1.
Manchester Ship Canal
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The Manchester Ship Canal is a 36-mile-long inland waterway in the North West of England linking Manchester to the Irish Sea. Starting at the Mersey Estuary near Liverpool, it follows the original routes of the rivers Mersey. Several sets of locks lift vessels about 60 feet up to Manchester, major landmarks along its route include the Barton Swing Aqueduct, the only swing aqueduct in the world, and Trafford Park, the worlds first planned industrial estate and still the largest in Europe. The rivers Mersey and Irwell were first made navigable in the early 18th century, in addition, Manchesters business community viewed the charges imposed by Liverpools docks and the railway companies as excessive. A ship canal was proposed as a way of giving ocean-going vessels direct access to Manchester. They initiated a campaign to enlist support for the scheme. Faced with stiff opposition from Liverpool, the supporters were unable to gain the necessary Act of Parliament to allow the scheme to go ahead until 1885. Construction began in 1887, it six years and cost £15 million. Although able to accommodate a range of vessels from coastal ships to inter-continental cargo liners, by 2011 traffic had decreased from its peak in 1958 of 18 million long tons of freight each year to about 7 million long tons. The necessary legislation was proposed in 1720, and the Act of Parliament for the navigation passed into law in 1721, construction began in 1724, undertaken by the Mersey & Irwell Navigation Company. The completion in 1776 of the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal, followed in 1830 by the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, intensified competition for the carriage of goods. In 1844 ownership of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation was transferred to the Bridgewater Trustees and its proponents argued that reduced transport costs would make local industry more competitive, and that the scheme would help create new jobs. The idea was championed by Manchester manufacturer Daniel Adamson, who arranged a meeting at his home, The Towers in Didsbury and he invited the representatives of several Lancashire towns, local businessmen and politicians, and two civil engineers, Hamilton Fulton and Edward Leader Williams. Fultons design was for a canal, with no locks. With the city about 60 feet above sea level, the docks, Williams plan was to dredge a channel between a set of retaining walls, and build a series of locks and sluices to lift incoming vessels up to Manchester. Both engineers were invited to submit their proposals, and Williams plans were selected to form the basis of a bill to be submitted to Parliament later that year. To generate support for the scheme, the provisional committee initiated a campaign led by Joseph Lawrence. His task was to set up committees in every ward in Manchester and throughout Lancashire, to raise subscriptions, the first meeting was held on 4 October in Manchesters Oxford Ward, followed by another on 17 October in the St. James Ward
2.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
3.
Grain
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Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
4.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
5.
Watermill
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A watermill or water mill is a mill that utilizes hydropower. It is a structure that uses a wheel or water turbine to drive a mechanical process such as milling, rolling. Such processes are needed in the production of material goods, including flour, lumber, paper, textiles. Thus watermills may be comprise gristmills, sawmills, paper mills, textile mills, hammermills, trip hammering mills, rolling mills, wire drawing mills. The former type can be divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot. Another way to water mills is by an essential trait about their location, tide mills use the movement of the tide. The earliest evidence of a wheel is probably the Perachora wheel. The earliest written reference is in the technical treatises Pneumatica and Parasceuastica of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium, the British historian of technology M. J. T. The sakia gear is, already developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC Hellenistic wall painting in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Greek geographer Strabon reports in his Geography a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC. The Roman engineer Vitruvius has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC and he also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered kneading machines. The Greek epigrammatist Antipater of Thessalonica tells of an overshot wheel mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour, Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls, even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on. If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of the earth, the Roman encyclopedist Pliny mentions in his Naturalis Historia of around 70 AD water-powered trip hammers operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a mill in 73/4 AD in Antioch. It is likely that a stamp mill was used at Dolaucothi to crush gold-bearing quartz. The stamps were operated as a batch of four working against a large conglomerate block, similar anvil stones have been found at other Roman mines across Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal. The 1st-century AD multiple mill complex of Barbegal in southern France has been described as the greatest known concentration of power in the ancient world
6.
Ushabti
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The ushabti was a funerary figurine used in Ancient Egypt. Ushabtis were placed in tombs among the goods and were intended to act as servants or minions for the deceased. The figurines frequently carried a hoe on their shoulder and a basket on their backs and they were usually written on by the use of hieroglyphs typically found on the legs. Called “answerers, ” they carried inscriptions asserting their readiness to answer the summons to work. The practice of using ushabtis originated in the Old Kingdom with the use of life-sized reserve heads made from limestone, most ushabtis were of minor size, and many produced in multiples – they sometimes covered the floor around a sarcophagus. Exceptional ushabtis are of size, or produced as a one-of-a-kind master work. Produced in huge numbers, ushabtis, along with scarabs, are the most numerous of all ancient Egyptian antiquities to survive, otherwise, they might better be defined by the generic term, funerary figurines. The shabtis were servant figures that carried out the tasks required of the deceased in the underworld and it was necessary for the owners name to be inscribed on an ushabti, along with a phrase sending them to action, written in the hieratic script. The shabti figure answers, I am here and will come wherever you bid me, the shawabti were a distinct class of funerary figurines within the area of Thebes during the New Kingdom. The term ushabti became prevalent after the 21st Dynasty and remained in use until Ptolemaic times, Ushabti inscriptions often contain the 6th chapter of the Book of the Dead, translated as, Illumine the Osiris, whose word is truth. The Shabti Figure replieth, I will do it, verily I am here when thou callest”, in rare cases different chapters of the Book of the Dead are written. Furthermore, ushabtis often mention the name and the titles of the owner, before being inscribed on funerary figurines, the spell was written on some mid-Twelfth Dynasty coffins from Deir el-Bersha and is known today as spell 472 of the Coffin Texts. Mentioned first in spell 472 of the Coffin Texts, they were included in the goods of the dead as small figurines since the reign of Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty. In the 18th Dynasty during the reign of Amenhotep IV, the figurines were inscribed with an offering addressed to the sun disk, Aten, rather than the traditional speech of the ushabti figure. The ushabti was believed to magically animate after the dead had been judged, from the New Kingdom onwards, it was often referred to as servant. From the 21st Dynasty on, ushabtis became common and numerous in graves, in some tombs the floor was covered with a great many ushabti figurines, in others the ushabtis were neatly packed into ushabti boxes. At times, several hundred ushabti were placed in a deceased Ancient Egyptians tomb, but pharaohs had considerably more of these servants than commoners, some tombs contained overseer or reis ushabtis holding a whip, which were responsible for groups of ten ushabti each -. These overseers became rare during the Late Period, the tomb of Tutankhamun had a large number of ushabtis
7.
Brooklyn Museum
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The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum located in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. At 560,000 square feet, the museum is New York Citys third largest in physical size, the museum initially struggled to maintain its building and collection, only to be revitalized in the late 20th century, thanks to major renovations. Significant areas of the collection include antiquities, specifically their collection of Egyptian antiquities spanning over 3,000 years, African, Oceanic, and Japanese art make for notable antiquities collections as well. American art is represented, starting at the Colonial period. Artists represented in the collection include Mark Rothko, Edward Hopper, Norman Rockwell, Winslow Homer, Edgar Degas, Georgia OKeeffe, the museum also has a Memorial Sculpture Garden which features salvaged architectural elements from throughout New York City. The roots of the Brooklyn Museum extend back to the 1823 founding by Augustus Graham of the Brooklyn Apprentices’ Library in Brooklyn Heights, in 1890, under its director Franklin Hooper, Institute leaders reorganized as the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and began planning the Brooklyn Museum. The initial design for the Brooklyn Museum was four times as large as the actualized version, Daniel Chester French, the noted sculptor of the Lincoln Memorial, was the principal designer of the pediment sculptures and the monolithic 12. 5-foot figures along the cornice. The figures were created by 11 sculptors and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, by 1920, the New York City Subway reached the museum with a subway station, this greatly improved access to the once-isolated museum from Manhattan and other outer boroughs. The Brooklyn Institutes director Franklin Hooper was the museums first director and he was followed by Philip Newell Youtz, Laurance Page Roberts, Isabel Spaulding Roberts, Charles Nagel, Jr. and Edgar Craig Schenck. Thomas S. Buechner became the director in 1960, making him one of the youngest directors in the country. Buechner oversaw a major transformation in the way the museum displayed art and brought some one thousand works that had languished in the museums archives and put them on display. Buechner played a role in rescuing the Daniel Chester French sculptures from destruction due to an expansion project at the Manhattan Bridge in the 1960s. The Brooklyn Museum changed its name to Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1997, on March 12,2004, the museum announced that it would revert to its previous name. In April 2004, the museum opened the James Polshek-designed entrance pavilion on the Eastern Parkway façade, in September 2014, Lehman announced that he was planning to retire around June 2015. In May 2015, Creative Time president and artistic director Anne Pasternak was named the Museums next director, member institutions occupy land or buildings owned by the City of New York and derive part of their yearly funding from the City. The Brooklyn Museum also supplements its earned income with funding from Federal and State governments, as well as donations by individuals. Major benefactors include Frank Lusk Babbott, the museum is the site of the annual Brooklyn Artists Ball which has included celebrity hosts such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Liv Tyler. The Brooklyn Museum exhibits collections that seek to embody the rich heritage of world cultures
8.
Strabo
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Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus, Strabos life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush, as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome. Travel throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes, was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus. He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, in 29 BC, on his way to Corinth, he visited the island of Gyaros in the Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae and it is not known precisely when Strabos Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place its first drafts around 7 BC, others around 17 or 18 AD, the latest passage to which a date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD23 of Juba II, king of Maurousia, who is said to have died just recently. He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, on the presumption that recently means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or the next, when he died. The first of Strabos major works, Historical Sketches, written while he was in Rome, is completely lost. Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialties throughout his life at different stops along his Mediterranean travels. His first chapter of education took place in Nysa under the master of rhetoric Aristodemus, Strabo was an admirer of Homers poetry, perhaps a consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus, despite Xenarchuss Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations. In Rome, he learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus. Although Tyrannion was also a Peripatetic, he was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, the final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites, a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus endowed to Strabo three important items, his philosophy, his knowledge, and his contacts, moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which he would not otherwise have known. Strabo is most notable for his work Geographica, which presented a history of people. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized in its antiquity, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469, the first Greek edition was published in 1516 in Venice
9.
Anatolia
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
10.
Water wheel
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A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel, with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving surface. Most commonly, the wheel is mounted vertically on a horizontal axle, vertical wheels can transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically drive belts or gears, horizontal wheels usually directly drive their load. Water wheels were still in use well into the 20th century. Uses included milling flour in gristmills, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, hammering wrought iron, machining, some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is dammed. A channel for the water flowing to or from a wheel is called a mill race. The race bringing water from the pond to the water wheel is a headrace. In the mid to late 18th century John Smeatons scientific investigation of the water led to significant increases in efficiency supplying much needed power for the Industrial Revolution. Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient turbine, developed by Benoît Fourneyron, turbines are capable of handling high heads, or elevations, that exceed the capability of practical-sized waterwheels. The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, modern hydroelectric dams can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill. The two main functions of water wheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and as a power source, when used for water-lifting power can be supplied by either human or animal force or by the water current itself. Water wheels come in two designs, either a vertical or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where the hits the wheel. Engineers of the Hellenistic era Mediterranean region are credited with the development of the water wheel, Mediterranean engineers of the Hellenistic and Roman periods were also the first to use it for both irrigation and as a power source. The technological breakthrough occurred in the advanced and scientifically minded Hellenistic period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had appeared in ancient Egypt by the 4th century BCE. According to John Peter Oleson, both the wheel and the hydraulic Noria appeared in Egypt by the 4th century BCE. This is supported by finds at Faiyum, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found
11.
Millstone
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Millstones or mill stones are stones used in gristmills, for grinding wheat or other grains. The base or bedstone is stationary, above the bedstone is the turning runner stone which actually does the grinding. The runner stone spins above the stationary bedstone creating the scissoring or grinding action of the stones, a runner stone is generally slightly concave, while the bedstone is slightly convex. This helps to channel the ground flour to the edges of the stones where it can be gathered up. The runner stone is supported by a metal piece fixed to a mace head topping the main shaft or spindle leading to the driving mechanism of the mill. Neolithic and Upper Paleolithic people used millstones to grind grains, nuts, rhizomes and these implements are often called grinding stones. They used either saddle stones or rotary querns turned by hand, such devices were also used to grind pigments and metal ores prior to smelting. In India, grinding stones were used to grind grains and spices and these consist of a stationary stone cylinder upon which a smaller stone cylinder rotates. Smaller ones, for use, were operated by two people. Larger ones, for community or commercial use, used livestock to rotate the upper cylinder, the type of stone most suitable for making millstones is a siliceous rock called burrstone, an open-textured, porous but tough, fine-grained sandstone, or a silicified, fossiliferous limestone. In some sandstones, the cement is calcareous, derbyshire Peak stones wear quickly and are typically used to grind animal feed since they leave stone powder in the flour, making it undesirable for human consumption. French burrstones, used for finer grinding, not cut from one piece, but built up from sections of quartz, cemented together with plaster, and bound with iron bands. French Burr comes from the Marne Valley in northern France, in Europe, a third type of millstone was used. These were uncommon in Britain, but not unknown, cullen stones were quarried in the Rhine Valley near Cologne, Germany. The surface of a millstone is divided by deep grooves called furrows into separate areas called lands. Spreading away from the furrows are smaller grooves called feathering or cracking, the grooves provide a cutting edge and help to channel the ground flour out from the stones. The furrows and lands are arranged in repeating patterns called harps, a typical millstone will have six, eight or ten harps. The pattern of harps is repeated on the face of each stone, when in regular use stones need to be dressed periodically, that is, re-cut to keep the cutting surfaces sharp
12.
Glossary of mill machinery
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This glossary of mill machinery covers the major pieces of machinery to be found in windmills, watermills and horse mills. It does not cover machinery found in modern factories, axle The axle carries the waterwheel. It can also carry the Pit Wheel at its opposite end, Bedstone The Bedstone is the bottom of a pair of millstones. The upper stone is called the Runner Stone, Crown Wheel The Crown Wheel is a driving wheel located at the top of the Upright Shaft Great Spur Wheel The Great Spur Wheel is a large gear attached to the Upright Shaft. It drives one or more Stone Nuts in a corn mill, if mounted on a Layshaft it is called a Spur Wheel and only drives one Stone Nut Hurst Frame An internal framework supporting the gears and millstones. This isolation prevents damage to the building from the vibrations of the workings, Layshaft A Layshaft in a watermill is a horizontal shaft, carrying a Wallower and one or more Spur Wheels. The term can refer to a minor shaft driving machinery by pulleys. Overdrift Millstones driven from above are known as Overdrift stones, Pit Wheel The Pit Wheel is mounted on the opposite end of the axle to the waterwheel. It drives the Wallower on the Upright Shaft or Layshaft, Rim Drive Some waterwheels have a rack attached to the circumference, which drives the mill via a pinion mounted on a separate axle, which has a Pit Wheel at its opposite end. This is known as Rim Drive, Runner Stone The Runner Stone is the topmost of a pair of millstones. It is driven by the Stone Nut, the lower stone is called a Bedstone. Stone Nut A Stone Nut is a gear driven by the Great Spur Wheel or Spur Wheel. In most watermills, the stones are driven from below, a few watermills drove the stones from above, known as Overdrift stones. Turbine In some watermills, a Turbine was used as a source of power instead of a Waterwheel, in many cases, the Turbine was installed when a watermill was modernised, although a few mills were built new with Turbines. Underdrift Millstones driven from beneath are known as Underdrift stones, Upright Shaft The Upright Shaft in the main driven shaft in a watermill. It carries the wallower, Great Spur Wheel and sometimes a Crown Wheel, Wallower The Wallower is a small gear at the base of the upright shaft in a watermill, it is driven by the Pit Wheel. Waterwheel A waterwheel is a source of power for a watermill and it is mounted on the axle and drives the mill by a Pit Wheel or Rim Drive. In some watermills, the Waterwheel was replaced by a Turbine, Bedstone The Bedstone is the bottom of a pair of millstones
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