1.
Cultivar
–
The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
Cultivar
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Osteospermum 'Pink Whirls' A cultivar selected for its intriguing and colourful flowers
Cultivar
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Liberty Hyde Bailey (1858–1954) coined the word cultigen in 1918 and cultivar in 1923.
Cultivar
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A cultivar of the orchid genus
Oncidium
Cultivar
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Leucospermum 'Scarlet Ribbon' A cross performed in Tasmania between L. glabrum and L. tottum
2.
Phaseolus vulgaris
–
Phaseolus vulgaris, the common bean, is a herbaceous annual plant grown worldwide for its edible dry seed or unripe fruit. Raw or undercooked beans contain the toxin phytohaemagglutinin and its leaf is also occasionally used as a vegetable and the straw as fodder. The common bean is a variable species that has a long history of cultivation. All wild members of the species have a habit, but many cultivars are classified as bush beans or pole beans. These include the bean, the navy bean, the pinto bean. The other major types of commercially grown bean are the runner bean, Beans are grown in every continent except Antarctica. Brazil and India are the largest producers of dry beans, while China produces, by far, worldwide,23 million tonnes of dry common beans and 17.1 million tonnes of green beans were grown in 2010. Along with squash and maize, beans are one of the Three Sisters central to indigenous North American agriculture, the common bean is a highly variable species with a long history. Bush varieties form erect bushes 20–60 cm tall, while pole or running varieties form vines 2–3 m long, all varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, which are divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6–15 cm long and 3–11 cm wide. The white, pink, or purple flowers are about 1 cm long and these may be green, yellow, black, or purple in color, each containing 4–6 beans. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm long, range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors. Similar to other beans, the bean is high in starch, protein, and dietary fiber, and is an excellent source of iron, potassium, selenium, molybdenum, thiamine, vitamin B6. Dry beans will keep indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, dried beans are almost always cooked by boiling, often after being soaked in water for several hours. While the soaking is not strictly necessary, it shortens cooking time, in addition, soaking beans removes 5 to 10% of the gas-producing sugars that can cause flatulence for some people. The methods include simple overnight soaking and the power soak method in which beans are boiled for three minutes and then set aside for 2–4 hours, before cooking, the soaking water is drained off and discarded. Dry common beans take longer to cook than most pulses, cooking times vary from one to four hours, in Mexico, Central America, and South America, the traditional spice used with beans is epazote, which is also said to aid digestion. In East Asia, a type of seaweed, kombu, is added to beans as they cook for the same purpose, salt, sugar, and acidic foods such as tomatoes may harden uncooked beans, resulting in seasoned beans at the expense of slightly longer cooking times. Dry beans may also be cooked and canned as refried beans, or whole with water, salt
Phaseolus vulgaris
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Phaseolus vulgaris
Phaseolus vulgaris
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Blossoms of the common bean
Phaseolus vulgaris
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Bean
cultivars illustrated in Les plantes potagères (1891
Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie catalog)
Phaseolus vulgaris
–
Diversity in dry common beans
3.
Phaseolus coccineus
–
Phaseolus coccineus, known as runner bean, scarlet runner bean, or multiflora bean, is a plant in the legume or Fabaceae family. It is grown both as a plant and an ornamental plant. This species originated from the mountains of Central America, most varieties have red flowers and multicolored seeds, and they are often grown as ornamental plants. The vine can grow to 3 m or more in length and it differs from the common bean in several respects, the cotyledons stay in the ground during germination, and the plant is a perennial vine with tuberous roots. The knife-shaped pods are green, however, there are very rare varieties bred by amateurs that have very unusual purple pods. An example of such a purple-podded runner bean is Aeron Purple Star, Runner beans have also been called Oregon lima bean, and in Nahuatl ayocotl or in Spanish ayocote. Runner beans, like all beans contain the toxic protein phytohaemagglutinin, in the US, in 1978, the scarlet runner was widely grown for its attractive flowers primarily as an ornamental. Since that time, many US gardeners have adopted the bean as a member of the vegetable garden. The flower is known as a favourite of hummingbirds, in the UK - where the vegetable is a popular choice for kitchen gardens and allotments - the flowers are often ignored, or treated as an attractive bonus to cultivating the plant for the beans. The seeds of the plant can be used fresh or as dried beans, the pods are edible whole while they are young and not yet fibrous. The starchy roots are eaten by Central American Indians. The beans are used in many cuisines and it is a popular side vegetable in British cuisine. A variety named Judión de la Granja producing large, white, edible beans is cultivated in San Ildefonso, Spain. It is the basis of a Segovian regional dish also named Judiones de la Granja, in which the beans are mixed with pigs ears, pigs trotters, in Greece, cultivars of the runner bean with white blossom and white beans are known as fasolia gigantes. They are grown under protective law in the north of Greece within the regions of Kato Nevrokopi, Florina, the beans have an important role in Greek cuisine, appearing in many dishes. In English, they are colloquially referred to as elephant beans. In Austria the coloured versions are cultivated and served as Käferbohnen and it is considered a typical dish of regional Austrian cuisine, but dried runner beans are also consumed to a small extent in Germany. Greece and northern Africa are the sources of pods of the runner beans sold as green beans in European markets during the cold period, the pods can be identified by their big size and the rougher surface
Phaseolus coccineus
–
Phaseolus coccineus
Phaseolus coccineus
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Runner (stick) beans for sale on a UK market stall
Phaseolus coccineus
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Seeds of 'Scarlet Emperor'
Phaseolus coccineus
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Spanish edible variety Judión de la Granja
4.
Vigna unguiculata
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The cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, is one of several species of the widely cultivated genus Vigna. A drought-tolerant and warm-weather crop, cowpeas are well-adapted to the regions of the tropics. In addition, it is tolerant, so is compatible as an intercrop with maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane. This makes cowpeas an important component of traditional intercropping systems, especially in the complex, in these systems the haulm of cowpea is a valuable by-product, used as animal feed. Research in Ghana found that selecting early generations of crops to increase yield is not an effective strategy. According to the USDA food database, the leaves of the plant have the highest percentage of calories from protein among vegetarian foods. Vigna unguiculata is a member of the Vigna genus, unguiculata is Latin for with a small claw, which reflects the small stalks on the flower petals. Some well-known common names for cultivated cowpeas include Lesera/ Dangbodi in Assamese, Behlawi in Mizo, black-eye pea, southern pea, yardlong bean, catjang, cowpeas have sometimes been called field peas, but that name is best reserved for the Pisum sativum field pea. The classification of the wild relatives within V. unguiculata is more complicated, with over 20 different names having been used, the first written reference of the word cowpea appeared in 1798 in the United States. The name was most likely acquired due to their use as a crop for cows. The common name of black-eyed pea, used for the unguiculata cultivar group, in West Africa the plant is named niebe, wake or ewa. There is a large morphological diversity found within the crop, while it may be uncertain when cultivation began, remains of charred cowpeas from rock shelters in Central Ghana have been dated to the second millennium BCE. In 2300 BC the cowpea is believed to have made its way into South East Asia where secondary domestication events may have occurred. The first written references to the cowpea were in 300BC and they probably reached Central, cowpeas thrive in poor dry conditions, growing well in soils up to 85% sand. This makes them an important crop in arid, semi-desert regions where not many other crops will grow. As well as an important source of food for humans in poor arid regions the crop can also be used as feed for livestock and this predominately occurs in India, where the stock is fed cowpea as forage or fodder. The nitrogen fixing ability means that as well as functioning as a sole-crop, insects are a major factor in the low yields of African cowpea crops, and they affect each tissue component and developmental stage of the plant. In bad infestations insect pressure is responsible for over 90% loss in yield, the legume pod borer Maruca vitrata, is the main pre-harvest pest of the cowpea
Vigna unguiculata
–
Cowpea
Vigna unguiculata
–
Cowpea beans
Vigna unguiculata
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Cowpea flower
5.
Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis
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Sesquipedalis is a legume cultivated to be eaten as green pods. It is known as the bean, bora, bodi, long-podded cowpea, asparagus bean, pea bean, snake bean. Despite the common name, the pods are actually only half a yard long. This plant is of a different genus from the common bean and it is a vigorous climbing annual vine. The plant is subtropical/tropical and most widely grown in the parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia. A variety of the cowpea, it is primarily for its strikingly long immature pods and has uses very similar to that of the green bean. The many varieties of beans are usually distinguished by the different colors of their mature seeds. The plant attracts many pollinators, specifically various types of yellowjackets and ants, the pods, which can begin to form just 60 days after sowing, hang in groups of two or more. They are best for use if picked before they reach full maturity, however. When harvesting, it is important not to pick the buds which are above the beans, the plants take longer to reach maturity than bush beans, but once producing, the beans are quick-growing and daily checking/harvesting is often a necessity. The plants produce beans until frost, the crisp, tender pods are eaten both fresh and cooked. They are at their best when young and slender and they are sometimes cut into short sections for cooking uses. As a West Indian dish, they are often stir-fried with potatoes, in Odisha, India, they are called ଝୁଡ଼ୁଙ୍ଗ, used to make a variety of dishes. Especially a sour dish - ଝୁଡ଼ୁଙ୍ଗ ବେସର cooking along with mustard sauce and they are also used in stir-fries in Chinese cuisine and Kerala cuisine. Other Filipino dishes that have yardlong beans as ingredients are sinigang, yardlong beans are also separated from the pod and are cooked with the buds of the alukon tree and other vegetables in a dish called agaya in northeastern Luzon. In Malaysian cuisine, they are often stir-fried with chillies and shrimp paste or used in cooked salads, another popular option is to chop them into very short sections and fry them in an omelette. The plant is easy to grow in areas with hot and humid summers where other green bean varieties may succumb to heat damage in summer and this plant is particularly easy to grow in the Southeastern United States and southerly Midwestern United States, where it is not currently grown commonly. In Suriname cuisine, they are called kousenband and served with roti, similarly, in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana it is a Indo-Trinidadian/Indo-Guyanese dish that fried or curried and served with roti or rice
Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis
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Yardlong bean
Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis
–
Flower of yardlong bean
Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis
–
Seeds of yardlong beans
6.
Lablab purpureus
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Lablab purpureus is a species of bean in the family Fabaceae. It is native to Africa and it is cultivated throughout the tropics for food, english language common names include hyacinthbean, lablab-bean bonavist bean/pea, dolichos bean, seim bean, lablab bean, Egyptian kidney bean, Indian bean, bataw and Australian pea. It is the species in the monotypic genus Lablab. The plant is due to extensive breeding in cultivation, but in general. The thick stems can reach six meters in length, the leaves are made up of three pointed leaflets each up to 15 centimeters long. They may be hairy on the undersides, the inflorescence is made up of racemes of many flowers. Some cultivars have flowers, and others may have purplish or blue. The fruit is a legume pod variable in shape, size and it is usually several centimeters long and bright purple to pale green. It contains up to four seeds, the seeds are white, brown, red, or black depending on the cultivar, sometimes with a white hilum. The seed is about a centimeter long, the hyacinth bean is an old domesticated pulse and multi-purpose crop. Due to seed availability of one cultivar, it is often grown as forage for livestock. In addition, it is cited both as a plant and a poisonous plant. The fruit and beans are edible if boiled well with changes of the water. Otherwise, they are due to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides, glycosides that are converted to hydrogen cyanide when consumed. Signs of poisoning include weakness, vomiting, dyspnea, twitching, stupor and it has been shown that there is a wide range of cyanogenic potential among the varieties. The leaves are eaten raw or cooked like spinach, the flowers can be eaten raw or steamed. The root can be boiled or baked for food, the seeds are used to make tofu and tempeh. In Maharashtra, dry preparations with green masala is often out of these green beans mostly found at the end of monsoon during fasting festivals of Shravan month
Lablab purpureus
–
Lablab
Lablab purpureus
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Foliage
Lablab purpureus
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Flowers
Lablab purpureus
–
Seeds
7.
Pea
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The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum. Pea pods are botanically fruit, since they contain seeds and developed from the ovary of a flower, the name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon pea, the cowpea, and the seeds from several species of Lathyrus. P. sativum is a plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a crop grown in many parts of the world. The average pea weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 grams. The immature peas are used as a vegetable, fresh, frozen or canned and these are the basis of pease porridge and pea soup, staples of medieval cuisine, in Europe, consuming fresh immature green peas was an innovation of Early Modern cuisine. The wild pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East, the earliest archaeological finds of peas date from the late neolithic era of current Greece, Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, early date from ca. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from ca, the pea was also present in Georgia in the 5th millennium BC. Farther east, the finds are younger, peas were present in Afghanistan ca.2000 BC, in Harappa, Pakistan, and in northwest India in 2250–1750 BC. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, this pulse crop appears in the Ganges Basin, a pea is a most commonly green, occasionally golden yellow, or infrequently purple pod-shaped vegetable, widely grown as a cool season vegetable crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the temperature reaches 10 °C. They do not thrive in the heat of warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates. Many cultivars reach maturity about 60 days after planting, peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars grow thin tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support, a traditional approach to supporting climbing peas is to thrust branches pruned from trees or other woody plants upright into the soil, providing a lattice for the peas to climb. Branches used in fashion are sometimes called pea brush. Metal fences, twine, or netting supported by a frame are used for the same purpose, in dense plantings, peas give each other some measure of mutual support. In early times, peas were grown mostly for their dry seeds, from plants growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, constant selection since the Neolithic dawn of agriculture improved their yield
Pea
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Pea
Pea
Pea
–
Pisum sativum -
MHNT
Pea
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Pea in a painting by Mateusz Tokarski, ca. 1795 (
National Museum in
Warsaw).
8.
Snow pea
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The snow pea is a legume, more specifically a variety of pea eaten whole in its pod while still unripe. The name mangetout can apply both to snow peas and to snap peas, snow peas, along with sugar snap peas and unlike field and garden peas, are notable for having edible pods that lack inedible fiber in the pod walls. Snow peas have the walls of the two edible pod variants. Two recessive genes known as p and v are responsible for this trait, P is responsible for reducing the schlerenchymatous membrane on the inner pod wall, while v reduces pod wall thickness. The stems and leaves of the plant are used as a vegetable in Chinese cooking, stir-fried with garlic. Snow peas can be grown in fields during cool seasons and can thus be cultivated during winter
Snow pea
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Snow pea
Snow pea
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Snow peas (Pisum sativum)
Snow pea
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Snow pea flowers
Snow pea
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Sautéed snow pea shoots, a popular dish in Chinese cuisine
9.
Sugar snap pea
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Snap peas, also known as sugar snap peas, are a cultivar group of edible-podded peas that differ from snow peas in that their pods are round as opposed to flat. The name mangetout can apply both to snap peas and snow peas, while snow peas had been grown in Europe in the 19th century, sugarsnap peas were only first developed in 1952 by cross-breeding snow pea with a mutant shell pea plant. Researchers hoped that the cross might counteract twisting and buckling seen in varieties at the time, with this cross, Dr Calvin Lamborn and Dr M. C. Parker of Twin Falls, Idaho, had developed a new class of snow pea, Snap peas, like all other peas, are pod fruits. An edible-podded pea is similar to a garden, or English, pea, but the pod is less fibrous, Pods of the edible-podded pea, including snap peas, do not have a membrane and do not open when ripe. At maturity, the pods grow to around 4–8 cm in length, the plants are climbing, and pea sticks or a trellis or other support system is required for optimal growth. Some cultivars are capable of climbing to 2 m high but are commonly around 1-1.3 m for ease of harvest. The snap pea is a cool season legume or fruit and it may be planted in spring as early as the soil can be worked. Seeds should be planted one to one-and-a-half inches deep and it tolerates light frost when young, it also has a wider adaptation and tolerance of higher temperatures than some other pea cultivars. Snap peas may grow to two metres or more, but more typically are about 1.3 metres and they have a vining habit and require a trellis or similar support structure. They should get 4–6 hours of each day. Below is a list of several snap pea cultivars currently available, days to maturity is from germination to edible pod stage, add about 7 days to estimate shell pea stage. Amish Snap is the only true heirloom snap pea, often served in salads or eaten whole. They may also be stir-fried or steamed, before being eaten, mature snap pea pods may need to be stringed, which means the membranous string running along the top of the pod from base to tip is removed. Over-cooking the pods will make them come apart veggiegardeningtips site Florida site Tekoa Farms site
Sugar snap pea
–
Cultivar Group Snap pea
10.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
11.
Carbohydrate
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A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
12.
Dietary fiber
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Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
Dietary fiber
–
Legumes contain healthy dietary fibers.
13.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
14.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
15.
Vitamin
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
16.
Vitamin A
–
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
Vitamin A
–
carrots
17.
Folic acid
–
Folic acid, another form of which is known as folate, is one of the B vitamins. The recommended daily level of folate is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements. Folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folic acid deficiency and it is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects in the baby. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with neural tube defects, more than 50 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs in the population. Long term supplementation is also associated with reductions in the risk of stroke. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, there are no common side effects. It is not known whether high doses over a period of time are of concern. There are concerns that large amounts of folic acid might hide vitamin B12 deficiency, folic acid is essential for the body to make DNA, RNA, and metabolise amino acids which are required for cell division. As humans cannot make folic acid, it is required from the diet, not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency. This may result in a type of anemia in which low numbers of red blood cells occur. Symptoms may include feeling tired, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, open sores on the tongue, deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake. In adults normal total body folate is between 10, 000–30,000 micrograms with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L, folic acid was discovered between 1931 and 1943. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost of supplements in the developing world is between 0.001 and 0.005 USD per dose as of 2014. The term folic is from the Latin word folium, which means leaf, folates occur naturally in many foods especially dark green leafy vegetables and liver. Other names include vitamin B9, vitamin Bc, vitamin M, folacin, folic acid intake during pregnancy has been linked to a lessened risk of neural tube defects. Likewise, a meta-analysis of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy reported a 28% lower risk of congenital heart defects. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends folic acid supplementation for all able to become pregnant. Prenatal supplementation did not appear to reduce the risk of pre-term births, and there does not appear to be a correlation between maternal folic acid supplementation and an increased risk for asthma in the child
Folic acid
Folic acid
Folic acid
–
Vitamins C and M as featured on a monument in front of
University of Warsaw 's Centre of New Technologies
Folic acid
–
In the USA many grain products are fortified with folic acid.
18.
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Vitamin C
–
Rose hips are a particularly rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat, weighing approx. 70 kg, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health, and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.
Vitamin C
–
James Lind, a British Royal Navy surgeon who, in 1747, identified that a quality in fruit prevented the disease of scurvy in what was the first
recorded controlled experiment.
19.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
20.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
21.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
Iron
–
Iron, 26 Fe
Iron
–
Spectral lines of iron
Iron
–
Iron meteorites, similar in composition to the Earth's inner- and outer core
Iron
–
Hydrated
iron(III) chloride, also known as ferric chloride
22.
Magnesium in biology
–
Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion and it is an essential mineral nutrient for life and is present in every cell type in every organism. For example, ATP, the source of energy in cells. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP, as such, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all polyphosphate compounds in the cells, including those associated with the synthesis of DNA and RNA. Over 300 enzymes require the presence of ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP. In plants, magnesium is necessary for synthesis of chlorophyll and photosynthesis, a balance of magnesium is vital to the well-being of all organisms. Magnesium is a relatively abundant ion in Earths crust and mantle and is highly bioavailable in the hydrosphere and this availability, in combination with a useful and very unusual chemistry, may have led to its utilization in evolution as an ion for signaling, enzyme activation, and catalysis. However, the nature of ionic magnesium has also led to a major challenge in the use of the ion in biological systems. Biological membranes are impermeable to magnesium, so transport proteins must facilitate the flow of magnesium, chlorophyll in plants converts water to oxygen as O2. Hemoglobin in vertebrate animals transports oxygen as O2 in the blood, chlorophyll is very similar to hemoglobin, except magnesium is at the center of the chlorophyll molecule and iron is at the center of the hemoglobin molecule, with other variations. This process keeps living cells on earth alive and produces levels of CO2 and O2 in our atmosphere that has changed with industrialization. Acute deficiency is rare, and is common as a drug side-effect than from low food intake per se. The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is diarrhea, since the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal renal function is very rare. Infants, which have less ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given magnesium supplements, pharmaceutical preparations with magnesium are used to treat conditions including magnesium deficiency and hypomagnesemia, as well as eclampsia. Such preparations are usually in the form of sulfate or chloride when given parenterally. Magnesium is absorbed with reasonable efficiency by the body from any soluble magnesium salt, Magnesium is similarly absorbed from Epsom salts, although the sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses. The Food and Nutrition Board of the U. S, institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for magnesium in 1997. The current EARs for magnesium for women and men ages 31 and up are 265 mg/day and 350 mg/day, the RDAs are 320 and 420 mg/day
Magnesium in biology
–
Some good sources of magnesium.
Magnesium in biology
–
Space-filling model of the chlorophyll a molecule, with the Magnesium ion (bright-green) visible at the center of the
porphyrin group
23.
Manganese
–
Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is not found as an element in nature, it is often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels, by the mid-18th century, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had used pyrolusite to produce chlorine. Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite contained a new element, johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon. Manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion prevention on steel, ionized manganese is used industrially as pigments of various colors, which depend on the oxidation state of the ions. The permanganates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are powerful oxidizers, Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode material in zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. In biology, manganese ions function as cofactors for a variety of enzymes with many functions. Manganese enzymes are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals in organisms that must deal with elemental oxygen. Manganese also functions in the complex of photosynthetic plants. The element is a trace mineral for all known living organisms but is a neurotoxin. In larger amounts, and apparently with far greater effectiveness through inhalation, Manganese is a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse, Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic. Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen, naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. Eighteen radioisotopes have been isolated and described, the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than three hours, and the majority of less than one minute. Manganese also has three meta states, Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years, because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is relatively rare, produced by cosmic rays impact on iron. Manganese isotopic contents are combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology
Manganese
–
Manganese, 25 Mn
Manganese
–
Electrolytically refined manganese chips and 1 cm 3 cube
Manganese
–
Manganese(II) chloride crystals – the pale pink color of Mn(II) salts is due to a spin-forbidden 3d transition.
Manganese
–
Aqueous solution of KMnO 4 illustrating the deep purple of Mn(VII) as it occurs in permanganate
24.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
Phosphorus
–
waxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
P 4 molecule
Phosphorus
–
White phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
Crystal structure of red phosphorus
25.
Potassium
–
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, in the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. Potassium in nature only in ionic salts. It is found dissolved in sea water, and is part of many minerals, naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body, Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702. Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production. Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all living cells, fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium and it is a soft solid with a low melting point, and can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but it begins to tarnish toward gray immediately on exposure to air, in a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers. Neutral potassium atoms have 19 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas argon. This process requires so little energy that potassium is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, in contrast, the second ionization energy is very high, because removal of two electrons breaks the stable noble gas electronic configuration. Potassium therefore does not readily form compounds with the state of +2 or higher. Potassium is an active metal that reacts violently with oxygen in water. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide, and with water potassium forms potassium hydroxide, the reaction of potassium with water is dangerous because of its violent exothermic character and the production of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen reacts again with atmospheric oxygen, producing water, which reacts with the remaining potassium and this reaction requires only traces of water, because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium-potassium — NaK — are potent desiccants that can be used to dry solvents prior to distillation. Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, reactions with other elements are only in an inert atmosphere such as argon gas using air-free techniques
Potassium
–
Potassium pearls under paraffin oil. The large pearl measures 0.5 cm.
Potassium
–
Spectral lines of potassium
Potassium
–
Potassium in
feldspar
Potassium
–
Humphry Davy
26.
Zinc
–
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
Zinc
–
Zinc, 30 Zn
Zinc
–
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Zinc
–
Zinc acetate
Zinc
–
Zinc chloride
27.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
28.
Common bean
–
Phaseolus vulgaris, the common bean, is a herbaceous annual plant grown worldwide for its edible dry seed or unripe fruit. Raw or undercooked beans contain the toxin phytohaemagglutinin and its leaf is also occasionally used as a vegetable and the straw as fodder. The common bean is a variable species that has a long history of cultivation. All wild members of the species have a habit, but many cultivars are classified as bush beans or pole beans. These include the bean, the navy bean, the pinto bean. The other major types of commercially grown bean are the runner bean, Beans are grown in every continent except Antarctica. Brazil and India are the largest producers of dry beans, while China produces, by far, worldwide,23 million tonnes of dry common beans and 17.1 million tonnes of green beans were grown in 2010. Along with squash and maize, beans are one of the Three Sisters central to indigenous North American agriculture, the common bean is a highly variable species with a long history. Bush varieties form erect bushes 20–60 cm tall, while pole or running varieties form vines 2–3 m long, all varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, which are divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6–15 cm long and 3–11 cm wide. The white, pink, or purple flowers are about 1 cm long and these may be green, yellow, black, or purple in color, each containing 4–6 beans. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm long, range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors. Similar to other beans, the bean is high in starch, protein, and dietary fiber, and is an excellent source of iron, potassium, selenium, molybdenum, thiamine, vitamin B6. Dry beans will keep indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, dried beans are almost always cooked by boiling, often after being soaked in water for several hours. While the soaking is not strictly necessary, it shortens cooking time, in addition, soaking beans removes 5 to 10% of the gas-producing sugars that can cause flatulence for some people. The methods include simple overnight soaking and the power soak method in which beans are boiled for three minutes and then set aside for 2–4 hours, before cooking, the soaking water is drained off and discarded. Dry common beans take longer to cook than most pulses, cooking times vary from one to four hours, in Mexico, Central America, and South America, the traditional spice used with beans is epazote, which is also said to aid digestion. In East Asia, a type of seaweed, kombu, is added to beans as they cook for the same purpose, salt, sugar, and acidic foods such as tomatoes may harden uncooked beans, resulting in seasoned beans at the expense of slightly longer cooking times. Dry beans may also be cooked and canned as refried beans, or whole with water, salt
Common bean
–
Phaseolus vulgaris
Common bean
–
Blossoms of the common bean
Common bean
–
Bean
cultivars illustrated in Les plantes potagères (1891
Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie catalog)
Common bean
–
Diversity in dry common beans
29.
Thanksgiving
–
Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. It was originally celebrated as a day of giving thanks for the blessing of the harvest, similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, although Thanksgiving has historical roots in religious and cultural traditions, it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well. Prayers of thanks and special thanksgiving ceremonies are common among almost all religions after harvests, the Thanksgiving holidays history in North America is rooted in English traditions dating from the Protestant Reformation. It also has aspects of a harvest festival, even though the harvest in New England occurs well before the date on which the modern Thanksgiving holiday is celebrated. Before 1536 there were 95 Church holidays, plus 52 Sundays, the 1536 reforms reduced the number of Church holidays to 27, but some Puritans wished to completely eliminate all Church holidays, including Christmas and Easter. The holidays were to be replaced by specially called Days of Fasting or Days of Thanksgiving, unexpected disasters or threats of judgement from on high called for Days of Fasting. Special blessings, viewed as coming from God, called for Days of Thanksgiving, for example, Days of Fasting were called on account of drought in 1611, floods in 1613, and plagues in 1604 and 1622. Days of Thanksgiving were called following the victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588, an unusual annual Day of Thanksgiving began in 1606 following the failure of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and developed into Guy Fawkes Day on November 5. Some researchers state that there is no compelling narrative of the origins of the Canadian Thanksgiving day, the origins of Canadian Thanksgiving are also sometimes traced to the French settlers who came to New France in the 17th century, who celebrated their successful harvests. The French settlers in the area typically had feasts at the end of the harvest season and continued throughout the winter season, as settlers arrived in Nova Scotia from New England after 1700, late autumn Thanksgiving celebrations became commonplace. New immigrants into the country—such as the Irish, Scottish, most of the US aspects of Thanksgiving, were incorporated when United Empire Loyalists began to flee from the United States during the American Revolution and settled in Canada. The 1621 Plymouth feast and thanksgiving was prompted by a good harvest, Pilgrims and Puritans who began emigrating from England in the 1620s and 1630s carried the tradition of Days of Fasting and Days of Thanksgiving with them to New England. In the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God, now called Oktober Feesten, Leidens autumn thanksgiving celebration in 1617 was the occasion for sectarian disturbance that appears to have accelerated the pilgrims plans to emigrate to America. Later in Massachusetts, religious thanksgiving services were declared by civil leaders such as Governor Bradford, the practice of holding an annual harvest festival did not become a regular affair in New England until the late 1660s. Thanksgiving proclamations were made mostly by church leaders in New England up until 1682, during the revolutionary period, political influences affected the issuance of Thanksgiving proclamations. Various proclamations were made by governors, John Hancock, General George Washington. James Baker maintains, The American holidays true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving, never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to Gods providence
Thanksgiving
–
Saying grace before carving a turkey at Thanksgiving dinner in
Neffsville, Pennsylvania, 1942
Thanksgiving
–
Oven-roasted
turkey
Thanksgiving
–
Jennie Augusta Brownscombe, The First Thanksgiving at Plymouth, 1914,
Pilgrim Hall Museum, Plymouth, Massachusetts
Thanksgiving
–
Pumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America.
30.
Green bean casserole
–
Green bean casserole is a casserole consisting of green beans, cream of mushroom soup, and french fried onions. It is a popular Thanksgiving side dish in the United States, the green bean casserole was first created in 1955 by the Campbell Soup Company. Dorcas Reilly led the team created the recipe while working as a staff member in the home economics department. The inspiration for the dish was to create a quick and easy recipe around two things most Americans always had on hand in the 1950s, green beans and Campbell’s Cream of Mushroom Soup. In the 1972 version of the Good Housekeeping Cookbook the recipe replaced the creamy mushroom soup with sour cream, in 2002, Reilly presented the original recipe card to the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Akron, Ohio. Comfort food Hotdish List of casserole dishes Marketing Tuna casserole Campbells Recipe Green Bean Casserole Recipe without Canned Soup
Green bean casserole
–
Green bean casserole
31.
Cream of mushroom soup
–
Cream of mushroom soup is a simple type of soup where a basic roux is thinned with cream or milk and then mushrooms and/or mushroom broth are added. It is well known in North America as a type of condensed canned soup. Cream of mushroom soup is used as a base ingredient in casseroles. This use is similar to that of a mushroom-flavored gravy, soups made with cream and mushrooms are much older than the canned variety. Ancient Italian and French cream sauces, and soups based on them have made for many hundreds of years. In America, the Campbell Soup Company began producing its well-known Cream of Mushroom Soup in 1934, canned cream of mushroom soup has been described as Americas béchamel. In Minnesota, the ingredient is often called Lutheran binder, in reference to its properties and its prominence in hotdish recipes. Bisque Clam chowder Green bean casserole List of mushroom dishes List of soups Tuna casserole Vegetable soup List of vegetable soups Cream Soup Substitute recipe Cream of Portabella Mushroom Soup
Cream of mushroom soup
–
Fresh corn with (Campbell's condensed) cream of mushroom soup,
Philippines)
32.
Fried onion
–
Fried onions or French fried onions are a popular snack food, garnish, or vegetable accompaniment to various recipes. Common fried onions are cooked by basic pan frying or sautéing of sliced onions and this produces a fairly soft cooked onion, which may brown some from a Maillard reaction, depending on the length of cooking and the temperature. The Philadelphia cheesesteak is a hot sandwich commonly served with sautéed onions, in the Middle East Mujaddara is a dish made of lentils and rice topped with fried onions. In Indian cuisine, fried onions are one of the key ingredients for the dish called biryani. If the much higher temperature, immersive, deep frying is used, smaller and irregularly shaped onions are an integral part of the American dish Green bean casserole. They are sold prepared by companies, for example Durkee. Freshly made crisp fried onions may be used as garnishes in some restaurants, in Sweden, known as Rostad Lok, they are a staple garnish for Hot Dogs or Tunnbrödsrulle, served in local fast food restaurants or by street vendors. Large, often ring shaped batter coated deep-fried onions are often associated with fast food, examples include onion rings and blooming onion. Full breakfast Funyuns – a fried onion flavored snack Kushari – which is topped with fried onions List of onion dishes Lomo a lo Pobre
Fried onion
–
Fried onion with seasoning
Fried onion
–
French fried onions
Fried onion
–
Onion cultivars
33.
Batter (cooking)
–
Batter is a liquid mixture of one or more flours made with ground grains or soaked grains that are ground. Batters are used to various foods. The word batter comes from the old French word battre which means to beat, many batters are made by combining dry flours with liquids such as water, milk or eggs. Batters can also be made by soaking grains in water and grinding them wet. Often a leavening agent such as baking powder is included to aerate and fluff up the batter as it cooks, carbonated water or another carbonated liquid such as beer may instead be used to aerate the batter in some recipes. The liquid mixture churned and frozen in order to ice cream is also referred to as batter. The viscosity of batter may range from heavy to thin. Heat is applied to the batter, usually by frying, baking or steaming, in order to cook the ingredients, batters may be sweet or savoury, often with either sugar or salt being added. Many other flavourings such as herbs, spices, fruits or vegetables may be added to the mixture, beer is a popular ingredient in batters used to coat foods before frying. One reason is that a batter can be made from merely flour, beer. The purpose of using beer is so the bubbles in the beer will add body, depending on the type and quality of the beer, beer may also add colour or some flavour to the batter. The practice of beer battering is popular in Australia, New Zealand, some foods that are commonly beer battered and fried are fish, chips, and onion rings. Batters are used in many cuisines under many names, tempura in Japan, pakora in India, spoon bread in the USA, and many other examples are all types of batters. All batters work by forming a shell around the food, preventing scorching and retaining flavor. The ideal batter for fried foods is to be enough to adhere to the food. This ideal batter has been described poetically as being like a newlywed brides negligee, batters thicken with every second that passes after mixing because of the development of gluten. Strategies to reduce this effect include the use of ice water when mixing, alcohol, media related to Batter at Wikimedia Commons
Batter (cooking)
–
A thin batter for
English pancakes
Batter (cooking)
–
ಮೆಂತೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು ಕಲಸಿದ ಗೋಧಿ ಸಂಪಣೆ. wheat batter mixed with fenugreek leaves for
Kannada Dōse
Batter (cooking)
–
Crêpe batter
Batter (cooking)
–
Batter with a batter spoon
34.
Frying
–
Frying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, foods can be fried in a variety of fats, including lard, vegetable oil, rapeseed oil and olive oil. In commerce, many fats are called oils by custom, e. g. palm oil and coconut oil, a variety of foods may be fried, including the potato chip, bread, eggs and foods made from eggs, such as omelettes or pancakes. Frying is believed to have first appeared in the Ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars, the food is cooked much more quickly and has a characteristic crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, pan frying, sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Stir frying involves frying quickly at high temperatures, requiring that the food be stirred continuously to prevent it from adhering to the cooking surface. Shallow frying is a type of pan frying using only enough fat to immerse approximately one-third to one-half of each piece of food, fat used in this technique is typically only used once. Deep-frying, on the hand, involves totally immersing the food in hot oil. Deep-frying is typically a more involved process, and may require specialized oils for optimal results. Deep frying is now the basis of a large and expanding worldwide industry. The end products can then be easily packaged for storage and distribution, examples are potato chips, french fries, nuts, doughnuts, instant noodles, etc. Media related to Frying at Wikimedia Commons
Frying
–
A painting by the Russian artist A. I. Morozov showing frying in the open air
Frying
–
Fried
polenta,
French fries, and
fried chicken at a Brazilian eatery
Frying
–
Poultry and game
Frying
35.
Cuisine of Japan
–
Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of social and economic changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes, side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth. Seafood is common, often grilled, but also served raw as sashimi or in sushi, seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, as tempura. Apart from rice, staples include noodles, such as soba, Japan also has many simmered dishes such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga. Foreign food—in particular Chinese food like ramen, fried dumplings, and gyōza—as well as foods like curry, historically, the Japanese shunned meat, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu became common. Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi, has become popular throughout the world, as of 2011, Japan overtook France in number of Michelin-starred restaurants and has maintained the title since. Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed rice or gohan, with one or several okazu or main dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and tsukemono, the phrase ichijū-sansai refers to the makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūsoku cuisine. The term is used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays. Rice is served in its own small bowl, and each item is placed on its own small plate or bowl for each individual portion. This is done even at home and it contrasts with the Western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large serving dishes of food presented at the middle of the dining table. Placing okazu on top of rice and soiling it is frowned upon by old-fashioned etiquette. The small rice bowl or chawan doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies, thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the purpose of distinction. In the olden days, among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins called zen, which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be used in zashiki, i. e. tatami-mat rooms. Teishoku means a meal of fixed menu, a dinner à prix fixe served at shokudō or ryōriten, which is somewhat vague, defines it as fare served at teishoku dining hall, etc. Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun, and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months, seasonality means taking advantage of the fruit of the mountains as well as the fruit of the sea as they come into season. Thus the first catch of skipjack tunas that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized, if something becomes available rather earlier than usual, the first crop or early catch is called hashiri
Cuisine of Japan
–
A Japanese teishoku meal including
tempura,
sashimi, and
miso soup
Cuisine of Japan
–
Breakfast at a
ryokan (Japanese inn), featuring grilled
mackerel, Kansai style dashimaki egg, tofu in kaminabe (paper pot)
Cuisine of Japan
–
Kaiseki appetizers on a legged tray
Cuisine of Japan
–
Yakiniku
36.
Tempura
–
Tempura is a Japanese dish of seafood or vegetables that have been battered and deep fried. A light batter is made of water and soft wheat flour. Eggs, baking soda or baking powder, starch, oil, the batter is often kept cold by adding ice, or by placing the bowl inside a larger bowl with ice in it. Overmixing the batter will result in activation of wheat gluten, which causes the mixture to become soft. Specially formulated tempura flour is available in worldwide supermarkets and this is generally light flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder. Tempura generally does not use breadcrumbs in the coating, generally, fried foods which are coated with breadcrumbs are considered to be furai, Japanese-invented Western-style deep fried foods, such as tonkatsu or ebi furai. Thin slices or strips of vegetables or seafood are dipped in the batter, vegetable oil or canola oil are most common, however, tempura was traditionally cooked using sesame oil. Many specialty shops still use oil or tea seed oil. Oil temperature is kept between 160 and 180 degrees Celsius, depending on the ingredient. To preserve the flavor and texture of the ingredients, care is taken not to overcook tempura. Cooking times range between a few seconds for delicate leaf vegetables, to several minutes for thick items or large kaki-age fritters, the bits of batter are scooped out between batches of tempura, so they do not burn and leave a bad flavor in the oil. A small mesh scoop is used for this purpose, tenkasu are often reserved as ingredients in other dishes or as a topping. Various seafood and vegetables are used as the ingredients in traditional tempura. The most popular seafood tempura is probably ebi tempura, types of seafood used in tempura includes, Vegetables tempura is called yasai tempura. The all vegetable tempura might be served as a vegetarian dish, types of vegetables includes, Cooked bits of tempura are either eaten with dipping sauce, salted without sauce, or used to assemble other dishes. Tempura is commonly served with grated daikon and eaten hot immediately after frying, in Japan, it is often found in bowls of soba or udon soup often in the form of a shrimp, shiso leaf, or fritter. The most common sauce is tentsuyu sauce, alternatively, tempura may be sprinkled with sea salt before eating. Mixtures of powdered green tea and salt or yuzu and salt are also used, kakiage is a type of tempura made with mixed vegetable strips, such as onion, carrot, and burdock, and sometimes including shrimp or squid, which are deep fried as small round fritters
Tempura
–
Tempura shrimp and vegetables
Tempura
–
Tendon
Tempura
–
Tenzaru (Tempura and
Soba)
Tempura
–
Tempura
Udon
37.
Vegetable chips
–
Vegetable chips are chips or crisps that are prepared using vegetables. Vegetable chips may be fried, deep-fried, dehydrated, dried or baked, many different root vegetables or leaf vegetables may be used. Vegetable chips may be eaten as a food, and may accompany other foods such as dips. In the United States, vegetable chips are often mass-produced, with many brands marketed to consumers, vegetable chips may be prepared with sliced vegetables that are fried, deep-fried, baked, dehydrated, or simply dried. Some baked versions utilize vegetables that are sliced, lightly tossed in oil, vegetable chips prepared using this method have been described as more healthful compared to deep fried chips, particularly when prepared using heart-healthy olive oil. Simple versions are prepared by slicing vegetables and drying them, without any cooking involved, sometimes a mandoline is used to slice vegetables for vegetable chips, which can accommodate thin slicing and enhance size consistency. Vegetable chips may be flavored with such as salt, sea salt, pepper, cajun spice, curry, allspice, chipotle powder, sweet or smoked paprika, adobo seasoning, dried chives. Mass-produced varieties may contain food preservatives or monosodium glutamate, vegetable chips can be homemade using various recipes and preparation processes. Vegetable chips Carrot chips are carrots that have been fried or dehydrated, some U. S. companies mass produce and purvey carrot chips to consumers, such as Connecticut Country Fair Snacks, Ltd. and Caroff Foods Corporation, among others. Cassava chips are a food in much of Africa, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana. In Ghana, cassava chips are called konkonte, dried cassava chips are also used to supplement the carbohydrate content of livestock feed in Ghana. In Malawi, cassava chips are prepared by soaking cassava, slicing it and this is the primary means by which cassava is transported to markets from production areas. The dough is steamed, thinly sliced, dried, and then fried in oil and this style of cassava flour chips is a popular food in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Vegetable chips may be consumed as a food, and may be accompanied with various dips such as salsa, guacamole. They are also used as a topping for soups, salads, in the United States, varieties of vegetable chips are mass-produced and purveyed in supermarkets. Potato chips began to be mass-produced and individually packaged for consumer purchase in the early 20th century, some mass-produced chips in the U. S. In 2012, the U. S. consumption of potato chips exceeded 1.5 billion pounds, brands of vegetable chips include Calbee, Beanitos, Terra, Food Should Taste Good, JicaChips, Sensible Portions, and Uprooted, among others. As of February 2016, Kettle Foods produces the Uprooted brand of chips made from sweet potatoes, including varieties with and without the addition of beets
Vegetable chips
–
Deep-fried cassava chips
Vegetable chips
–
Kale chips
Vegetable chips
–
Zucchini chips
Vegetable chips
–
Carrot chips
38.
Quercetin
–
Quercetin /ˈkwɜːrsᵻtᵻn/ is a flavonol found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, and grains. It can be used as an ingredient in supplements, beverages, while quercetin supplements have been promoted for prevention and treatment of cancer, there is no reliable clinical evidence that quercetin can prevent or treat cancer in humans. Also, there is no evidence that consuming foods rich in quercetin reduces the risk of cancer or any other disease, Quercetin supplements have also been promoted for the treatment of a wide spectrum of other diseases. Quercetin is contraindicated with some antibiotics, it may interact with fluoroquinolones, whether this inhibits or enhances the effect of fluoroquinolones is not certain. As paclitaxel is metabolized primarily by CYP2C8, its bioavailability may be increased unpredictably by quercetin, Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in nature. The name has been used since 1857, and is derived from quercetum and it is a naturally occurring polar auxin transport inhibitor. Quercetin is one of the most abundant dietary flavonoids with a daily consumption of 25–50 mgs. In red onions, higher concentrations of quercetin occur in the outermost rings and in the part closest to the root, one study found that organically grown tomatoes had 79% more quercetin than non-organically grown fruit. Quercetin is present in various kinds of honey from different plant sources, one molecule of 4-coumaroyl-CoA is added to three molecules of malonyl-CoA to form tetrahydroxychalcone using 7, 2′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavanol synthase. Tetrahydroxychalcone is then converted into naringenin using chalcone isomerase, naringenin is converted into eriodictyol using flavanoid 3′-hydroxylase. Eriodictyol is then converted into dihydroquercetin with flavanone 3-hydroxylase, which is converted into quercetin using flavonol synthase. Quercetin is the form of a number of other flavonoid glycosides, such as rutin and quercitrin, found in citrus fruit, buckwheat. Quercetin forms the glycosides quercitrin and rutin together with rhamnose and rutinose, likewise guaijaverin is the 3-O-arabinoside, hyperoside is the 3-O-galactoside, isoquercitin is the 3-O-glucoside and spiraeoside is the 4′-O-glucoside. CTN-986 is a quercetin derivative found in cottonseeds and cottonseed oil, the enzyme quercitrinase can be found in Aspergillus flavus. This enzyme hydrolyzes the glycoside quercitrin to release quercetin and L-rhamnose and it is an enzyme in the rutin catabolic pathway The oral bioavailability of quercetin in humans is low and highly variable and is rapidly cleared. Following dietary ingestion, quercetin undergoes rapid and extensive metabolism that makes the biological effects presumed from in vitro studies unlikely to apply in vivo, in rats, quercetin did not undergo any significant phase I metabolism. In contrast, quercetin did undergo extensive phase II to produce metabolites that are more polar than the parent substance and hence are more rapidly excreted from the body, the meta-hydroxyl group of catechol is methylated by catechol-O-methyltransferase. Four of the five groups of quercetin are glucuronidated by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase
Quercetin
–
Quercetin
39.
Le Roy (town), New York
–
Le Roy, or more commonly LeRoy, is a town in Genesee County, New York, United States. The population was 7,641 at the 2010 census, the town is named after one of the original land owners, Herman Le Roy. The town lies on the edge of Genesee County. Within the town is a village also named Le Roy, the area was first settled in 1793. The town of Le Roy was established in 1812 as the Town of Bellona from part of the town of Caledonia, the name was later changed to Le Roy in 1813, after New York City merchant and land speculator Herman LeRoy. John Ganson, of the area that was named the Ganson Settlement. The Tavern was torn down by Jell-O, Le Roy is the birthplace of Jell-O gelatin dessert. The Jell-O Museum is located in Le Roy, general Foods closed the Jell-O factory in 1964. Le Roy was the home of Calvin Keeney, who was the first breeder to successfully produce a green bean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 42.2 square miles. The east town line is the border of Monroe County and Livingston County, Oatka Creek, a tributary of the Genesee River, flows northward through the town and was a source of water power for early mills. The New York State Thruway passes across the part of the town. The western terminus of Interstate 490 is also here, the town rests atop the Onondaga Formation which forms an escarpment that faces north and runs east/west, just north of the village. The limestone rock is highly fossiliferous, of Devonian age, and it is used for road building as crushed rock, and for the manufacture of portland cement. In the eastern part of the town is a community named Lime Rock, as of the census of 2000, there were 7,790 people,3,037 households, and 2,034 families residing in the town. The population density was 184.7 people per square mile, there were 3,219 housing units at an average density of 76.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 01% White,1. 87% Black or African American,0. 27% Native American,0. 44% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 21% from other races, and 1. 19% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 78% of the population,26. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
Le Roy (town), New York
–
Le Roy
40.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
–
British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
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Flag
New York (state)
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1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
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The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
41.
Trellis (architecture)
–
The rose trellis is especially common in Europe and other rose-growing areas, and many climbing rose varieties require a trellis to reach their potential as garden plants. Trellis can also be referred to as panels, usually made from interwoven wood pieces, a pergola usually refers to trellis-work that is laid horizontally above head height to provide a partial roof in a garden. The trellis was originally intended to support vine stock — which gives its name, though it is unknown when and where the trellis was invented, the trellis has been mentioned in literature and botanical works throughout history. Pliny the Younger, in the first and second centuries, wrote about trellises in some of his letters about gardens, in the 19th century, Walt Whitman also mentioned a trellis in his poem Give me the Splendid, Silent Sun. Trellis was used to support shrubs in espalier, also to separate roads from thickets and these sorts of fences were made by the gardeners. When the art of gardening was perfected by André Le Nôtre and Jules Hardouin-Mansart and they worked individually until 1769, when they joined the corporation of carpenters. The treillageur has to have at least some elementary notions and principles of architecture, could trellis be designed as a gallery, portico, room, and different element of architecture thus evolved into garden architecture linked to landscaping. Jean-Max Albert notes the trellis possibilities in visual art, « The trellis permits a visual contact of external and internal elements and it allows to observe together the inside and the outside of a construction. The semi-transparency of the plans permits a simultaneous reading of imbricated volumes »
Trellis (architecture)
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A series of trellises forms the wall of a garden room
Trellis (architecture)
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A trellis supports a climbing
rose in a raised garden box
Trellis (architecture)
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A trellis supporting speakers viewed from the
Jay Pritzker Pavilion stage
42.
All-America Selections
–
The mission of All-America Selections is “to promote new garden seed varieties with superior garden performance judged in impartial trials in North America. ”To accomplish this, the All-America Selections organization oversees a collaborative testing program involving horticulture professionals all across the continent. AAS is governed by a Board consisting of four officers and six directors, plant breeders and developers submit new plants to AAS for evaluation. The plants are then tested at more than 40 independent sites located in 24 US states and 5 Canadian provinces, a test site is called a trial garden or trial ground. Each trial ground has at least one official AAS judge, the judge supervises the trial and evaluates entries for AAS at no charge. None of the judges are paid for their AAS activities, typically, judges are horticultural professionals, and the site is part of a seed company trial ground, university, or other horticultural institution. All judges and trial sites are approved by the AAS Board of Directors with the objective of having well managed sites in different parts of North America, the site judge is responsible for conducting the trial of entries and the closest comparisons on the market. Vegetables are judged looking for such traits as speed to harvest, total yield, fruit taste, fruit quality, ease of harvest, plant habit, disease, and pest resistance. In the last ten years, an entry needs to have at least two significantly improved qualities to be considered by judges for an AAS Award, the judges evaluate AAS trials all season, reporting their scores each fall. The judges score each entry from 0 to 5 points, with 5 being the highest, AAS uses an independent accounting firm to calculate the average score of each entry. Only the entry with the highest average score is considered for a possible AAS Award, the AAS judges determine which, if any, new unsold entries have proven superior qualities to be introduced as AAS Winners. AAS Trials have been conducted every year since 1932, the number of judges and sites may vary, but the trials are conducted each year. In 1984 the AAS Board of Directors decided to simplify the award system, there is an AAS Gold Medal award reserved for a breeding breakthrough. Gold Medal Awards have been rare, only once or twice a decade. The other AAS Award recognizes a flower or vegetable for significant achievements, AAS does not advertise the AAS Award Winners. AAS relies upon a public program to inform gardeners about AAS Winners that are announced each September. Consumer magazines, newspapers, garden club bulletins and cooperative extension agents are depended upon to introduce AAS Winners to home gardeners, AAS continues as the oldest, most established international testing organization in North America. All-America Selections homepage Definition from Taylors Dictionary for Gardeners, by Frances Tenenbaum, published by Houghton Mifflin Company AAS page in National Garden Bureau website
All-America Selections
–
Contents
43.
Food and Agriculture Organization
–
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates as let there be bread, as of 6 January 2017, FAO has 194 member states, along with the European Union, and the Faroe Islands and Tokelau, which are associate members. The idea of an organization for food and agriculture emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century. In May–June 1905, a conference was held in Rome, Italy. Later in 1943, the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt called a United Nations Conference on Food, representatives from forty four governments gathered at The Homestead Resort in Hot Springs, Virginia from 18 May to 3 June. The First Session of the FAO Conference was held in the Chateau frontenac at Quebec, Canada, the Second World War effectively ended the International Agricultural Institute, though it was only officially dissolved by resolution of its Permanent Committee on 27 February 1948. Its functions were transferred to the recently established FAO. In 1951, FAOs headquarters were moved from Washington, D. C, the agency is directed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to review the work carried out by the organization and to Work and Budget for the next two-year period. The Conference elects a council of 49 member states that acts as a governing body, and the Director-General. Beginning in 1994, FAO underwent the most significant restructuring since its founding, to operations, streamline procedures. As a result, savings of about US$50 million, €35 million a year were realized, FAOs Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at the FAO Conference. The total FAO Budget planned for 2016-17 is USD2.6 billion, the voluntary contributions are expected to reach approximately US$1.6 billion in 2016-17. The world headquarters are located in Rome, in the seat of the Department of Italian East Africa. One of the most notable features of the building was the Axum Obelisk which stood in front of the agency seat and it was taken from Ethiopia by Benito Mussolinis troops in 1937 as a war chest, and returned on 18 April 2005. C. Reduce rural poverty – help the rural poor gain access to the resources and services they need – including rural employment, enable inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems – help to build safe and efficient food systems that support smallholder agriculture and reduce poverty and hunger in rural areas. Two fundamental areas of work – gender and governance - are fully integrated in the strategic objective action plans. In 1996, FAO organised the World Food Summit, attended by 112 Heads or Deputy Heads of State, the Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by the year 2015
Food and Agriculture Organization
–
Lester Bowles Pearson presiding at a plenary session of the founding conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. October 1945
Food and Agriculture Organization
–
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization
–
FAO headquarters in
Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization
–
José Graziano da Silva, FAO Director General
44.
Tonne
–
The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
Tonne
–
Base units
45.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
China
–
Yinxu, ruins of an ancient
palace dating from the
Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)
China
–
Flag
China
–
Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the
Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE
China
–
The
Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the
Chinese interior from incursions by
nomadic pastoralists of the northern
steppes.
46.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
Indonesia
–
A
Borobudur ship carved on
Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.
Indonesia
–
Flag
Indonesia
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The
nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's
Banda Islands.
Indonesia
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Tan Malaka, Indonesian philosopher, guerilla, and national hero.
47.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
48.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkey
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Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkey
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Flag
Turkey
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The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkey
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The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
49.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
Thailand
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The ruins of
Wat Chaiwatthanaram at
Ayutthaya.
Thailand
–
Flag
Thailand
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Stupas,
Ayutthaya Historical Park.
Thailand
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Pottery discovered near
Ban Chiang in Udon Thani Province, the earliest dating to 2100 BCE.
China
Indonesia
India
Turkey
Thailand
Egypt
Spain
Italy
Morocco
Bangladesh
