1.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
2.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
3.
Fredrikinkatu
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The majority of Fredrikinkatu is a one-way street going north, although Helsinkis tram lines on it run in both directions between the Viiskulma intersection and Bulevardi. Tram lines are also being laid along Fredrikinkatu between Urho Kekkosen katu and Arkadiankatu, Fredrikinkatu 21, Ratakatu 12, the headquarters of Suojelupoliisi, designed by E. Sihvola in 1888. Fredrikinkatu 44, Sähkötalo, designed by Alvar Aalto, Sähkötalo is located across Fredrikinkatu from Kamppi Center. The majority of the buildings along Fredrikinkatu are full of shops and boutiques
4.
Helsinki
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Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
5.
Green politics
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Green politics is a political ideology that aims to create an ecologically sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, nonviolence, social justice, and grassroots democracy. The political term Green was used initially in relation to die Grünen, supporters of green politics share many ideas with the ecology, conservation, environmentalism, feminism, and peace movements. The partys platform is considered left in the political spectrum. Adherents to green politics tend to consider it to be part of a higher worldview, Green politics draws its ethical stance from a variety of sources, from the values of indigenous peoples, to the ethics of Gandhi, Spinoza and Uexküll. These people influenced green thought in their advocacy of long-term seventh generation foresight, of course, unease about adverse consequences of human actions on nature predates the modern concept of “environmentalism. Social commentators as far apart as ancient Rome and China complained of air, water, the philosophical roots of environmentalism can be traced back to enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau in France and, later, the author and naturalist Thoreau in America. Organised environmentalism began in late 19th Century Europe and the United States as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution with its emphasis on unbridled economic expansion, “Green politics” first began as conservation and preservation movements, such as the Sierra Club, founded in San Francisco in 1892. In the 1970s, as these grew in influence, green politics arose as a new philosophy which synthesized their goals. The Kabouters were an outgrowth of Provo’s environmental White Plans and they proposed “Groene Plannen”, in May 1972, a meeting at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, launched the Values Party, the worlds first countrywide green party to contest Parliamentary seats nationally. A year later in 1973, Europes first green party, the UKs Ecology Party and they started as a provisional coalition of civic groups and political campaigns which, together, felt their interests were not expressed by the conventional parties. This statement of principles has since been utilised by many Green Parties around the world and it was this party that first coined the term Green and adopted the sunflower symbol. In the 1983 federal election, the Greens won 27 seats in the Bundestag, the first Canadian foray into green politics took place in the Maritimes when 11 independent candidates ran in the 1980 federal election under the banner of the Small Party. Inspired by Schumachers Small is Beautiful, the Small Party candidates ran for the purpose of putting forward an anti-nuclear platform in that election. It was not registered as a party, but some participants in that effort went on to form the Green Party of Canada in 1983. Current Green Party of Canada leader Elizabeth May was the instigator and one of the candidates, in Finland, in 1995, the Green League became the first European Green Party to form part of a state-level Cabinet. The German Greens followed, forming a government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany from 1998 to 2005 and this put them at odds with many Greens worldwide, but demonstrated that they were capable of difficult political tradeoffs. In 2015, Emsis party colleague, Raimonds Vējonis, was elected President of Latvia by the Latvian parliament, Vējonis became the first green head of state worldwide. In the German state of Baden-Württenburg, the Green Party became the leader of the coalition with the Social Democrats after finishing second in the Baden-Württemberg state election,2011
6.
Political spectrum
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A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions. Most long-standing spectra include a wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution. According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left, sometimes on the right. Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates, politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics. Political scientists have noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs. As seen from the Speakers seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right, originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the Ancien Régime. The Right thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while The Left implied support for republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original Left represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie and their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their interests lay with the laissez-faire policies of those representing them politically. As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were replaced by capitalist representatives. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, for almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. In 1950, Leonard W. Submitting the results to factor analysis and this system was derived empirically, rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Fergusons research was exploratory. As a result of method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Fergusons three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract factor whether an objectively real factor exists or not. Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism and Humanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson, shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something similar about the National Socialists on the one hand. Submitting this value questionnaire to the process of factor analysis used by Ferguson. Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, Eysencks dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden, France, and Japan. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded, in this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more dominant and more aggressive than control groups
7.
European Green Party
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The European Green Party is the European political party that operates as a federation of political parties across Europe supporting green politics. The EGP cooperates with the European Free Alliance to form the Greens–European Free Alliance parliamentary group in the European parliament, the European Green Party was founded on 22 February 2004 at the Fourth Congress of the European Federation of Green Parties in Rome attended by over 1,000 delegates. Thirty-four Green parties from all over Europe have joined this new pan-European party, the Greens were the first to form a political party at European level. The other European political federations followed suit in the period 2004–06, for the Greens this was the culmination of a process which had started with the formation of a loose co-ordination 1979–93 and the EFGP 1993–2004. Although some parties polled well, no Green entered the European Parliament, in the 1984 election the Greens participated again. They held a congress in the spring of 1984 in Liège and set up a restructured European Green Coordination and they also issued a Joint Declaration of the European Green Parties. Furthermore, overall the member parties had grown stronger, eleven MEPs of member parties were elected to the European Parliament. They formed the Green Alternative European Link in the European Parliament, the European Greens formed a loose confederal triangular structure with the autonomous GRAEL in parliament, the weak EGC as a supra-national co-ordinating body and the member parties. The position of the European Greens was also weakened by the principle of rotation which some member parties used and this way each party would have a representative in the EP. Finally, there still was considerable diversity in the opinions of the Greens and these factors weakened the position of the Greens in Parliament. In the 1989 election the Green parties won 26 seats, because of political conflicts with the continuing Rainbow Group, the European Greens formed a separate parliamentary group, The Green Group in the European Parliament. During this period, the Greens became more entrenched in parliament, in June 1993 the European Federation of Green Parties was formed by the members of the EGC in Kirkkonummi, Finland. The organisation became more structured, it now had a triennial Congress, a Council and it strengthened its ties with the Green Group in the European parliament. In the 1994 European elections Green parties won a total of 20 seats and they were joined by a member of the Danish Socialist Peoples Party and one member of both the Italian South Tyrolean Peoples Party and The Network. Again the Greens formed a group from Rainbow Group, now renamed the European Radical Alliance. In the 1999 European elections the European Greens performed particularly well winning 38 seats and they formed a combined group with the European Free Alliance, which represented regionalist parties and independence movements, which previously participated in the European Radical Alliance. The relationship between the Greens and these parties was different from before, as the Greens were stronger both numerically and politically. The European Green Party was founded at the Fourth Congress of the European Federation of Green Parties on 20–22 February 2004 in Rome, thirty-two Green parties from all over Europe joined this new pan-European party
8.
Global Greens
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The Global Greens is an international network of Green parties and political movements that works to implement the Global Greens Charter. As of November 2013 the network had 91 full member parties and 19 observers, the Charter of the Global Greens professes core values of ecological wisdom, social justice, participatory democracy, nonviolence, sustainability and respect for diversity. Priorities include reforming the dominant economic model, tackling climate change, ending the crisis, promoting vibrant democracy, working for peace. The Global Greens were founded in 2001 in Canberra, Australia at the First Global Greens Congress, the Second Global Greens Congress was held in 2008 in São Paulo, Brazil. The Third Global Greens Congress was held in Dakar, Senegal in 2012, the next Global Green Congress will be held spring 2017 in Liverpool. Affiliated members in Asia, Pacific and Oceania form the Asia-Pacific Green Network, affiliated parties in Africa form the Federation of Green Parties of Africa. Affiliated members in Europe form the European Green Party
9.
Parliament of Finland
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The Eduskunta is the parliament of Finland. The unicameral parliament has 200 members and normally meets in the Parliament House in Helsinki, however, during the 2015–2017 renovation of the Parliament House, the parliament temporary meets in the nearby Sibelius Academy. The latest election to the parliament took place on April 19,2015, under the Constitution of Finland, the 200-member unicameral parliament exercises supreme decision-making authority in Finland. Sovereignty belongs to the people and that power is vested in the parliament and it passes legislation, decides on the state budget, approves international treaties, and supervises the activities of the government. It may alter the constitution, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, legislation may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the members of the Eduskunta. To make changes to the Constitution, amendments must be approved twice by the Eduskunta, the Eduskuntas 200 representatives are elected directly by secret ballot on the basis of proportional representation. The electoral period is four years, Elections previously took two days but as early voting became popular they are now conducted on one day, since 2011 the third Sunday in April. Every citizen who is at least 18 years of age by the date is entitled to vote in general elections. All registered parties are entitled to nominate candidates, individual citizens, in parliamentary elections, Finland is divided into 13 electoral districts. The number of representatives returned by each district depends on the population, Åland is an exception in that it always elects one representative. The provincial state offices appoint a board in each electoral district to prepare lists of candidates. The Ministry of Justice is ultimately responsible for elections, prior to the new constitution the President had the power to do this independently. The President has called an early election eight times in Finnish history, however, there is no hard and fast election threshold to get a seat in Parliament. In large part due to this, it is impossible for one party to win an outright majority. Since the first election in 1907, only one party has won a majority—in the election of 1916. Since Finland gained independence in 1917, no party has won the 101 seats necessary for a majority and it is also very difficult for the socialist and non-socialist blocs to form a government on their own. Most Finnish governments in recent history have been coalitions between three or more parties, and many of them have been coalitions between socialist and non-socialist parties. The seats for each district are assigned according to the dHondt method
10.
European Parliament
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The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community
11.
Politics of Finland
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Politics of Finland takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic and of a multi-party system. The President of Finland is the head of state, leads the foreign policy, the Prime Minister of Finland is the head of government, executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Finland, and the government has limited rights to amend or extend legislation, the president has the power of veto over parliamentary decisions although it can be overrun by the parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, the Judiciary consists of two systems, regular courts and administrative courts, headed by the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court, respectively. Administrative courts process cases where decisions are contested. There is no Constitutional Court - the constitutionality of a law can be contested only as applied to a court case. Though Finland has a parliamentary system, the president has some notable powers. The foreign policy is led by the president, in co-operation with the cabinet, the main executive power lies in the cabinet headed by the prime minister. Before the constitutional rewrite, which was completed in 2000, the president enjoyed more power, finns enjoy individual and political freedoms, and suffrage is universal at 18, Finnish women became the first in the world to have unrestricted rights both to vote and to stand for parliament. The countrys population is homogeneous with no sizable immigrant population. Few tensions exist between the Finnish-speaking majority and the Swedish-speaking minority, although in certain circles there is a debate about the status of the Swedish language. The labor agreements also pose significant political questions, bargaining is highly centralized and often the government participates to coordinate fiscal policy. Finland has universal validity of collective agreements and often, but not always, the trade unions, employers. Significant trade unions are SAK, STTK, AKAVA and EK, the current Constitution was rewritten on 1 March 2000, the first was adopted on 17 July 1919. The original comprised four constitutional laws and several amendments, which the latter replaces, the Supreme Court may request legislation that interprets or modifies existing laws. Judges are appointed by the President, in principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by a simple vote in the parliament. However, the Constitutional Law Committee of the parliament reviews any doubtful bills and recommends changes, in practice, the Constitutional Law Committee fulfills the duties of a constitutional court. A Finnish peculiarity is the possibility of making exceptions to the constitution in ordinary laws that are enacted in the procedure as constitutional amendments
12.
Green party
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A Green party is a formally organized political party based on the principles of green politics, such as social justice, environmentalism and nonviolence. Greens believe that issues are inherently related to one another as a foundation for world peace. Green party platforms typically embrace social-democratic economic policies and forming coalitions with leftists, Green parties exist in nearly 90 countries around the world, many are members of Global Greens. There are distinctions between green parties and Green parties, any party, faction, or politician may be labeled green if it emphasizes environmental causes. Indeed, the term may even be used as a verb, Greens believe that these issues are inherently related to one another as a foundation for world peace. The best-known statement of the above Green values is the Four Pillars of the Green Party, the Global Greens Charter lists six guiding principles which are ecological wisdom, social justice, participatory democracy, nonviolence, sustainability and respect for diversity. Political parties campaigning on an environmental platform arose in the early 1970s in various parts of the world. Their use of the name Green derived from the Green Bans, the first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party. The first political party to use the name Green seems to have been the Lower Saxon Green List for Environmental Protection and they were founded in 1980 and have been in coalition governments at state level for some years. They were in government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany in a so-called Red-Green alliance from 1998 to 2005. In 2001, they reached an agreement to end reliance on power in Germany. This put them at odds with many Greens worldwide, in Finland, in 1995, the Finnish Green Party was the first European Green party to be part of a national Cabinet. Other Green parties that have participated in government at national level include the Groen. and Ecolo in Belgium, Les Verts in France, in the Netherlands GroenLinks was founded in 1990 from four small left-wing parties and is now a stable faction in the Dutch parliament. Around the world, individuals have formed many Green parties over the last thirty years, Green parties now exist in most countries with democratic systems, from Canada to Peru, from Norway to South Africa, from Ireland to Mongolia. There is Green representation at national, regional and local levels in countries around the world. Most of the Green parties are formed to win elections, but that does not apply universally, The Green Party of Alaska is organized along bioregional lines to practice bioregional democracy. Depending on local conditions or issues, platforms and alliances may vary, in line with the goal of democracy, neighboring ecoregions may require different policies or protections
13.
Ecosophy
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Ecosophy or ecophilosophy is a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium. The term was coined by the Norwegian father of ecology, Arne Næss. Naess defined ecosophy in the way, By an ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium. A philosophy as a kind of wisdom, is openly normative. Wisdom is policy wisdom, prescription, not only scientific description and prediction, the details of an ecosophy will show many variations due to significant differences concerning not only the facts of pollution, resources, population, etc. but also value priorities. While a professor at University of Oslo in 1972, Arne Næss, introduced the deep ecology movement. Naess based his article on a talk he gave in Bucharest in 1972 at the Third World Future Research Conference, naesss view of humans as an integral part of a total-field image of Nature contrasts with the alternative construction of ecosophy outlined by Guattari. The term ecological wisdom, synonymous with ecosophy, was introduced by Næss in 1973, the concept has become one of the foundations of the deep ecology movement. It is also associated with indigenous religion and cultural practices. In its political context, it is not as easily defined as ecological health or scientific ecology concepts. Ecosophy also refers to a field of practice introduced by psychoanalyst, poststructuralist philosopher, Ecology in the Guattarian sense, then, is a study of complex phenomena, including human subjectivity, the environment, and social relations, all of which are intimately interconnected. Without modifications to the social and material environment, there can be no change in mentalities, here, we are in the presence of a circle that leads me to postulate the necessity of founding an ecosophy that would link environmental ecology to social ecology and to mental ecology. Ecology Global Greens Charter Green syndicalism Simple living Spiritual ecology Sustainable living Yin and yang Environmental philosophy Drengson, the Deep Ecology Movement, An Introductory Anthology. In, Genosko, Gary, The Guattari Reader, on the Importance of Being Tribal, Tribal Wisdom. Millennium, Tribal Wisdom and the Modern World, the Shallow and the Deep Long-Range Ecology Movement, A Summary. Inquiry,16, 95-100 Drengson A. & B, berkeley, Counterpoint Ecophilosophy, Ecosophy and the Deep Ecology Movement, An Overview by Alan Drengson Ecospherics. net. Transversalising the Ecological Turn, Four Components of Felix Guattari’s Ecosophical Perspective by John Tinnell Fibreculturejournal. org, the Trumpeter, A Journal of Ecosophy
14.
Social justice
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Social justice is the fair and just relation between the individual and society. This is measured by the explicit and tacit terms for the distribution of wealth, opportunities for personal activity, in the current global grassroots movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, while the concept of social justice can be traced through the theology of Augustine of Hippo and the philosophy of Thomas Paine, the term social justice became used explicitly from the 1840s. A Jesuit priest named Luigi Taparelli is typically credited with coining the term, in the late industrial revolution, progressive American legal scholars began to use the term more, particularly Louis Brandeis and Roscoe Pound. In the later 20th century, social justice was made central to the philosophy of the social contract, in 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action treats social justice as a purpose of the human rights education. The different concepts of justice, as discussed in ancient Western philosophy, were centered upon the community. Plato wrote in The Republic that it would be a state that every member of the community must be assigned to the class for which he finds himself best fitted. In an article for J. N. V University, author D. R, bhandari says, Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and the bond, which joins man together in society. It is the quality that makes good and social. Justice is an order and duty of the parts of the soul, Plato says that justice is not mere strength, but it is a harmonious strength. Justice is not the right of the stronger but the harmony of the whole. All moral conceptions revolve about the good of the whole-individual as well as social, reflecting this time when slavery and subjugation of women was typical, ancient views of justice tended to reflect the rigid class systems that still prevailed. On the other hand, for the groups, strong concepts of fairness. Distributive justice was said by Aristotle to require that people were distributed goods, socrates is attributed with developing the idea of a social contract, whereby people ought to follow the rules of a society, and accept its burdens because they have accepted its benefits. After the Renaissance and Reformation, the concept of social justice, as developing human potential. The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, all that extent of capacity which never fails to appear in revolutions. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice, towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge. In the later 19th and early 20th century, social justice became an important theme in American political and legal philosophy, particularly in the work of John Dewey, Roscoe Pound, from this point, the discussion of social justice entered into mainstream legal and academic discourse
15.
Nonviolence
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Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthankara of the Jain religion, was the torch-bearer of ahimsa and introduced the word to the world and he taught that to attain nirvana, one must abstain from violence. Nonviolence also has active or activist elements, in that believers accept the need for nonviolence as a means to political and social change. In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a tool for social protest. There are many examples of their use, fuller surveys may be found in the entries on civil resistance, nonviolent resistance and nonviolent revolution. The 1989 Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989. Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of Leymah Gbowee and the women of Liberia were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war and this story is captured in a 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell. In an essay, To Abolish War, evolutionary biologist Judith Hand advocated the use of nonviolent direct action to dismantle the global war machine. The term nonviolence is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists. Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isnt. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, there is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts, for example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person. On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent, the forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals, nicolas Walter noted the idea that nonviolence might work runs under the surface of Western political thought without ever quite disappearing. Walter noted Étienne de La Boéties Discourse on Voluntary Servitude and P. B, shelleys The Masque of Anarchy contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence. In 1838, William Lloyd Garrison helped found the New England Non-Resistance Society, in modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and womens movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in undermining the power of political regimes in the developing world. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends
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Deep ecology
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Deep ecology argues that the natural world is a subtle balance of complex inter-relationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the existence of others within ecosystems. Human interference with or destruction of the natural world poses a threat not only to humans. The movement does not subscribe to anthropocentric environmentalism since deep ecology is grounded in a different set of philosophical assumptions. Deep ecology takes a holistic view of the world human beings live in. Three of the most influential ecological spokespersons of the 1960s were Rachel Carson, David Brower, some consider the publication of Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring as the beginning of the contemporary, long-range deep ecology movement. Carsons writings were especially influential because they showed how human well-being depends on the condition of whole biotic communities. She explained in terms how living beings are interrelated within ecosystems. She explained how pesticides used to control mosquitoes and other led to declines in some bird populations. “Silent Spring” helped show how complex food webs and networks of biotic relationships function, since humans are at the top of many food chains, exposure to chemicals becomes more concentrated as these move up the chains. The chemicals also can be stored in tissues and gradually accumulate over time. Carson showed the need for changes in human practices and ways of living. The 1960s was a decade of social activism in the United States, Canada, Western Europe. Some activism focused on war and peace and the issue of nuclear weapons, a well-known early environmental organization started with a focus on nuclear tests and their environmental hazards. Some people in British Columbia, Canada, were opposed to the test of a weapon by the US government on Amchitka Island. They hired a vessel and sailed towards the nuclear test site in protest. This action led to the founding of Greenpeace, which became identified with environmental issues as time went by. These great movements were catalyzed by the now iconic images of the whole Earth floating in space taken during the return of the Apollo space missions from their journey to the moon. Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be exploited by humans
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Ecofeminism
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Ecofeminism is a term that links feminism with ecology. Its advocates say that society has led to a harmful split between nature and culture. Early ecofeminists propagated that the split can only be healed by the feminine instinct for nurture, Ecofeminism describes movements and philosophies that link feminism with ecology. This movement seeks to eradicate all forms of injustice, not just injustice against women. The term is believed to have coined by the French writer Françoise dEaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort. All of these groups have been subject to oppression, domination, exploitation. Ecofeminists believe that these connections are illustrated through traditionally feminine values such as reciprocity, nurturing and cooperation, the marginalization is evident in the gendered language used to describe nature and the animalized language used to describe women. Some discourses link women specifically to the environment because of their social role as a nurturer and caregiver. As there are different types of feminism and different beliefs held by feminists. In the 1993 essay entitled Ecofeminism, Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health authors Greta Gaard, the essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to laying out the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. They hold that these four factors have brought us to what ecofeminists see as a separation between nature and culture that is the source of our planetary ills. Vandana Shiva says that women have a connection to the environment through their daily interactions. She says that women in subsistence economies who produce wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic, Shiva blames this failure on the Wests patriarchy, and the patriarchal idea of what development is. According to Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women, nature, Ecofeminism was coined as a term in the 1970s. Women participated in the movements, specifically preservation and conservation. Beginning in the late 20th century, women worked in efforts to protect wildlife, food, air and these efforts depended largely on new developments in the environmental movement from influential writers, such as Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, John Muir, and Rachel Carson. Fundamental examples of efforts in the 20th century are the books Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. These works truly opened Americans eyes to the harm they were perpetuating
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Eco-socialism
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Eco-socialism, green socialism or socialist ecology is an ideology merging aspects of socialism with that of green politics, ecology and alter-globalization or anti-globalization. Eco-socialists advocate dismantling capitalism, focusing on common ownership of the means of production by freely associated producers, caroline Lucas, leader of the Green Party of England and Wales, has described her partys brand of socialism as appealing to both middle-class environmentalists as well as working-class socialists. Eco-socialists are critical of many past and existing forms of both Green politics and socialism and they are often described as Red Greens - adherents to Green politics with clear anti-capitalist views, often inspired by Marxism. Brookes, both critics of environmentalism, and is common in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, eco-socialists also criticise bureaucratic and elite theories of self-described socialism such as Maoism, Stalinism and what other critics have termed bureaucratic collectivism or state capitalism. Instead, eco-socialists focus on imbuing socialism with ecology while keeping the emancipatory goals of first-epoch socialism, eco-socialists aim for communal ownership of the means of production by freely associated producers with all forms of domination eclipsed, especially gender inequality and racism. This often includes the restoration of land in opposition to private property. William Morris, the English novelist, poet and designer, is credited with developing key principles of what was later called eco-socialism. During the 1880s and 1890s, Morris promoted his eco-socialist ideas within the Social Democratic Federation, Green anarchism, or ecoanarchism, is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden as well as Leo Tolstoy and Elisee Reclus. In the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba and Portugal. Several anarchists from the century, including Herbert Read, Ethel Mannin, Leopold Kohr, Jacques Ellul. Important contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology, Social ecology is closely related to the work and ideas of Murray Bookchin and influenced by anarchist Peter Kropotkin. Social ecologists assert that the present ecological crisis has its roots in human social problems, in 1958, Murray Bookchin defined himself as an anarchist, seeing parallels between anarchism and ecology. His first book, Our Synthetic Environment, was published under the pseudonym Lewis Herber in 1962, the book described a broad range of environmental ills but received little attention because of its political radicalism. His groundbreaking essay Ecology and Revolutionary Thought introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics, lecturing throughout the United States, he helped popularize the concept of ecology to the counterculture. Post-Scarcity Anarchism is a collection of written by Murray Bookchin. It outlines the possible form anarchism might take under conditions of post-scarcity and it is one of Bookchins major works, and its radical thesis provoked controversy for being utopian and messianic in its faith in the liberatory potential of technology. Bookchin argues that societies are also post-scarcity societies, and can thus imagine the fulfillment of the social and cultural potentialities latent in a technology of abundance
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Green anarchism
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Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. A green anarchist theory is one that extends anarchist ideology beyond a critique of human interactions. Important early influences were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and Élisée Reclus, in the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba, and Portugal. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of American anarchist and transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. The work is part personal declaration of independence, social experiment, voyage of discovery, satire. The book compresses the time into a calendar year and uses passages of four seasons to symbolize human development. By immersing himself in nature, Thoreau hoped to gain a more understanding of society through personal introspection. Simple living and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus other goals, and the project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy. As Thoreau made clear in his book, his cabin was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, as such Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. John Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of writings called Against civilization, Readings. Élisée Reclus, also known as Jacques Élisée Reclus, was a renowned French geographer, writer and he produced his 19-volume masterwork La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes, over a period of nearly 20 years. In 1892 he was awarded the prestigious Gold Medal of the Paris Geographical Society for this work, according to Kirkpatrick Sale, His geographical work, thoroughly researched and unflinchingly scientific, laid out a picture of human-nature interaction that we today would call bioregionalism. Similarly, no contemporary ecologist would disagree with his comments that the truly civilised man understands that his nature is bound up with the interest of all and he repairs the damage caused by his predecessors and works to improve his domain. Reclus advocated nature conservation and opposed meat-eating and cruelty to animals, as a result, his ideas are seen by some historians as anticipating the modern social ecology and animal rights movements. Shortly before his death, Reclus completed LHomme et la terre, in it, he added to his previous greater works by considering humanitys development relative to its geographical environment. Reclus was also a proponent of naturism. In the late 19th century Anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies, mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal, and Cuba. Anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and a world view within anarchist groups
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Social ecology
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Social Ecology is a critical social theory founded by American anarchist and libertarian socialist author Murray Bookchin. Conceptualized as a critique of current social, political, and anti-ecological trends, it espouses a reconstructive, ecological, communitarian and this version advocates a reconstructive and transformative outlook on social and environmental issues, and promotes a directly democratic, confederal politics. Bookchin suggests that the roots of current ecological and social problems can be traced to hierarchical modes of social organization, the complexity of relationships between people and nature is emphasized, along with the importance of establishing more mutualistic social structures that take account of this. Present ecological problems, social ecologists maintain, cannot be understood, much less resolved. His works include Post-Scarcity Anarchism, Toward an Ecological Society, social ecology locates the roots of the ecological crisis firmly in relations of hierarchy and domination between people. In the framework of ecology, the very notion of the domination of nature by man stems from the very real domination of human by human. While the domination of nature is seen as a product of domination within society and this centuries-long tendency finds its most exacerbating development in modern capitalism. Owing to its competitive nature, bourgeois society not only pits humans against each other. Just as men are converted into commodities, so every aspect of nature is converted into a commodity and he had come to recognize social ecology as a genuinely new form of libertarian socialism, and positioned its politics firmly in the framework of a political ideology which he called Communalism
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Federation of Young European Greens
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The Federation of Young European Greens is an umbrella organization that gathers young green movements and organizations across Europe. FYEGs aim is to defend climate and social justice on the European level, since 2007, FYEG is the European Green Partys youth wing. FYEG brings together 34 member organisations, two organisations and three partners. It also holds a membership to the European Youth Forum which operates within the Council of Europe and European Union areas. The Federation of Young European Greens was created in 1988, gerard Onesta was one of the founding members. The idea of a European federation was bought up in Strasbourg in 1988 by French, Belgian, Luxemburgish, in 2002, during a FYEG General Assembly in Belgrade, Cooperation and Development network was founded. Its goal is to develop and support green youth organisations in Eastern, from then on, FYEG became more political and strengthened its links with the European Green Party and European Youth Fourm. In 2007, it became EGPs official youth wing and therefore has voting rights in EGPs organs, in 2009, FYEG launched its first internal European campaign in order to promote young candidates at the European elections. Three MEPs were elected, Ska Keller, Jan Philipp Albrecht, during the 2014 elections, they also promoted young candidates especially Ska Keller who became FYEGs nominee for the Green Primary. Among the candidates they promoted, Terry Reintke and Linnéa Engström, the General Assembly is the highest decision-making body of FYEG. All full member organisations have two votes in the GA, candidate member organisations have one vote and observer organisations can send observers, the General Assembly is held yearly in a different country. It is during the General Assembly that members of the different structures are elected, the executive committee is the second highest decision-making body in FYEG. It handles the management of the federation on a day-to-day basis, the EC is composed of 8 members. Within the EC, there are two co-spokespersons and a treasurer, the EC members are elected for one year and can renew their mandates three times. The FCCs tasks include a meeting, dedicated to checking FYEGs finances. A written report of this meeting must be submitted to the EC, thereby providing an internal audit, members of the FCC are elected for two years by the GA. The advisory Committee follows the functioning of the EC and personnel and these are usually former EC members or people who were involved in FYEG. The Advisory Committee ensures the transfer of knowledge within FYEG and acts as a conflict resolution body and it is elected for two years at the GA and is composed of 5 members
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Conservation movement
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The early conservation movement included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. Some say the movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement. Chiefly in the United States, conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism in that it aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their sustainable use by humans. The conservation movement can be traced back to John Evelyns work Sylva, published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on forestry ever published. The field developed during the 18th century, especially in Prussia and these methods were first applied rigorously in British India from the early-19th century. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding and this promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when laissez-faire economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end. Conservation was revived in the century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. Edward Percy Stebbing warned of desertification of India and this was the first case of state management of forests in the world. These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated, in 1850, the British Association in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of Dr. Hugh Cleghorn a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement. He had become interested in forest conservation in Mysore in 1847, in the same year, Cleghorn organised the Madras Forest Department and in 1860 the Department banned the use shifting cultivation. Cleghorns 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India, in 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the Punjab. Sir Dietrich Brandis, a German forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burmas teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals and he introduced the taungya system, in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India and he formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest School at Dehradun was founded by him, germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, Berthold Ribbentrop and Sir William P. D, schlich brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal Indian Forester in 1874, and he authored the five-volume Manual of Forestry on silviculture, forest management, forest protection, and forest utilisation, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students
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