Arctic, now fully fitted out, underwent her sea trials during October 18–19,1850, in preparation for entering regular transatlantic service on October 26. That first voyage, to Liverpool, passed without incident and she became the most celebrated of the Collins ships, and was known as the clipper of the sea. In July 1854, Arctics engines were adapted, in the hopes of reducing the fuel costs that were helping to undermine the ships profitability
34.
Richard Upjohn
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Richard Upjohn was a British-born American architect who emigrated to the United States and became most famous for his Gothic Revival churches. He was partially responsible for launching the movement to such popularity in the United States, Upjohn also did extensive work in and helped to popularize the Italianate style. He was a founder and the first president of the American Institute of Architects and his son, Richard Mitchell Upjohn, was also a well-known architect and served as a partner in his continued architectural firm in New York. Richard Upjohn was born in Shaftesbury, England, where he was apprenticed to a builder and cabinet-maker and he and his family emigrated to the United States in 1829. They initially settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts and then moved on to Boston in 1833 and he became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1836. His first major project was for the entrances to the Boston Common and he had relocated to New York City by 1839 where he worked on alterations to the famed Trinity Church on Wall Street in lower Manhattan. The alterations were later abandoned and he was commissioned to design a new church, completed in 1846 and he published his extremely influential book, Upjohns rural architecture, Designs, working drawings and specifications for a wooden church, and other rural structures, in 1852. The designs in this publication were widely used across the country by builders, Upjohn, along with 13 other architects, co-founded the American Institute of Architects on February 23,1857. He served as president of organization from 1857 to 1876, being succeeded by Thomas Ustick Walter. He went on the many buildings in a variety of styles. He died at his home in Garrison, New York in 1878. C and he died on 16 August 1878 in Putnam County, New York of softening of the brain. Some of Upjohns notable projects include, William Rotch, Jr, marks Episcopal Church in Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania, Christ Church Episcopal in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, St. Thomas Episcopal Church in New York City, St. Stevens Hall in Hoboken, New Jersey, St. Marks Cathedral in Salt Lake City, Utah, Trinity Church in Princeton, New Jersey, agnes-by-the-Lake in Algoma, Wisconsin, Trinity Episcopal Church in Litchfield, Minnesota, Connecticut State Capitol building in Hartford, Connecticut, St
35.
Raising of Lazarus
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The Raising of Lazarus or the Resurrection of Lazarus, recounted only in the Gospel of John, is a miracle of Jesus in which Jesus brings Lazarus of Bethany back to life four days after his burial. In John, this is the last of the miracles that Jesus performs before the Passion, according to John 11, 1-44, Jesus receives a message that Lazarus is ill, and his two sisters are seeking his help. Jesus tells his followers, This sickness will not end in death, no, it is for Gods glory so that Gods Son may be glorified through it. Jesus then delays his departure two days, the disciples are afraid of returning to Judea, but Jesus says, Our friend Lazarus is asleep, but I am going to awaken him. When the apostles misunderstand, he clarifies, Lazarus is dead, when they arrive in Bethany, Lazarus has been dead and buried for four days. Before they enter the town, Martha, Lazarus sister, comes to meet Jesus and tells him, if you had been here, Jesus assures Martha that her brother will rise again and states, I am the resurrection and the life. He who believes in me will live, even though he dies, marthas affirmation that she does indeed believe, Yes, Lord. The only other time this happens in the gospel is in the explanation the author of the Gospel gives for writing his Gospel as the very end. Upon entering the village, Jesus is met by Mary and the Jewish people who have come to console her, upon seeing their grief and weeping, Jesus is deeply moved. Then, after asking where he was buried, the shortest verse in the four Gospels is found - Jesus wept, after that, Jesus asks for the stone of the grave to be removed, but Mary interjects that there will be a smell. To which Jesus responds, Did I not tell you if you believed. So they took away the stone, then Jesus looked up and said, Father, I thank you that you have heard me. I knew that you hear me, but I said this for the benefit of the people standing here. When he had said this, Jesus called in a voice, Lazarus. The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with strips of linen, Jesus said to them, Take off the grave clothes and let him go. The miracle of the raising of Lazarus is the climax of Johns signs and it explains the crowds seeking Jesus on Palm Sunday, and leads directly to the decision of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin to plan to kill Jesus. Theologians Moloney and Harrington view the raising of Lazarus as a miracle which starts the chain of events that leads to the Crucifixion of Jesus. They consider it as a resurrection that will lead to death, in that the raising of Lazarus will lead to the death of Jesus, life of Jesus in the New Testament Ministry of Jesus Seven signs in the Gospel of John
36.
Raising of the son of the widow of Nain
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The raising of the son of the widow of Nain is an account of a miracle by Jesus, recorded in the Gospel of Luke. Jesus arrived at the village of Nain during the ceremony of the son of a widow. The location is the village of Nain, two south of Mount Tabor. This is the first of three miracles of Jesus in the gospels in which he raises the dead, the other two being the raising of Jairus daughter and of Lazarus. The raising of the son of the woman of Shunem by Elisha is also similar, in particular, the location of Nain is very close to Shunem, identified with modern Sulam. Sinclair Ferguson calls attention to this as an example of a pattern in the history of redemption. Here is the great God and Saviour of Israel in the flesh, the woman in the story had lost both her husband and her only son, so that there was no one left to support her. As she could not have inherited the land, the loss of her son would have left her dependent on the charity of more distant relatives. Ministry of Jesus Miracles of Jesus New Testament places associated with Jesus Parables of Jesus Church of the Resurrection of the Widows Son
37.
Resurrection of Jesus
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The resurrection of Jesus is the Christian religious belief that, after being put to death, Jesus rose again from the dead. It is the central tenet of Christian theology and part of the Nicene Creed, Paul the Apostle declared that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, And that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures. Paul further asserted And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile, then those also who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished. If in Christ we have hope in life only, we are of all people most to be pitied. Christians celebrate the resurrection of Jesus on Easter Sunday, two days after Good Friday, the day of his crucifixion. Easters date corresponds roughly with Passover, the Jewish observance associated with the Exodus, in the New Testament all four gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesuss arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and his resurrection. In each gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, the death and resurrection of Jesus are treated as the climax of the story, the point to which everything else has been moving all the while. After his death by crucifixion, Jesus was placed in a new tomb which was discovered early Sunday morning to be empty, the New Testament does not include an account of the moment of resurrection. In the Eastern Church icons do not depict that moment, but show the myrrhbearers, the major resurrection appearances of Jesus in the canonical gospels are reported to have occurred after his death, burial and resurrection, but prior to his ascension. This was in accordance with Mosaic Law, which stated that a person hanged on a tree must not be allowed to remain there at night, but should be buried before sundown. All four gospels report that women were the ones to find the tomb of Jesus empty, according to Mark and Luke, the announcement of Jesus resurrection was first made to women. According to Mark and John, Jesus actually appeared first to Mary Magdalene alone, in the gospels, especially the synoptics, women play a central role as eyewitnesses at Jesus death, entombment, and in the discovery of the empty tomb. All three synoptics repeatedly make women the subject of verbs of seeing, clearly presenting them as eyewitnesses, after they found the empty tomb, the gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples. He was not immediately recognizable, according to Luke, E. P. Sanders concluded that although he could appear and disappear, he was not a ghost. Writing that Luke was very insistent about that, Sanders pointed out that the risen Lord could be touched and he first appeared to Mary Magdalene, but she did not recognize him at first. The first two disciples to whom he appeared, walked and talked with him for quite a while without knowing who he was and he was made known in the breaking of the bread. Beside the Sea of Galilee he encouraged Peter to serve his followers and his final appearance is reported as being forty days after the resurrection when he was carried up into heaven where he sits on the right hand of God
38.
Swiss chalet style
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Swiss chalet style is an architectural style of Late Historicism, originally inspired by rural chalets in Switzerland and the Alpine regions of Central Europe. The style refers to building designs characterised by widely projecting roofs and facades richly decorated with wooden balconies. It spread over Germany, Austria-Hungary and Scandinavia during the Belle Époque era and it became highly appreciated on the continent by noble landowners who were impressed by the simple life of people living in the mountains. The chalet style soon spread over the German Mittelgebirge landscapes such as the Harz mountains or the Dresden area, as a modern building style, it also influenced the resort architecture along the Baltic seaside, like in Binz or Heringsdorf. Around 1900, design elements were used in the construction of numerous bourgeois family homes as well as by notable architects like Heinrich von Ferstel to build larger mansions, swiss Chalet, P. F. Robinson, architect,1827
39.
Monk parakeet
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The monk parakeet, also known as the Quaker parrot, is a small, bright-green parrot with a greyish breast and greenish-yellow abdomen. In most taxonomies, it is classified as the member of the genus Myiopsitta. It originates from the temperate to subtropical areas of Argentina and the countries in South America. Self-sustaining feral populations occur in places, mainly in North America. The nominate subspecies of this parakeet is 29 cm long on average, with a 48 cm wingspan, females tend to be 10–20% smaller, but can only be reliably sexed by DNA or feather testing. The forehead and breast are gray with darker scalloping and the rest of the underparts are very light-green to yellow. The remiges are dark blue, and the tail is long and tapering, the call is a loud and throaty chape or quak quaki quak-wi quarr, and screeches skveet. Domestic breeds in other than the natural plumage have been produced. These include birds with white, blue, and yellow in place of green, as such coloration provides less camouflage, feral birds are usually of wild-type coloration. Myiopsitta monachus is the widely accepted member of the genus Myiopsitta. However, the cliff parakeet subspecies may eventually be recognized as a species again and it is now included with the monk parakeet because too little up-to-date research exists on which an authoritative taxonomic decision could be based. The American Ornithologists Union, for example, has deferred recognizing the cliff parakeet as distinct because of insufficient published data, smaller than monachus, wings more prominently blue, gray of head darker. M. m. cotorra – southwestern Brazil throughout the Río Paraguay, essentially identical to calita but reported as less yellow below and brighter overall. Cliff parakeet, M. luchsi – Andean valleys of central Bolivia between 1, 000/1,300 and 3,000 m ASL, roughly from southeastern La Paz to northern Chuquisaca departments, essentially the same range as the red-fronted macaw. Smaller, with clearer plumage pattern, no scalloping on breast, underparts brighter yellow, the first three subspecies ranges meet in the general area of Paraguay, and there they are insufficiently delimited. The distinctness and delimitation of M. m. calita and M. m. cotorra especially require further study, regarding the cliff parakeet, its altitudinal range apparently does not overlap with the other two, and that it is thus entirely, but just barely, allopatric. Like the other parrots, the monk parakeet is usually placed in the tribe Arini. M. monachus belongs to the clade of these – macaws and conures, essentially
40.
Brooklyn Theatre fire
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The Brooklyn Theatre Fire was a catastrophic theatre fire that broke out on the evening of December 5,1876, in the then-city of Brooklyn. The conflagration killed at least 278 individuals, with some accounts reporting more than 300 dead, one hundred and three unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the entrance at Fifth Avenue and 25th Street marks the burial site. More than two dozen identified victims were interred individually in separate sections at the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, fatalities mainly arose in the family circle, typically the highest tier of seats in a theatre and offering the least expensive seating. Only one stairway served this gallery, which sustained extreme temperatures and dense, the stairway jammed with people, cutting off the escape of more than half of the gallerys occupants, who quickly succumbed to smoke inhalation. The Brooklyn Theatre opened on October 2,1871, and stood near the southeast corner of Washington and Johnson streets and it was owned by The Brooklyn Building Association, a partnership of affluent Brooklyn residents including Abner C. Keeney, William Kingsley, and Judge Alexander McCue, after its destruction, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle called it Brooklyns principal theatre. Up until the last twenty months of its existence, the theatre had been managed by Sara, Conway, a couple long involved in New York and Brooklyn theatre and who had managed Brooklyns Park Theatre from 1864 to 1871. Sara Conway died in April 1875, about a half a year after her husband, following an unsuccessful management stint by their children, Minnie, Lillian and Frederick Jr. Albert M. The Brooklyn Theatre stood a block from Fulton Street, the thoroughfare to the Manhattan ferries. Both Conway and Shook and Palmer sought out upscale productions with well-known actors, the Brooklyn Theatre became a well-respected house in Brooklyns nascent theatre district, which included the smaller and older Park, Olympic, and Globe theatres. Shook and Palmer were already enjoying success with their Union Square Theatre Company in New York and their speciality was the adaptation of French plays to the American stage. The Two Orphans, featuring Miss Kate Claxton, which was presented on the night of the fire, was a melodrama about two young homeless orphans separated by abduction, one was blind and fell into poverty-stricken circumstances, the other was kidnapped into an affluent household. It had been a successful play, running for 180 performances in 1874 at the Union Square Theatre. Originally Les Deux Orphelines, by Adolphe dEnnery and Eugène Cormon, Shook and Palmer brought it to the Brooklyn Theatre in March 1876 after an American tour, including one performance at the Brooklyn Theatre on April 12,1875, two weeks before Sara Conways death. The 1876 run at the Brooklyn Theatre was well received but was ending, designed by Thomas R. Jackson, The Brooklyn Theatre was constructed in 1871 according to Sara Conways specifications. The theatre occupied an L-shaped lot, with the proscenium theatre occupying the 127-by-70-foot wing fronting Johnson Street, the stage and scene doors opened onto Johnson Street from this wing. The scene doors were 20 ft wide, large enough to accommodate scenic flats, the stage doors were smaller, but still could accommodate people carrying heavy loads
41.
Cemetery of the Evergreens
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The Cemetery of the Evergreens is a non-denominational cemetery in Brooklyn and Queens, New York, colloquially called Evergreen Cemetery. It was incorporated in 1849, not long after the passage of New Yorks Rural Cemetery Act spurred development of cemeteries outside Manhattan, for a time, it was the busiest cemetery in New York City, in 1929 there were 4,673 interments. The cemetery borders Brooklyn and Queens and covers 225 acres of rolling hills and it features several thousand trees and flowering shrubs in a park-like setting. The Evergreens is the resting place of more than 526,000 people. The Evergreens was built on the principle of the rural cemetery, two of the eras most noted landscape architects, Andrew Jackson Downing and Alexander Jackson Davis, were instrumental in the layout of the cemetery grounds. The Evergreens has a monument to eight unidentified victims of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of March 25,1911, in 2011, researchers were able to provide names to these last eight dead. There are also 17 British Commonwealth service personnel buried in the cemetery,13 from World War I and 4 from World War II, the cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 15,2007. Cypress Hills Cemetery lies to its northwest, John Bunny, actor Anthony Comstock, censor Bill Dahlen, Major League Baseball player, one of the outstanding early 20th century players. These workers were identified later as Maria Giuseppa Lauletti, Max Florin, Concetta Prestifilippo, Josephine Cammarata, Dora Evans, list of United States cemeteries Rousmaniere, John. Green Oasis in Brooklyn, The Evergreens Cemetery 1849–2008, ISBN 978-0-9786899-4-0 Evergreens Cemetery official home page
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Commonwealth War Graves Commission
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The Commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II. The Commission was founded by Fabian Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 named the Imperial War Graves Commission, the change to the present name took place in 1960. The Commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally, to this end, the war dead are commemorated by name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, the Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries. Since its inception, the Commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries, the Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide. The Commission operates through the financial support of the member states, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India. The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward, at the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Fabian Ware, a director of the Rio Tinto Company, found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army. He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman, Viscount Milner, the new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916. When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British, similar negotiations began with the Belgian government. As reports of the grave registration work became public, the Commission began to receive letters of enquiry, by 1917,17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives. In March 1915, the Commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints, the directorates work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia. As the war continued, Ware and others concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration, the government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department. By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help of Edward, Prince of Wales, Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted, the Commissions undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified, the scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead
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Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
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