1.
Kayak
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A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is propelled by means of a double-bladed paddle. The word kayak originates from the Greenlandic language, where it is the word qajaq, in the UK the term canoe is often used when referring to a kayak. The traditional kayak has a deck and one or more cockpits. Kayaks are also being sailed, as well as propelled by means of electric motors. The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut, Inuit, Yupik, kayaks were originally developed by the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut. They used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and these first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old, the oldest existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich. Native people made many types of boat for different purposes, the baidarka, developed by indigenous cultures in Alaska, was also made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is an open sea canoe, ranging from 17 to 30 feet, made with seal skins. It is considered a kayak although it was originally paddled with single-bladed paddles, native builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them, passed on through oral tradition. A special skin jacket, Tuilik, was laced to the kayak. This enabled the eskimo roll to become the method of regaining posture after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim. Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats, the length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builders hips plus two fists, the typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb. Thus typical dimensions were about 17 feet long by 20–22 inches wide by 7 inches deep and this measurement system confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak, because each kayak was a little different. Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of seals, though whales. Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit people in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the waves. In other parts of the home builders are continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks, usually with modern skins of canvas or synthetic fabric
2.
Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
3.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
6.
Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The land of the Faeroes is rugged, and these islands have an oceanic climate, windy, wet, cloudy. Despite this island groups northerly latitude, temperatures average above freezing throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream, between 1035 and 1814, the Faeroes were part of the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway. In 1814, the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the islands, the Faroe Islands have been a self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark since 1948. The Faroese have control of most domestic matters, areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, the police department, the justice department, currency, and foreign affairs. However, as they are not part of the customs area as Denmark, the Faroe Islands have an independent trade policy. The islands also have representation in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation, the people of the Faroe Islands also compete as national team in certain sports. In Danish, the name Færøerne may reflect an Old Norse word fær, the morpheme øerne represents a plural of ø in Danish. The Danish name thus translates as the islands of sheep, in Faroese, the name appears as Føroyar. Oyar represents the plural of oy, older Faroese for island, the modern Faeroese word for island is oyggj. In the English language, their name is sometimes spelled Faeroe, archaeological evidence shows settlers living on the Faroe Islands in two successive periods prior to the arrival of the Norse, the first between 400 and 600 and the second between 600 and 800. Scientists from the University of Aberdeen have also found early cereal pollen from domesticated plants, archaeologist Mike Church noted that Dicuil mentioned what may have been the Faroes. He also suggested that the living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia. A Latin account of a made by Brendan, an Irish monastic saint who lived around 484–578. This association, however, is far from conclusive in its description, Dicuil, an Irish monk of the early 9th century, wrote a more definite account. 800, bringing Old West Norse, which evolved into the modern Faroese language, according to Icelandic sagas such as Færeyjar Saga, one of the best known men in the island was Tróndur í Gøtu, a descendant of Scandinavian chiefs who had settled in Dublin, Ireland. Tróndur led the battle against Sigmund Brestursson, the Norwegian monarchy, a traditional name for the islands in Irish, Na Scigirí, possibly refers to the Skeggjar Beards, a nickname given to island dwellers
7.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
8.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
9.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
10.
Greenlandic language
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Greenlandic is an Eskimo–Aleut language spoken by about 57,000 Greenlandic Inuit in Greenland. It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada such as Inuktitut, the second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat or East Greenlandic. The Thule Inuit of Greenland, Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, is a recent arrival, Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes. Its morphosyntactic alignment is ergative, meaning that it treats the argument of a verb like the object of a transitive verb. Nouns are inflected for one of the eight cases and for possession, verbs are inflected for one of the eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology, basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. Subordination of clauses is done by the use of special subordinate moods, a so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic does mark future tense obligatorily, another question is whether the language has noun incorporation, or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature. When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, the language has been written in the Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. The first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, an extensive orthographic reform undertaken in 1973 that made the script easier to learn resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy, which is now among the highest in the world. The Greenlandic language was brought to Greenland with the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s and it is unknown which languages were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland. The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750, from the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmarks linguistic policies were directed at replacing Greenlandic with Danish, of primary significance was that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish. From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt, in 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidts time. The reform was effective and in the following it, Greenlandic literacy received a boost. Another development that strengthened the Greenlandic language has been the policy of greenlandization of Greenlandic society which began with the agreement of 1979. This policy has worked to reverse the trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. Today Greenlandic has several dedicated news media, the Greenlandic National Radio, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish
11.
Inuktun
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Inuktun is the language of approximately 1,000 indigenous Inughuit, inhabiting the worlds northernmost settlements in Qaanaaq and the surrounding villages in northwestern Greenland. All speakers of Inuktun also speak Standard Greenlandic and many also speak Danish, apart from the town of Qaanaaq, Inuktun is also spoken in the villages of Muriuhaq, Hiurapaluk, Qikiqtat, Qikiqtarhuaq, Havighivik. Inuktun does not have its own orthography and is not taught in schools, however, most of the inhabitants of Qaanaaq and the surrounding villages use Inuktun in their everyday communication. The language is an Eskimo–Aleut language and dialectologically it is in between the Greenlandic Kalaallisut and the Canadian Inuktitut, the Polar Inuit were the last to cross from Canada into Greenland and they may have arrived as late as in the eighteenth century. The language differs from Kalaallisut by substituting Kalaallisut /s/ with an h-sound often pronounced like a palatal fricative as in German ich, Inuktun also allows more consonant combinations than Kalaallisut and has some minor grammatical and lexical differences. Apart from the consonants given below, there are also 5 consonants which exist only in consonant clusters, /s/ ⟨ss⟩, /ts/ ⟨ts⟩, /ɣ/⟨gh⟩, /ʁ/ ⟨rh⟩. Scientist lives with Arctic Innuguit for a year to document and help save disappearing language
12.
Danish language
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There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their home language. Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the system and administration though German. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though there are variants of the standard language. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative, Danish has a very large vowel inventory comprising 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong and weak conjugations and inflections, nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. As in English, Danish only has remnants of a case system, particularly in the pronouns. Its syntax is V2, with the verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch, other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language, Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where there are no sharp dividing lines between the different vernacular languages. Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas, West Danish, Insular Danish, and East Danish. Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish, both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each others languages. By the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language was called the Danish tongue, or Norse language. Norse was written in the alphabet, first with the elder futhark. From the 7th century the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway
13.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
14.
Inuit religion
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Inuit religion is the shared spiritual beliefs and practices of Inuit, an indigenous people from Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Their religion shares many similarities with religions of other North Polar peoples, traditional Inuit religious practices include animism and shamanism, in which spiritual healers mediate with spirits. Today many Inuit follow Christianity, but traditional Inuit spirituality continues as part of a living, oral tradition, Inuit who balance indigenous and Christian theology practice religious syncretism. Inuit cosmology provides a narrative about the world and the place of people within it, rachel Attituq Qitsualik writes, The Inuit cosmos is ruled by no one. There are no mother and father figures. There are no gods and solar creators. There are no eternal punishments in the hereafter, as there are no punishments for children or adults in the here, traditional stories, rituals, and taboos of the Inuit are often precautions against dangers posed by their harsh Arctic environment. Knud Rasmussen asked his guide and friend Aua, an angakkuq, about Inuit religious beliefs among the Iglulingmiut and was told, We dont believe. Authors Inge Kleivan and Birgitte Sonne debate possible conclusions of Auas words, because the angakkuq was under the influence of Christian missionaries and their study also analyses beliefs of several Inuit groups, concluding that fear was not diffuse. First were unipkaaqs, myths, legends, and folktales which took place then in the indefinite past. Among the Canadian Inuit, a healer is known as an angakkuq or Inuvialuk. Aua described the ability of an apprentice angakkuq to see himself as a skeleton, the Inuit at Amitsoq Lake had seasonal and other prohibitions for sewing certain items. Boot soles, for example, could only be sewn far away from settlements in designated places, children at Amitsoq once had a game called tunangusartut in which they imitated the adults behavior towards the spirits, even reciting the same verbal formulae as angakkuit. According to Rasmussen, this game was not considered offensive because a spirit can understand the joke, the homelands of the Netsilik Inuit have extremely long winters and stormy springs. While other Inuit cultures feature protective guardian powers, the Netsilik have traditional beliefs that lifes hardships stemmed from the use of such measures. Unlike the Iglulik Inuit, the Netsilik used a number of amulets. Even dogs could have amulets. In one recorded instance, a boy had 80 amulets. One particular man had 17 names taken from his ancestors and intended to protect him, tattooing among Netsilik women provided power and could affect which world they went to after their deaths
15.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
16.
Ethnographically
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Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study, an ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group. The word can thus be said to have a double meaning, the resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group. The typical ethnography is a study and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate. In all cases it should be reflexive, make a contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic impact on the reader. An ethnography records all observed behavior and describes all symbol-meaning relations, the word ethnography is derived from the Greek ἔθνος, meaning a company, later a people, nation and -graphy meaning field of study. Ethnographic studies focus on large groups of people who interact over time. Ethnography is a design, where the researcher explains about shared learnt patterns of values, behaviour, beliefs. The field of anthropology originated from Europe and England designed in late 19th century and it spread its roots to the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Some of the main contributors like EB Tylor from Britain and Lewis H Morgan, franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, were a group of researchers from United States who contributed the idea of cultural relativism to the literature. He gives the point of the native and this became the origin of field work. Since Malinowski was very firm with his approach he applied it practically and he was interested in learning the language of the islanders and stayed there for a long time doing his field work. The field of ethnography became very popular in the late 19th century, again, in the latter part of the 19th century, the field of anthropology became a good support for scientific formation. Though the field was flourishing it had a lot of threat to encounter, post colonialism, the research climate shifted towards post-modernism and feminism. Therefore, the field of anthropology moved into discipline of social science, gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated Völker-Beschreibung as an area of study. This became known as ethnography, following the introduction of the Greek neologism ethnographia by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin, there are different forms of ethnography, confessional ethnography, life history, feminist ethnography etc. Two popular forms of ethnography are realist ethnography and critical ethnography, realist ethnography, is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists
17.
Kalaallit
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Kalaallit make up the largest group among the Greenlandic Inuit, and are concentrated in Western Greenland. It is also a term in the Kalaallisut language for the indigenous people living in Greenland. The Kalaallit are a part of the Arctic Inuit people, the language spoken by Inuit in Greenland is Kalaallisut. Possibly adapted from the name Skræling, Kalaallit historically referred specifically to Western Greenlanders, on the other hand, Northern and Eastern Greenlanders call themselves Avanersuarmiut and Tunumiit, respectively. About 80% to 88% of Greenlands population, or approximately 44,000 to 50,000 people identify as being Inuit, Kalaallit are descended from the Thule people but probably not from their predecessors in Greenland, the Dorset people. As 84% of Greenlands landmass is covered by the Greenland ice sheet, in the 1850s some Canadian Inuit migrated to Greenland and joined the Polar Inuit communities. The Eastern Inuit, or Tunumiit, live in the area with the mildest climate, hunters can hunt marine mammals from kayaks throughout the year. The Northeast-Greenland Inuit are now extinct, douglas Charles Clavering met a group of twelve Inuit, including men, women and children in Clavering Island in August 1823. There are many remains of former Inuit settlements in different locations of the now desolate area, the Kalaallit have a strong artistic tradition based on sewing animal skins and making masks. They are also known for an art form of figures called tupilak, traditional art-making practices thrive in the Ammassalik. Sperm whale ivory remains a medium for carving. List of Greenlandic Inuit Demographics of Greenland History of Greenland Hessel, Ingo
18.
Tunumiit
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Tunumiit are Greenlandic Inuit from Tunu, the eastern part of Greenland. The Tunummiit live now mainly in Tasiilaq and Ittoqqortoormiit and are a part of the Arctic peoples known collectively as the Inuit, northern and Western Greenlanders call themselves Inughuit and Kalaallit, respectively. About 80% to 88% of Greenlands population, or approximately 44,000 to 50,000 people identify as being Inuit, the Tunumiit language, also called East Greenlandic and Tunumiit oraasiat, is dialect of Greenlandic. The Eastern Inuit, or Tunumiit, live primarily in the Ammassalik region, hunters can hunt marine mammals from kayaks throughout the year. An angakkuq or spirit healer named Mitsivarniannga from Ammassalik Island created an evil spirit object. When no harm befell him for creating and showing this object to an outsider, others began making tupilait, residents also carved Ammassalik wooden maps, that traced the Eastern Greenlandic coastline. Traditional art making practices thrive on Ammassalik Island, list of Greenlandic Inuit Demographics of Greenland History of Greenland Ittoqqortoormiit Hessel, Ingo. Vancouver, Douglas and McIntyre,2006 ISBN 978-1-55365-189-5 Inuit Man in Kulusuk, Speaking Tunumiit Oraasiat, YouTube video The Prehistory of Inuit in Northeast Greenland - Arctic Anthropology
19.
Tunu
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Tunu, originally Østgrønland, was one of the three counties of Greenland until 31 December 2008. The county seat was at the settlement, Tasiilaq. Population in 2005 was around 3,800 and it was bordered in the east by the Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, Denmark Strait and the North Atlantic Ocean. Subdivisions of Norden Administrative divisions of Greenland Erik the Reds Land Fridtjof Nansen Land East Greenland Current Eastern Settlement
20.
Inughuit
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The Inughuit, historically Arctic Highlanders, are Greenlandic Inuit. Formerly known as Polar Eskimos, they are the northernmost group of Inuit, Inughuit make up about 1% of the population of Greenland. The Inughuit speak Inuktun, also known as North Greenlandic, Thule Inuit and it is a dialect of Inuktitut, an Eskimo–Aleut language related to the Greenlandic language spoken elsewhere in Greenland. In Kalaallisut, the dialect of Greenlandic, Inuktun is called Avanersuarmiutut. Before 1880, their population was estimated to be between 100 and 200 people, from 1880 to 1930, they were estimated to number 250. In 1980, their population was 700, and it rose to 800 in 2010. The Inughuit were first contacted by Europeans in 1818, when John Ross led an expedition into their territory, in 1908 and 1909, the Inughuit were instrumental in assisting both Frederick Cook and Robert Peary on their claimed conquests of the North Pole. Erik Holtved, a Dane, was the first university-trained ethnologist to study the Inughuit, Inughuit people live north of the Arctic Circle on the west coast of Greenland, between 75°—80° N and 58°–74° W. The northernmost settlement was at the village of Etah, but it was abandoned due to the harsh conditions there. The northernmost constant settlement is now Hiurapaluk, established in 1953, Qaanaaq is the largest Inughuit settlement
21.
Avanersuarmiut
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The Inughuit, historically Arctic Highlanders, are Greenlandic Inuit. Formerly known as Polar Eskimos, they are the northernmost group of Inuit, Inughuit make up about 1% of the population of Greenland. The Inughuit speak Inuktun, also known as North Greenlandic, Thule Inuit and it is a dialect of Inuktitut, an Eskimo–Aleut language related to the Greenlandic language spoken elsewhere in Greenland. In Kalaallisut, the dialect of Greenlandic, Inuktun is called Avanersuarmiutut. Before 1880, their population was estimated to be between 100 and 200 people, from 1880 to 1930, they were estimated to number 250. In 1980, their population was 700, and it rose to 800 in 2010. The Inughuit were first contacted by Europeans in 1818, when John Ross led an expedition into their territory, in 1908 and 1909, the Inughuit were instrumental in assisting both Frederick Cook and Robert Peary on their claimed conquests of the North Pole. Erik Holtved, a Dane, was the first university-trained ethnologist to study the Inughuit, Inughuit people live north of the Arctic Circle on the west coast of Greenland, between 75°—80° N and 58°–74° W. The northernmost settlement was at the village of Etah, but it was abandoned due to the harsh conditions there. The northernmost constant settlement is now Hiurapaluk, established in 1953, Qaanaaq is the largest Inughuit settlement
22.
The unity of the Realm
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
23.
Greenlandic people in Denmark
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Greenlandic Danes are residents of Denmark who are of Greenlandic Inuit descent. There are around 20,000 people of Greenlandic Inuit descent living in Denmark, the demographics of Greenland consists of Greenlandic Inuit, Danish Greenlanders, and other Europeans and North Americans. The Inuit population makes up approximately 85%-90% of the total, Danish people in Greenland Miss Smillas Feeling for Snow Greenlanders in Denmark, a Realistic Perspective of a Varied Group
24.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
25.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
26.
Multiracial
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Multiracial is defined as made up of or relating to people of many races. Many terms exist for people of multiracial backgrounds. While some of the used in the past are considered insulting and offensive. Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in parts of the world. In North America, studies have found that the population is continuing to grow. Because of a decline in racism, multiracial people no longer feel the need to hide their heritage, in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, mixed-race people make up the majority of the population. While defining race is controversial, race remains a commonly used term for categorization, insofar as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of multiraciality will naturally be subjective. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five categories, White, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian. Perhaps the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity. Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races, in the English-speaking world, many terms for people of various multiracial backgrounds exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato, zambo and mestizo are used in Spanish, mulato, caboclo, cafuzo, ainoko and mestiço in Portuguese and mulâtre and these terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nation descent. Half-breed is a term that referred to people of partial Native American ancestry, it is now considered pejorative. Mestee, once used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles, Melungeons, Redbones. In South Africa, and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term Coloured was used to describe a mixed-race person, while the term is socially accepted, it is becoming an outdated due to its association with the apartheid era. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common, the well-known Casta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications. Most Brazilians of all groups are to some extent mixed-race according to genetic research
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Thule
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Thule was a far-northern location in classical European literature and cartography. Though often considered to be an island in antiquity, modern interpretations of what was meant by Thule often identify it as Norway, other interpretations include Orkney, Shetland, and Scandinavia. In the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance, Thule was often identified as Iceland or Greenland, another suggested location is Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea. The term ultima Thule in medieval geographies denotes any distant place located beyond the borders of the known world, sometimes it is used as a proper noun as the Latin name for Greenland when Thule is used for Iceland. The British surveyor Charles Vallancey was one of many antiquarians who argued that Ireland was Thule, the Greek explorer Pytheas is the first to have written of Thule, doing so in his now lost work, On the Ocean, after his travels between 330-320 BC. He supposedly was sent out by the Greek city of Massalia to see where their trade-goods were coming from, descriptions of some of his discoveries have survived in the works of later, often sceptical, authors. Nearly a half later, in 77, Pliny the Elder published his Natural History in which he also cites Pytheas claim that Thule is a six-day sail north of Britain. The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela placed Thule north of Scythia, after correcting for the mistakes, the scientists mapped Ptolemys Thule to the Norwegian island of Smøla. Other late classical writers and post-classical writers such as Orosius and the Irish monk Dicuil, describe Thule as being north, Dicuil described Thule as being beyond islands that seem to be the Faroe Islands, strongly suggesting Iceland. In the writings of the historian Procopius, from the first half of the sixth century and it is believed that Procopius is really talking about a part of Scandinavia, since several tribes are easily identified, including the Geats in present-day Sweden and the Sami people. He also writes that when the Herules returned, they passed the Warini and the Danes and then crossed the sea to Thule, virgil coined the term Ultima Thule meaning furthest land as a symbolic reference to denote a far-off land or an unattainable goal. The 1st century BC Greek astronomer Geminus of Rhodes claimed that the name Thule went back to a word for the polar night phenomenon – the place where the sun goes to rest. Dionysius Periegetes in his De situ habitabilis orbis also touched upon this subject as did Martianus Capella, avienus in his Ora Maritima added that during the summer on Thule night lasted only two hours, a clear reference to the midnight sun. Cleomedes referenced Pytheas journey to Thule, but added no new information, a novel in Greek by Antonius Diogenes entitled The Wonders Beyond Thule appeared c. Gerald N. Sandy, in the introduction to his translation of Photius ninth-century summary of the work, the Latin grammarian Gaius Julius Solinus in the 3rd century AD, wrote in his Polyhistor that Thule was a 5 days sail from Orkney. Ab Orcadibus Thylen usque quinque dierum ac noctium navigatio est, sed Thyle larga et diutina Pomona copiosa est, Thyle, which was distant from Orkney by a voyage of five days and nights, was fruitful and abundant in the lasting yield of its crops. The 4th century Virgilian commentator Servius also believed that Thule sat close to Orkney, Thule, insula est Oceani inter septemtrionalem et occidentalem plagam, ultra Britanniam, iuxta Orcades et Hiberniam, in hac Thule cum sol in Cancro est, perpetui dies sine noctibus dicuntur. This implies that Thule was Scotland, but in Against Rufinias, the Second Poem, Claudian writes of Thule lying icebound beneath the pole-star
28.
Greenland ice sheet
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The Greenland ice sheet is a vast body of ice covering 1,710,000 square kilometres, roughly 80% of the surface of Greenland. It is the second largest ice body in the world, after the Antarctic ice sheet, the ice sheet is almost 2,400 kilometres long in a north-south direction, and its greatest width is 1,100 kilometres at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern margin. The mean altitude of the ice is 2,135 metres, the thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point. It is not the only ice mass of Greenland – isolated glaciers, if the entire 2,850,000 cubic kilometres of ice were to melt, it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m. The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice, or its Danish equivalent and it is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap. From about 11 million years ago to 10 million years ago, the Greenland Ice Sheet formed in the middle Miocene by coalescence of ice caps and glaciers. There was an intensification of glaciation during the Late Pliocene, Ice sheet formation occurred in connection to uplift of the West Greenland and East Greenland uplands. The Western and Easter Greenland mountains constitute passive continental margins that were uplifted in two phases,10 and 5 million years ago, in the Miocene epoch, computer modelling shows that the uplift would have enabled glaciation by producing increased orographic precipitation and cooling the surface temperatures. The oldest known ice in the current ice sheet is as old as 110,000 years, if the ice suddenly disappeared, Greenland would most probably appear as an archipelago, at least until isostasy lifted the land surface above sea level once again. The ice surface reaches its greatest altitude on two elongated domes, or ridges. The southern dome reaches almost 3,000 metres at latitudes 63°–65°N, the crests of both domes are displaced east of the centre line of Greenland. The unconfined ice sheet does not reach the sea along a broad front anywhere in Greenland, the ice margin just reaches the sea, however, in a region of irregular topography in the area of Melville Bay southeast of Thule. The best known of these outlet glaciers is Jakobshavn Glacier, which, at its terminus, on the ice sheet, temperatures are generally substantially lower than elsewhere in Greenland. The lowest mean annual temperatures, about −31 °C, occur on the part of the north dome. During winter, the ice sheet takes on a clear blue/green color, during summer, the top layer of ice melts leaving pockets of air in the ice that makes it look white. The ice sheet, consisting of layers of compressed snow from more than 100,000 years, in the past decades, scientists have drilled ice cores up to 4 kilometres deep. This variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate, many scientists who study the ice melt in Greenland consider that a two or three °C temperature rise would result in a complete melting of Greenland’s ice. Positioned in the Arctic, the Greenland ice sheet is especially vulnerable to climate change, Arctic climate is believed to be now rapidly warming and much larger Arctic shrinkage changes are projected
29.
Tasiilaq
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Tasiilaq, formerly Ammassalik and Angmagssalik, is a town in the Sermersooq municipality in southeastern Greenland. With 2,017 inhabitants as of 2013, it is the most populous community on the eastern coast, the Sermilik Station, dedicated to the research of the nearby Mittivakkat Glacier, is located near the town. The people of Saqqaq culture were the first to reach eastern Greenland, arriving from the north, through what is now known as Peary Land and Independence Fjord, thule migrations passed through the area in the fifteenth century, finding the southeastern coast uninhabited. Population increased however from the 1880s, dispersing over several villages in the area, the permanent settlement was founded in 1894 as a Danish trading station. The town was known as Ammassalik. The official name took place in 1997. The fjord is an inlet of the long Ammassalik Fjord emptying into the North Atlantic to the east of the town, the large Sermilik Fjord lies further to the west. With 2,017 inhabitants as of 2013, Tasiilaq is one of the towns in Greenland, with migrants from the smaller towns. Together with Nuuk, it is the town in the Sermersooq municipality exhibiting stable growth patterns over the last two decades. The population increased by over 37% relative to the 1990 levels, Tasiilaq is the main location where East Greenlandic is spoken. There are no roads far outside Tasiilaq, the longest is a 3 km narrow gravel road to the hydro power plant. Transport to further places is by helicopter or boat, Air Greenland operates helicopter services from Tasiilaq Heliport to neighboring Kulusuk Airport, which offers connections to Nuuk, Ittoqqortoormiit via Nerlerit Inaat Airport, and to Iceland. The heliport serves as a local helicopter hub with flights to villages in the region, Isortoq, Kuummiit, Sermiligaaq. In the summer, the boats of Royal Arctic Line connect Tasiilaq with Kulusuk. - Kópavogur, Iceland Tasiilaq has a climate, with long, cold and snowy winters and short. From time to time, Tasiilaq is affected by piteraqs, on February 6,1970 the worst documented piteraq ever hit Tasiilaq, causing heavy damage and nearly ruining the town
30.
Kuupik Kleist
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Jakob Edvard Kuupik Kleist is a Greenlandic politician who served as the fifth Prime Minister of Greenland between 2009 and 2013. A member of the Inuit Ataqatigiit party, he was the first Prime Minister not affiliated with Siumut, Kleist was born on 31 March 1958 to a Danish telegraphist and a Greenlandic mother in Qullissat, and was raised by his aunt and uncle. He attended primary school in Qullissat from 1966 until 1972 when the town was abandoned. When he was 17, he was sent to Denmark, alone and he attended the Birkerød State School in Denmark from 1975 to 1978. Kleist graduated from Roskilde University in 1983 with a degree in social work. He taught journalism in Nuuk from 1988 to 1991, in 1996, Kleist was appointed the Director of the Foreign Office of the Greenland Home Rule Government. He was a Member of the Danish Parliament from 20 November 2001 to 13 November 2007, IA will be the first party to govern the autonomous Danish territory under an expanded home rule agreement known as self-rule. Kleist had risen to power on an agenda that included cleaning up following government scandals, since 2007, he has been the leader of IA, a leftist political party which works towards Greenlands eventual full autonomy from Denmark. The party received the most votes in the 2009 election, in June 2009 the Greenlandic parliament therefore elected Kleist the fifth Prime Minister of Greenland. Kleist also had a successful election himself and won 5,461 personal votes compared to just 1,413 votes for incumbent Prime Minister Hans Enoksen. In late August 2009 Kleist met with Admiral Tim Sloth Jørgensen and General Walter Natynczyk, Admiral Jørgensen and General Natynczyk were conducting a tour of Danish and Canadian military bases in the Arctic. Greenlandic independence References Biography Biography from the Danish Parliament
31.
Sofie Petersen
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Sofie Petersen is the Lutheran bishop of Greenland. She was born on 23 November 1955 in Maniitsoq, Greenland and she studied theology and graduated from the University of Copenhagen in 1986. On 28 May 1995, at the age of 39, Petersen was ordained as the Bishop of Greenland in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Denmark and she was ordained at Hans Egede Church, the cathedral of Greenland in the presence of Queen Margrethe II. She is the second Inuit bishop and the woman to become a bishop in the Danish Lutheran church. Petersen is an advocate for climate justice. Article about Sofie Petersen, Indigenous Communion
32.
Inuit languages
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The Inuit languages are a closely related group of indigenous American languages traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and to some extent in the subarctic in Labrador. The Inuit live primarily in three countries, Greenland, Canada, and the United States, Greenland census estimates place the number of speakers of varieties of Inuit there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 35,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, although about 7,500 Alaskans speak varieties of Inuit out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit, the Inuit languages have a few hundred speakers in Russia. In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, thus, the global population of speakers of varieties of Inuit is on the order of nearly 100,000 people. However, there are no criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member languages since it forms a dialect continuum. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely its neighbours neighbours, in Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called Kalaallisut. In other languages, it is often called Greenlandic or some cognate term, in those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as Inuktitun to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called Inuttitut by its speakers, and often by other people, in Labrador, the language is called Inuttut or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name Labradorimiutut. Furthermore, Canadians – both Inuit and non-Inuit – sometimes use the word Inuktitut to refer to all Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska, see the article on Eskimo for more information on this word. The language of the Inuit is an Eskimo–Aleut language and it is fairly closely related to the Yupik languages and more remotely to the Aleut language. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western Alaska and Eastern Chukotka, some consider it a Paleosiberian language, although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the Thule people, by 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colonies in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastward migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka, until 1902, a possible enclave of the Dorset, the Sadlermiut, existed on Southampton Island. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a strange dialect and this suggests that they also spoke an Eskimo–Aleut language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically, the Inuit languages are a fairly closely linked set of languages which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language, The dialect of Igloolik versus the dialect of Iqaluit and this makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and this scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature. Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Iñupiat, as few as 3000 may still be able to speak the Iñupiat language, Alaskan Inupiat speak four distinct dialects, Qawiaraq is spoken on the southern side of the Seward Peninsula and the Norton Sound area
33.
Eskimo-Aleut languages
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Eskimo–Aleut or Eskaleut is a language family native to Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Greenland, and the Chukchi Peninsula on the eastern tip of Siberia. It is also known as Eskaleutian, Eskaleutic, or Inuit–Yupik-Unangan, the Eskimo–Aleut language family is divided into two branches, the Eskimo languages and the Aleut language. The Aleut language family consists of a language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands. Aleut is divided into several dialects, Inuit, which covers a huge range of territory, is divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands. The proper place of one language, Sirenik, within the Eskimo family has not been settled, while some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik, others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimo family, alongside Yupik and Inuit. The Alaska Native Language Center believes that the ancestral language of the Eskimo languages and of Aleut divided into the Eskimo. The Eskimo language family divided into the Yupik and Inuit branches around 1000 years ago, the Eskimo–Aleut languages are among the native languages of the Americas. This is a category, not a genealogical one. There is general agreement that it is not closely related to the language families of North America. The more credible proposals on the relations of Eskimo–Aleut all concern one or more of the language families of northern Eurasia. One of the first such proposals was made by the pioneering Danish linguist Rasmus Rask in 1818, perhaps the most fully developed such proposal to date is Michael Fortescues Uralo-Siberian hypothesis, published in 1998. More recently Joseph Greenberg suggested grouping Eskimo–Aleut with all of the families of northern Eurasia, with the exception of Yeniseian. Such proposals are not generally accepted, criticisms have been made stating that Greenbergs hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bombard. By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis, despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In the 1960s Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages and this was picked up and expanded by Holst. The Eskimo–Aleut languages are polysynthetic and exclusively suffixing
34.
Ellesmere Island
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Ellesmere Island is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region of the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Lying within the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, it is considered part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands and it comprises an area of 196,235 km2 and the total length of the island is 830 kilometres, making it the worlds tenth largest island and Canadas third largest island. The Arctic Cordillera mountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island, making it the most mountainous in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Arctic willow is the only woody species to grow on Ellesmere Island. The first human inhabitants of Ellesmere Island were small bands drawn to the area for Peary caribou, muskox, vikings from the Greenland colonies reached Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island, and Ruin Island during hunting expeditions and trading with the Inuit groups. Unusual structures on Bache peninsula may be the remains of a late-period Dorset stone longhouse, the first European to sight the island after the height of the Little Ice Age was William Baffin in 1616. Ellesmere Island was named in 1852 by Edward Inglefields expedition after Francis Egerton, the US expedition led by Adolphus Greely in 1881 crossed the island from east to west, establishing Fort Conger in the northern part of the island. The Greely expedition found fossil forests on Ellesmere Island in the late 1880s, Stenkul Fiord was first explored in 1902 by Per Schei, a member of Otto Sverdrups 2nd Norwegian Polar Expedition. In 1906 Robert Peary led an expedition in northern Ellesmere Island, during Pearys expedition, the Ice Shelf was continuous, a modern estimate is that it covered 8,900 km2. In 2011, Jon Turk and Erik Boomer completed the first known circumnavigation of Ellesmere Island, Ellesmere Island contains Canadas northernmost point, Cape Columbia at 83°6′41″N. Barbeau Peak, the highest mountain in Nunavut is located in the British Empire Range on Ellesmere Island, the most northern mountain range in the world, the Challenger Mountains, is located in the northeast region of the island. The northern lobe of the island is called Grant Land, in July 2007, a study noted the disappearance of habitat for waterfowl, invertebrates, and algae on Ellesmere Island. The researchers noted that In the 1980s they often needed to wear hip waders to make their way to the ponds. while by 2006 the same areas were dry enough to burn. The northwest coast of Ellesmere Island was covered by a massive,500 km long ice shelf until the 20th century. A1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that 48 km2 or 3.3 km3 of ice calved from the Milne and Ayles ice shelves between 1959 and 1974. The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, the largest remaining section of thick landfast sea ice along the coastline of Ellesmere Island. It further decreased by 27% in thickness between 1967 and 1999, Schei and later Nathorst described the Paleocene-Eocene fossil forest in the Stenkul Fiord sediments. The Stenkul Fiord site represents a series of deltaic swamp and floodplain forests, the trees stood for at least 400 years. Individual stumps and stems of >1 m diameter were abundant, and are identified as Metasequoia, well preserved Pliocene peats containing abundant vertebrate and plant macrofossils characteristic of a boreal forest have been reported from Strathcona Fiord
35.
Independence I culture
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The Independence I culture was a Paleo-Eskimo culture of peoples who lived in northern Greenland from 2,400 to 1,000 B. C. It is named after Independence Fjord, during this time they coexisted with the Saqqaq culture of southern Greenland. The Independence II culture arose in the place in the 8th century BC. The archaeological finds of both Independence cultures are credited to Danish explorer Eigil Knuth, Independence I, The Greenland Research Centre at the National Museum of Denmark
36.
Thule people
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The Thule or proto-Inuit were the ancestors of all modern Inuit. They developed in coastal Alaska by 1000 and expanded eastwards across Canada, in the process, they replaced people of the earlier Dorset culture that had previously inhabited the region. The appellation Thule originates from the location of Thule in northwest Greenland, facing Canada, the links between the Thule and the Inuit are biological, cultural, and linguistic. Evidence supports the idea that the Thule were in contact with the Vikings, in Viking sources, these peoples are called the Skræling. Some Thule migrated southward, in the Second Expansion or Second Phase, by the 13th or 14th century, the Thule had occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the 15th century, the Thule replaced the Dorset. Intensified contacts with Europeans began in the 18th century, compounded by the already disruptive effects of the Little Ice Age, the Thule communities broke apart, and the people were henceforward known as the Eskimo, and later, Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 B. C. to 1600 A. D. around the Bering Strait, Thule culture was mapped out by Therkel Mathiassen, following his participation as an archaeologist and cartographer of the Fifth Danish Expedition to Arctic America in 1921–1924. There are three stages of development leading up to Thule culture, they are Okvik/Old Bering Sea, Punuk, Birnirk and these groups of peoples have been referred to as “Neo-Eskimo” cultures, which are differentiated from the earlier Norton Tradition. There are several stages of the Thule tradition, Old Bering Sea Stage, Punuk Stage and these stages represent variations of the Thule Tradition as it expanded over time. And spread across the coasts of Labrador and Greenland and it is the most recent “neo-Eskimo” culture. Jenness identified the Bering Sea culture as a highly developed Inuit culture of northeastern Asiatic origin, a strong maritime adaptation is characteristic of the Thule, and the OBS stage, and then can be seen in the archaeological evidence. Both Kayaks and umiaks appear in the record for the first time. The toolkits of the people of the time are dominated by polished-slate rather than flaked-stone artifacts, including knives, projectile heads. There are many important innovations that emerged that allowed hunting to be more efficient, harpoon mounted ice picks were used for seal hunting, as well as ivory plugs and mouthpieces for inflating harpoon line floats, which enabled them to recover larger sea mammals when dispatched. These people relied heavily on seal and walrus for subsistence and it is easy to pick out OBS technology because of the artistic curvilinear dots, circles, and shorter lines that were used to decorate their tools. The chronological relationship between the Okvik and Old Bering Seas cultures has been the subject of debate and remains largely undecided, based mainly on art styles. The Punuk stage is a development of Old Bering Sea stage, with distribution along the major Strait islands, the Punuk culture was initially defined by Henry Collins in 1928 from a 16 ft deep midden on one of the Punuk Islands. Punuk is differentiated with Old Bering Sea through its artifact styles and house forms, as well as harpoon styles, Punuk settlements were larger and more common than earlier villages
37.
Treaty of Kiel
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Specifically excluded from the exchange were the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands, which remained in the union with Denmark. Norway unsuccessfully contested the Danish claim to all of Greenland in the East Greenland case of 1931–1933, however, not all provisions of the treaty would come into force. Norway declared its independence, adopted a Constitution and elected Crown Prince Christian Frederik as its own king, Sweden therefore refused to hand over Swedish Pomerania, which instead passed to Prussia after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After a short war with Sweden, Norway accepted entering into a union with Sweden at the Convention of Moss. King Christian Frederik abdicated after convening an extraordinary Storting, which revised the Constitution to allow for the Union and it was formally established when the Storting elected Charles XIII as king of Norway on 4 November 1814. In the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway and the Kingdom of Sweden tried to maintain neutrality, the United Kingdom, which had declared war on France in 1803, paid subsidies to Sweden. Before Gustav IV Adolf marched his forces out of Swedish Pomerania, in 1807, Napoleonic forces seized Swedish Pomerania and forced Prussia and Russia to sign the Treaty of Tilsit. Sweden could no longer uphold her anti-French foreign policy, and French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1810, Denmark-Norway entered an alliance with France after the second British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807. In 1812, Napoleons forces were decimated in their attempt to subdue Russia. Sweden allied with Russia on 30 August 1812, with the United Kingdom on 3 March 1813, previously, on 23 March 1813, she had declared war on Napoleon. Bernadottes condition for entering the anti-Napoleonic alliance was the gain of Norway, Prussia however did not acknowledge this claim at first. Thus, Bernadotte hesitated to enter the war with full force, when Prussia finally accepted the Swedish claim to Norway on 22 July, Sweden joined the alliance of Reichenbach concluded between Russia, the United Kingdom and Prussia on 14/15 June. With three armies, the allies subsequently cleared Northern Germany of French forces, Denmark, who had maintained the alliance with Napoleon because of the Swedish claim to Norway, was isolated and, as a consequence of the war, bankrupt. It consisted of 14 articles, to two articles were added in Brussels on 7 April. In article III, the United Kingdom was obliged to return all occupied Danish possessions to the Danish king, excepted was the island of Heligoland, where the British king was granted full and unlimited sovereignty. Article VIII was concerned with the abolishment of slave trade, in article X, the British king promised the Danish king to negotiate further compensation for Denmarks territorial cessions to Sweden in a pending final peace. In article XIII, older Dano-British treaties were confirmed, the treaty between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of Sweden was negotiated by Danish diplomat Edmund Bourke and Swedish envoy Baron Gustaf af Wetterstedt with British mediation. It consisted of 28 articles and one separate article, in article IV, the Danish king in his and his successors name irrevocably and forever renounced claims to the Kingdom of Norway in favor of the Swedish king
38.
Douglas Clavering
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Captain Douglas Charles Clavering RN FRS was an officer of the British Royal Navy and Arctic explorer. Clavering was born at Holyrood House, the eldest son of Brigadier-General Henry Mordaunt Clavering and Lady Augusta Campbell and his grandfather was Lieutenant-General John Clavering, who had served as Commander-in-Chief, India, from 1774. Despite his impeccable military antecedents Clavering elected to serve in the Navy, joining at a young age, he served as a midshipman under Sir Philip Broke in the frigate Shannon. Clavering distinguished himself during the battle with USS Chesapeake in June 1813 and he then served as a lieutenant aboard the sloop-of-war Spey in the Mediterranean, and in 1821 was appointed commander of the sloop Pheasant, on the coast of Africa. While on passage to join his ship, he struck up a friendship with Captain Edward Sabine. At Claverings request the Pheasant was chosen to carry Sabine while making his observations and these were made at Sierra Leone, the Island of St Thomas, Ascension Island, Bahia, Maranham, Trinidad, Jamaica, and New York City. In the course of the voyage Clavering also made a series of observations on the direction and force of the equatorial current. Clavering prepared his ship at Deptford, loading enough stores to see the ship through an entire winter and they arrived at Hammerfest on 2 June. Sabine set up camp ashore and made his first set of observations, Griper then sailed north for Spitsbergen in the Svalbard archipelago, landing on 1 June and setting up a camp of tents and huts for six men, Sabine, and his instruments. Meanwhile, Clavering sailed north, until blocked by ice at 80°21 N. While Sabine completed his observations Clavering made surveys, and his men supplemented their diet with fresh reindeer meat, Griper sailed from Spitsbergen on 23 June, and headed for the east coast of Greenland. After making their way through ice floes, the ship reached the shore on 8 July. They sailed north-east looking for a landing place, and on 10 July discovered two islands, which Clavering later named the Pendulum Islands. The Griper continued north until blocked by ice, the camp was located at 74°32′19″N 18°50′00″W. On the 16th Clavering set off in two boats, and with his midshipman Henry Foster, surveyed the coast between 72°30N and 74°N, extending the 1822 observations of William Scoresby, Clavering also explored and named Loch Fyne. He observed several traces of habitation, and later made contact with a group of Thule people, Clavering returned to the camp on 29 August to find that Sabine had almost completed his measurements. They struck camp and returned to the ship the next day, Griper set sail on 31 August, heading south along the coast through ice floes, finally reaching open sea on 13 September. On the 23rd she arrived off the coast of Norway, finally anchoring off Trondheim on 6 October, violent gales and electrical storms delayed her further, and she eventually returned to Deptford on 19 December 1823
39.
German North Polar Expedition
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German North Polar Expedition was a short series of mid-19th century German expeditions to the Arctic. The aim was to explore the North Polar Region and to brand the newly united, Prussian-led German Empire as a great power, the first expedition took place in the summer of 1868 and was led by Carl Koldewey on the vessel Grönland. The expedition explored some hitherto unknown coastal tracts of northeastern Spitsbergen, however, it served as preparation for the second expedition. Hansa – a smaller escort schooner built 1864 and enforced for the expedition - under the command of Paul Friedrich August Hegemann, the expedition left Bremerhaven on 15 June 1869 and headed north. After one month dense pack ice was encountered at approximately 75. 5°N, the two ships got separated by mistake. Germania made it through the pack ice thanks to its engine and, during late summer, explored the region around Sabine Island, Little Pendulum Island. On 13 September 1869 it was anchored near the south coast of Sabine Island for wintering, during autumn and the following spring, sledge trips were made Clavering Island and Tyrolerfjord to the south-west and as far north as Store Koldewey Island and Germania Land. In late July 1870, Germania was able to anchor and continue north, however. After eight days, it was decided to head south instead, Germania managed to get through the pack ice, but the engine broke, and returned to Bremerhaven, most of the way by sail, on 11 September 1870. As the supply ship, the Hansa followed the Germania until 19 July, when Hegemann misread a signal by Koldeway and went ahead. The agreement was to meet in such a situation at Sabine Island, after unsuccessful attempts to get there, Hansa was inescapably stuck in the pack ice by mid-September 1869. During the next month, the ship was slowly milled by the ice and finally sank on 22 October at a position 70°32’N, 21°W approximately 10 km from the East Greenland coast. The crew managed to survive the winter in a built of coal dust briquettes. In June 1870, the crew got to the coast by boat and reached the Moravian Herrnhut mission at Friedrichsthal near Cape Farewell, doctor Adolf Pansch made quite extensive botanical collections during the Second German North Polar Expedition. The vascular plants collected were later treated by the botanists Franz Georg Philipp Buchenau and Wilhelm Olbers Focke, D. T. Murphy, German exploration of the polar world
40.
Greenlandic independence
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Scholars believe that the earliest known Norse settlements in Greenland originated from Iceland. Scholars believe that Erik the Red founded a colony in 985. Icelandic control of Greenland is estimated to have lasted until 1261, the Kingdom of Norway later claimed and controlled Greenland singularly from roughly 1261–1319. Unification of Norwegian and Danish rule was established in Greenland under one kingdom from 1380–1814, first under the Kalmar Union and this ended on 14 January 1814 after Norway was ceded from Denmark as a result of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. As a result of the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark gained full control of Greenland soon after. From 1814–1953, Greenland was a colony, not independent and not part of Denmark, during the Second World War, Denmark was occupied and controlled by Nazi Germany between 1940 and 1945. As a result, the Danish and US governments signed an agreement to hand over defense, the first troops arrived in Greenland on 7 July 1941. Greenland was effectively independent during these years, and allowed the United States to build bases on its territory, after the war the pre-war situation was restored, the US bases remained and Denmark, with Greenland as a part of it, joined NATO. In 1953, Greenland gained representation in the Danish Parliament and was recognized as a Danish province, following this, in 1979, Greenland was granted home rule by the Danish government. Denmark remained in control of foreign relations and defense in Greenland after this, in 2008 Greenlands citizens approved the Greenlandic self-government referendum with a 75% vote in favor of independence. Greenland took control of law enforcement, the coast guard, the official language changed from Danish to Greenlandic on 21 June 2009, Greenland national day. Economic stability is seen as a basis for political independence from Denmark. Some campaigners have touted the year 2021 as a date for potential independence, history of Greenland Greenlandic home rule referendum,1979 Faroese independence Icelandic independence movement Norwegian independence movement
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