1.
Gulf of Carpentaria
–
The Gulf of Carpentaria is a large, shallow sea enclosed on three sides by northern Australia and bounded on the north by the Arafura Sea. The northern boundary is defined as a line from Slade Point, Queensland in the northeast, to Cape Arnhem. At its mouth, the Gulf is 590 km wide, the north-south length exceeds 700 km. It covers a area of about 300,000 km². The general depth is between 55 and 66 metres and does not exceed 82 metres, the tidal range in the Gulf of Carpentaria is between two and three metres. The Gulf and adjacent Sahul Shelf were dry land at the peak of the last ice age 18,000 years ago when sea level was around 120 m below its present position. At that time a large, shallow lake occupied the centre of what is now the Gulf, the Gulf hosts a submerged coral reef province that was only recognised in 2004. The first known European explorer to visit the region was the Dutch Willem Janszoon in his 1605–6 voyage and his fellow countryman, Jan Carstenszoon, visited in 1623 and named the gulf in honour of Pieter de Carpentier, at that time the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Abel Tasman also explored the coast in 1644, the region was later explored and charted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 and 1803. The land bordering the Gulf is generally flat and low-lying, to the west is Arnhem Land, the Top End of the Northern Territory, and Groote Eylandt, the largest island in the Gulf. To the east is the Cape York Peninsula and Torres Strait which joins the Gulf to the Coral Sea, the area to the south is known as the Gulf Country. The climate is hot and humid with two seasons per year, the dry season lasts from about April until November and is characterized by very dry southeast to east winds, generated by migratory winter high pressure systems to the south. The wet season lasts from December to March, most of the years rainfall is compressed into these months, and during this period, many low-lying areas are flooded. The Gulf is prone to tropical cyclones during the period between November and April, the gulf experiences an average of three cyclones each year that are thought to transport sediments in a clockwise direction along the Gulfs coast. In many other parts of Australia, there are dramatic climatic transitions over fairly short distances, in September and October the Morning Glory cloud appears in the Southern Gulf. The best vantage point to see this phenomenon is in the Burketown area shortly after dawn and it has been hypothesized that the Gulf experienced a major asteroid impact event in 536 A. D. The Gulf of Carpentaria is known to contain fringing reefs and isolated coral colonies, however, this has not always been the case. Their existence points to an earlier, late Quaternary phase of reef growth under cooler-climate
Gulf of Carpentaria
–
The Gulf of Carpentaria from an 1859 Dutch map
Gulf of Carpentaria
–
The location of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Gulf of Carpentaria
–
The Gulf of Carpentaria between
Bentinck Island and the Australian continent
Gulf of Carpentaria
–
Loading ore from
McArthur River zinc mine at Bing Bong Loading Facility, 2011
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
States and territories of Australia
–
Australia is a federation of six states, together with ten federal territories. The Australian mainland consists of five of the six federated states, the state of Tasmania is an island about 200 kilometers from the mainland. The remaining seven territories are classified for some purposes as external territories, aside from the Australian Antarctic Territory, which is Australias claim to part of Antarctica, Australia is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area. Since 2015, federal control has also extended to the formerly self-governing territory of Norfolk Island. Three of the territories are inhabited, the others are uninhabited. The term geographic Australia is used by the Australian government to describe the area covered by demographic statistics such as national population figures and this area comprises Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands in addition to the six states and three mainland territories. Norfolk Island is the territory with a native population that is not part of geographic Australia. Both territories were reincorporated as the Northern Territory at the end of this period, from 1923 to 1968, the United Nations Trust Territory of Nauru was under Australian administration, until independence as the Republic of Nauru. From 1949 to 1975, the Territory of Papua and New Guinea was a territory of Australia, the states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation in 1901. Upon Federation, the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, the territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth Government, laws for territories are determined by the Australian Parliament. Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth Government, in the self-governing territories, the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasions. For the purposes of Australian intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory, each state has a Governor, appointed by the Queen, which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier. The Administrator of the Northern Territory, by contrast, is appointed by the Governor-General, Jervis Bay Territory is the only non-self-governing internal territory. Until 1989, it was administered as if it were a part of the ACT, although residents of the Jervis Bay Territory are generally subject to laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly, they are not represented in the Assembly. They are represented in the Parliament of Australia as part of the Electoral Division of Fraser in the ACT, in other respects, the territory is administered directly by the Federal Government through the Territories portfolio. The external territory of Norfolk Island possessed a degree of self-government from 1979 until 2015, each state has a bicameral parliament except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly, except in South Australia and Tasmania, Tasmania is the only state to use proportional representation for elections to its lower house, all others elect members from single member constituencies, using preferential voting. The upper house is called the Legislative Council and is elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional representation
States and territories of Australia
–
Australian States and Territories
4.
Northern Territory
–
The Northern Territory is a federal Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, to the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area—over 1,349,129 square kilometres, the Northern Territorys population of 244,000 makes it the least populous of Australias eight major states and territories, having fewer than half as many people as Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory begins over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region, makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. The coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century, the British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions. After three failed attempts to establish a settlement, success was achieved in 1869 with the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy, residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as Territorians and fully as Northern Territorians, or more informally as Top Enders and Centralians. With the coming of the British, there were four attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast. The Northern Territory was part of colonial New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a time from February to December 1846. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911, under the administration of colonial South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world, gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, alfred Deakin opined at this time To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation. In late 1912 there was growing sentiment that the name Northern Territory was unsatisfactory, the names Kingsland, Centralia and Territoria were proposed with Kingsland becoming the preferred choice in 1913
Northern Territory
–
Thomas Baines with Aborigines near the mouth of the
Victoria River.
Northern Territory
–
Flag
Northern Territory
–
Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863
Northern Territory
–
The northern coast of Australia is on the left with Melville Island in the lower right.
5.
East Arnhem Region
–
The East Arnhem Region is a local government area of the Northern Territory, Australia. Situated in the far corner of the Northern Territory, the region covers an area of 33,359 square kilometres and has a population of 10,730. East Arnhem Region was created under the Local Government Act 2008 to provide core Local Government Services, five of the nine communities are located on islands. Six of the communities are recognised Remote Service Delivery Sites by the Commonwealth, the East Arnhem Shire was created on 1 July 2008. Elections of Shire Councillors were held on 25 October 2008, wunungmurra was re-elected unopposed in 2012, with Councillor Mavis Danganbarr of Gumurr Marthakal Ward is currently serving as his deputy for a two-year term. On 1 January 2014, the Shire became a Region
East Arnhem Region
–
East Arnhem Shire
Northern Territory
6.
Unincorporated area
–
Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. In some countries, such as in Brazil, Japan, France or the United Kingdom, unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area often contains several towns and even entire cities, thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in parts of Australia. Thus, there is any ambiguity regarding addresses in unincorporated areas. The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area, the territorial government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by local government. The far west and north of New South Wales constitutes the Unincorporated Far West Region, a civil servant in the state capital manages such matters as are necessary. The second unincorporated area of state is Lord Howe Island. In the Northern Territory,1. 45% of the area and 4. In South Australia, 60% of the area is unincorporated and communities located within can receive services provided by a state agency. Firstly, the remote area that is unincorporated is the Abrolhos Islands. Secondly, the unincorporated areas are A-class reserves either in, or close to. In Canada, depending on the province, a settlement is one that does not have a municipal council that governs solely over the settlement. It is usually, but not always, part of a municipal government. This can range from hamlets to large urbanized areas that are similar in size to towns. In British Columbia, unincorporated settlements lie outside municipal boundaries entirely, Unincorporated settlements with a population of between 100 and 1,000 residents may have the status of designated place in Canadian census data. In some provinces, large tracts of undeveloped wilderness or rural country are unorganized areas that fall directly under the provincial jurisdiction
Unincorporated area
–
Sign at
Contra Costa Centre Transit Village, an unincorporated community in
Contra Costa County, California, United States, north of the city of
Walnut Creek.
Unincorporated area
–
Sign prohibiting entry to the
Military Area Boletice
Unincorporated area
–
Nutbush, an unincorporated area in
Haywood County,
Tennessee
Unincorporated area
–
Rosslyn, one of many highrise neighborhoods in
Arlington County, Virginia. The county has no cities within its borders, and five times the
population density of the state's most populous city,
Virginia Beach.
7.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
Australia
–
Aboriginal rock art in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
–
Portrait of Captain
James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
–
Tasmania's
Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed
Australian Convict Sites.
8.
Arnhem Land
–
Arnhem Land is one of the five regions of the Northern Territory of Australia. It is located in the corner of the territory and is around 500 km from the territory capital Darwin. The region has an area of 97,000 km2, which covers the area of Kakadu National Park. The area covers about 34,000 km2 and has an population of 16,000, of whom 12,000 are Yolngu. The region’s service hub is Nhulunbuy,600 km east of Darwin, other major population centres are Yirrkala, Gunbalanya, Ramingining, and Maningrida. A substantial proportion of the population, which is mostly Aboriginal and this outstation movement started in the early 1980s. Many Aboriginal groups moved to very small settlements on their traditional lands. These population groups have very little western influence culturally speaking, many of the regions leaders have called and continue to call for a treaty that would allow the Yolngu to operate under their own traditional laws. In 2013-14, the region contributed around $1.3 billion or 7% to the Northern Territory’s gross state product. Arnhem Land has been occupied by people for tens of thousands of years and is the location of the oldest-known stone axe. The Gove Peninsula was heavily involved in the defence of Australia during World War II, at least since the 18th century Muslim traders from Makassar visited Arnhem Land each year to trade, harvest, and process sea cucumbers or trepang. This sea slug is highly prized in Chinese cuisine, for folk medicine and this Macassan contact with Australia is the first recorded example of interaction between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours. This contact had an effect on local indigenous Australians. The Makassans exchanged goods such as cloth, tobacco, knives, rice, Makassar pidgin became a lingua franca along the north coast among several indigenous Australian groups who were brought into greater contact with each other by the seafaring Makassan culture. These traders from the southwest corner of Sulawesi also introduced the word balanda for white people, in Arnhem Land, the word is still widely used today to refer to white Australians. The Dutch started settling in Sulawesi Island in the early 17th century, archeological remains of Makassar contact, including trepang processing plants from the 18th and 19th centuries, are still found at Australian locations such as Port Essington and Groote Eylandt. The Makassans also planted tamarind trees, after processing, the sea slugs were traded by the Makassans to Southern China. In 2014, an 18th-century Chinese coin was found in the area of Wessel Islands off the coast on a beach on Elcho Island during a historical expedition
Arnhem Land
–
A
Macassan wooden
sailboat or
prau of the type trepangers have used for centuries
Arnhem Land
–
Nanydjaka Cape Arnhem Coast
Arnhem Land
–
Goyder River Crossing, Central Arnhem Highway
Arnhem Land
–
Some areas of deep cultural significance to the indigenous inhabitants are off-limits even to those with permission to travel across Arnhem Land
9.
Darwin, Northern Territory
–
Darwin /ˈdɑːrwᵻn/ is the capital city of the Northern Territory of Australia. Situated on the Timor Sea, Darwin is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory and it is the smallest and most northerly of the Australian capital cities, and acts as the Top Ends regional centre. Darwins proximity to South East Asia makes it a link between Australia and countries such as Indonesia and East Timor, the Stuart Highway begins in Darwin, ending at Port Augusta in South Australia. The city itself is built on a low bluff overlooking the harbour and its suburbs spread out over some area, beginning at Lee Point in the north and stretching to Berrimah in the east. Past Berrimah, the Stuart Highway goes on to Darwins satellite city, Palmerston, the Darwin region, like the rest of the Top End, has a tropical climate, with a wet and a dry season. Prone to cyclone activity during the wet season, Darwin experiences heavy monsoonal downpours, during the dry season, the city is met with blue skies and gentle sea breezes from the harbour. The greater Darwin area is the home of the Larrakia people. On 9 September 1839, HMS Beagle sailed into Darwin harbour during its surveying of the area, John Clements Wickham named the region Port Darwin in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ships previous voyage which had ended in October 1836. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by the 1897 cyclone, the 1937 cyclone, Japanese air raids during World War II, the Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and the first inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. They had trading routes with Southeast Asia, and imported goods from as far afield as South, established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple groups within this area is still contestable. The Dutch visited Australias northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be repelled by the Tiwi peoples, the Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land, the first British person to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of HMS Beagle on 9 September 1839. The ships captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, in 1863, the Northern Territory was tranferred from New South Wales to South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey, Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about 60 km northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, however, and the settlement abandoned by 1865, on 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, in 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world
Darwin, Northern Territory
–
The Darwin skyline seen from
Bayview
Darwin, Northern Territory
–
Remains of the Darwin Post Office after the first Japanese raid in 1942
Darwin, Northern Territory
–
Remains of Palmerston Town Hall, destroyed by
Cyclone Tracy
10.
Blue Mud Bay
–
Blue Mud Bay is a large, shallow, partly enclosed bay on the eastern coast of Arnhem Land, in the Northern Territory of Australia, facing Groote Eylandt on the western side of the Gulf of Carpentaria. It lies 580 km east-south-east of Darwin in the Arnhem Coast bioregion, the bay is about 90 km in length and up to 35 km in width. Its 45 km wide mouth stretches from Cape Shield in the north-east to Cape Barrow in the south-west and it has a diverse inner coastline of many small bays, inlets, headlands and islands, bordered by intertidal mudflats and mangroves merging into freshwater floodplains. The bay and the floodplains are held by the Arnhem Land Aboriginal Land Trust as Aboriginal freehold land. The waters of the bay are used for commercial and recreational fishing, triumfetta litticola, a plant species endemic to the Arnhem Coast bioregion, has been recorded. The threatened Australian arenga palm is found here, as well as 34 plant species endemic to the Northern Territory. The bay’s seasonally flooded coastal plains have been classified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area, the area covered by the IBA is 45,811 ha. It supports globally important numbers of geese, wandering whistling-ducks. Many other waterbirds breed in colonies on the floodplain, especially egrets, herons and spoonbills, wader species using the site in large numbers include black-tailed godwits, lesser sand plovers and red-necked stints. The islands hold significant breeding colonies of little, black-naped and bridled terns, the beaches of the bays larger islands are important for nesting flatback sea turtles. There is a colony of little red flying foxes in the mangroves at the northern end of the bay. The threatened brush-tailed rabbit rat is present, douglas skink is endemic to the Northern Territory. Introduced water buffalos and feral pigs threaten the wetlands, the Blue Mud Bay case was the name given to a court case with original reference to the ownership of fishing rights in tidal waters overlying Aboriginal land at Blue Mud Bay. The High Court ruled that the water lying over Aboriginal land should not be treated differently from the land itself, ownership of Aboriginal land adjoining marine waters in the Northern Territory generally extends to the low tide level
Blue Mud Bay
–
Brolgas, magpie geese and intermediate egrets
11.
Abel Tasman
–
Abel Janszoon Tasman was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company. In 1633 he sailed from Texel to Batavia in the service of the Dutch East India Company, Tasman took part in a voyage to Seram Island, the locals had sold spices to others than the Dutch. He had a escape from death, when in an incautious landing several of his companions were killed by people of Seram. In August 1637 he was back in Amsterdam, and the year he signed on for another ten years. On 25 March 1638 he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, in 1639 he was second-in-command of an exploration expedition in the north Pacific under Matthijs Quast. The fleet included the ships Engel and Gracht and reached Fort Zeelandia and this expedition used two small ships, the Heemskerck and the Zeehaen. According to Marco Polo, Locach was a kingdom where gold was “so plentiful that no one who did not see it could believe it”, Beach was in fact a mistranscription of Locach. Locach was Marco Polo’s name for the southern Thai kingdom of Lavo, or Lop Buri, in Chinese, Lavo was pronounced “Lo-huk”, from which Marco Polo took his rendition of the name. In the German cursive script, “Locach” and “Boeach” look similar and they seem to have drawn on the map of the world published in Florence in 1489 by Henricus Martellus, in which provincia boëach appears as the southern neighbour of provincia ciamba. Book III of Marco Polo’s Il Milione described his journey by sea from China to India by way of Champa, Java, Locach, after a chapter describing the kingdom of Champa there follows a chapter describing Java. Locach, located between Champa and Sumatra, was likewise misplaced far to the south of Java, by some geographers on or near an extension of the Terra Australis. Gerard Mercator did just that on his 1541 globe, placing Beach provincia aurifera in the northernmost part of the Terra Australis in accordance with the faulty text of Marco Polo’s Travels. Following Mercator, Abraham Ortelius also showed BEACH and LVCACH in these locations on his map of 1571. Confirmation that land existed where the maps showed Beach to be had come from Dirk Hartog’s landing in October 1616 on its west coast, which he called Eendrachtsland after the name of his ship. In accordance with Visschers directions, Tasman sailed from Batavia on 14 August 1642 and arrived at Mauritius on 5 September 1642, the reason for this was the crew could be fed well on the island, there was plenty of fresh water and timber to repair the ships. Tasman got the assistance of the governor Adriaan van der Stel, because of the prevailing winds Mauritius was chosen as a turning point. After a four-week stay on the island both ships left on 8 October using the Roaring Forties to sail east as fast as possible. On 7 November snow and hail influenced the ships council to alter course to a more north-eastern direction, on 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman reached and sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour
Abel Tasman
–
Fragment of "Portrait of Abel Tasman, his wife and daughter" attributed to
Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, 1637 (not fully authenticated)
Abel Tasman
–
Teerketelsteeg, the alley where Tasman lived when he married in 1632.
Abel Tasman
–
The Abel Tasman map 1644, also known as the Bonaparte Tasman map.
Abel Tasman
–
Mauritius
12.
Dutch language
–
It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
Dutch language
–
The Utrecht baptismal vow Forsachistu diobolae...
Dutch language
–
Distribution of the Dutch language and its dialects in
Western Europe
Dutch language
–
Second edition of this column decorated with a title of
Charles V 's portrait, with archaic Dutch inscriptions
Dutch language
–
Dutch language street sign in the Netherlands
13.
GEMCO
–
Gemco was an American chain of membership department stores that was owned by San Leandro-based Lucky Stores, a California supermarket company which eventually became part of Albertsons. Gemco operated from 1959 until closing in late 1986, a number of the west coast stores were sold to Target which fueled their entry into California. Gemco had a version called Memco, also owned by Lucky Stores, that stores in the Chicago, Illinois. Gemco was established in Anaheim, California, in October 1959, a year later, the company was purchased by Lucky Stores, which added the supermarket element and expanded Gemco into a chain. Business and profitability continued to be healthy for over 20 years until a series of unsuccessful leveraged takeover attempts from other companies were made on its parent company, Lucky, to avoid such hostile takeover attempts, eventually decided it was best to liquidate Gemco entirely. This liquidation occurred from September 1986 to November 1986, Target reopened in most of the former Gemco locations by the fall of 1987, having remodeled many of Gemcos former prime business locations into Targets bright red-and-white trade dress. GEMCO never was an acronym, despite rumors to the contrary, the letters were simply an easily pronounced and remembered name. Brown was Gemcos original main exterior background color, and the letters GEMCO were originally in red, an early 1980s redesign changed the chains main exterior background color to blue, and its letter coloring in its logo to white. A few of Gems earliest employees were transferred to Gemco locations near Long Beach, an early example of what would become a hypermarket, Gemco offered one-stop shopping for everything from garden supplies to groceries, and regular department store offerings as well. Its concessionaires included gasoline and jewelry, one innovation the store offered — found nowhere else at the time — was the storing and delivery of already purchased groceries when the member was finished shopping the rest of the store. A numbered plastic card was placed on the cart and its match was given to the customer. When the member was done shopping and ready to leave the premises, the guard would call for a courtesy clerk to deliver the groceries, and the clerk would load them into the members vehicle. Niceties such as this won many new members to Gemco, Gemco was a preferred employer in many of the locations in which it did business. Unlike may other discount chains, such as Payless, Gemco employed union members of the UFCW, Gemco also offered a credit department to help increase sales. It was particularly busy each year during the Christmas shopping period, on a trial basis, a few Gemco stores offered free babysitting while an adult was shopping in the store. The adult would drop off the child in the area of the store. When done shopping they would give the cashier the ticket, who in return called the babysitting dept, the parent could also pick the child up directly as well. After about one year of trial Gemco ceased operation of this trial, California law required a caregiver in a commercial operation to be licensed and insured as a daycare
GEMCO
–
Gemco
14.
Anglo American plc
–
Anglo American plc is a multinational mining company based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, United Kingdom. It is the worlds largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore. The company has operations in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America, Anglo American has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. The company has a listing on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. In December 2015 the company announced that after a US$3 billion loss in the first half of 2015, it would be undergoing a restructure and this fact is reflected in the name of the company. The AAC became the majority stakeholder in the De Beers company in 1926, during 1945, the AAC moved into the coal industry by acquiring Coal Estates. Twelve years later, Sir Ernest died in Johannesburg and the company was succeeded by his son, Harry Oppenheimer, in the late 1940s and 1950s, the AAC focused on the development of the Free State goldfields and the Vaal Reefs mine. The success of the mines enabled the company to become the world’s largest gold-mining group, in 1961, the AAC expanded outside of southern Africa for the first time and became a major investor in the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Company in Canada. In 1967, the moved into the steel industry by acquiring Scaw Metals. From 1967 to 1975, it continued to grow and established a number of ventures, including the Mondi Group, Amgold, in 1982, Harry Oppenheimer retired as chairman of the AAC and was succeeded by Gavin Relly. Two years later, Oppenheimer retired from De Beers and passed the chairmanship to Julian Ogilvie Thompson and its gold mining operations were spun off into the separate AngloGold corporation, which in 2004 merged with the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation to form AngloGold Ashanti. Anglo American reduced its stake in AngloGold Ashanti to 16.6 percent in 2008, in 2000, Julian Ogilvie Thompson retired as chief executive of Anglo American and was succeeded by Tony Trahar. Ogilvie Thompson also retired as chairman in 2002 and was replaced by Sir Mark Moody-Stuart, from 2002 to July 2008 Anglo American carried out black community economic empowerment transactions totalling R26 billion. Also, in 2002, Anglo Base Metals acquired the Disputada copper operations in Chile from Exxon Mobil Corporation and opened a office in Beijing. In 2003, Anglo American acquired a stake in iron ore producer Kumba Resources. In 2007, Cynthia Carroll succeeded Tony Trahar, becoming the first non-South African, the Mondi Group, a paper and packaging business, was also spun out in 2007. Opponents are also pointing to the use of cyanide, heavy metals, opponents of the Pebble Mine created Ballot Measure 4 to impose additional water quality standards on new large-scale mines in the state. However, in August 2007, Alaskans voted against the initiative, the Pebble Limited Partnership has not yet put forward a project proposal and is working to prepare a Prefeasibility Study for the project in the second half of 2009
Anglo American plc
–
Anglo American plc
15.
Manganese
–
Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is not found as an element in nature, it is often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels, by the mid-18th century, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had used pyrolusite to produce chlorine. Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite contained a new element, johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon. Manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion prevention on steel, ionized manganese is used industrially as pigments of various colors, which depend on the oxidation state of the ions. The permanganates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are powerful oxidizers, Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode material in zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. In biology, manganese ions function as cofactors for a variety of enzymes with many functions. Manganese enzymes are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals in organisms that must deal with elemental oxygen. Manganese also functions in the complex of photosynthetic plants. The element is a trace mineral for all known living organisms but is a neurotoxin. In larger amounts, and apparently with far greater effectiveness through inhalation, Manganese is a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse, Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic. Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen, naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. Eighteen radioisotopes have been isolated and described, the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than three hours, and the majority of less than one minute. Manganese also has three meta states, Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years, because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is relatively rare, produced by cosmic rays impact on iron. Manganese isotopic contents are combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology
Manganese
–
Manganese, 25 Mn
Manganese
–
Electrolytically refined manganese chips and 1 cm 3 cube
Manganese
–
Manganese(II) chloride crystals – the pale pink color of Mn(II) salts is due to a spin-forbidden 3d transition.
Manganese
–
Aqueous solution of KMnO 4 illustrating the deep purple of Mn(VII) as it occurs in permanganate
16.
Sailfish
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Sailfish are a genus Istiophorus of billfish living in warmer sections of all the oceans of the world. They are predominantly blue to gray in colour and have a characteristic erectile dorsal fin known as a sail, another notable characteristic is the elongated bill, resembling that of the swordfish and other marlins. They are therefore described as billfish in sport-fishing circles, two sailfish species have been recognized. FishBase continues to two species, Atlantic sailfish. Sailfish grow quickly, reaching 1. 2–1.5 m in length in a single year, individuals have been clocked at speeds up to 75 km/h, which is one of the highest speeds reported in any water organism. However, more recent studies suggest sailfish do not exceed swimming speeds of 36 km/h, generally, sailfish do not grow to more than 3 m in length and rarely weigh over 90 kg. The sail is normally kept folded down and to the side when swimming and this tactic has also been observed during feeding, when a group of sailfish use their sails to herd a school of fish or squid. Sailfish are highly prized game fish, and are known for their incredible jumps and they can appear in a startling array of colours, from subdued browns and grays to vibrant purples and even silver. Their body colours are often highlighted by stripes of iridescent blue, sailfish can change their colours almost instantly—a change controlled by their nervous system. The sailfish can rapidly turn its body light blue with yellowish stripes when excited, confusing its prey and making capture easier, schultz, Ken Ken Schultzs Field Guide to Saltwater Fish pp. 162–163, John Wiley & Sons
Sailfish
Sailfish
–
An
Indo-Pacific sailfish exhibiting sail-raising behavior.
Sailfish
–
Ernest Hemingway in
Key West, Florida, USA, in the 1940s, with a sailfish he had caught
17.
Marlin
–
A marlin is a fish from the family Istiophoridae, which includes about 10 species. It has a body, a spear-like snout or bill. Its common name is thought to derive from its resemblance to a sailors marlinspike, even more so than their close relatives, the scombrids, marlins are fast swimmers, reaching speeds of about 80 km/h. They are popular sporting fish in tropical areas, the marlins are perciform fish, most closely related to the swordfish and Scombridae. On the 85th day, Santiago, the old fisherman, hooks a resolute marlin, marlin fishing Sailfish Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, ghost Fish Revelation May Alter Marlins Status from National Public Radio
Marlin
–
Marlin
Marlin
–
A
taxidermy marlin greets visitors to
Dare County, North Carolina.
Marlin
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Swordfish
18.
Tuna
–
A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
Tuna
Tuna
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Tuna
Tuna
–
Relative sizes of various tunas, with the
Atlantic bluefin tuna (top) at about 8 ft (2.4 m) in this sample
Tuna
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Tuna being weighed on Greek quay-side
19.
Scomberomorus commerson
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They are vivid blue to dark grey in colour along their backs and flanks and fade to a silvery blue-grey on the belly. Spanish mackerel have scores of narrow, vertical lines down their sides, Spanish mackerel are the largest of all Australian mackerels, growing to about 200 cm and up to 70 kg. They are common down both sides of Australia as far south as Perth on the west coast and Sydney on the east coast and they are also found as far north as China and even Japan. Spanish mackerel spawn in oceanic conditions on reef edges and this is not always the case with adult mackerel, where occasional mixing of different species within the same genus can occur. Spawning is seasonal, but it is protracted in the waters of the tropics. Many of the fisheries that target this species are based on prespawning feeding aggregations, a significant proportion of the female fish caught in NT waters between July and December have either recently spawned or are close to spawning. In general, spawning times for Spanish mackerel tend to be associated with water temperatures that promote optimal food availability for the rapid growth. As the young grow, they move from the offshore spawning grounds to inshore and estuarine habitats. In the inshore environments, they feed mostly on the larvae and juveniles of small fish and crustaceans until they become large enough to eat small fish, Australian studies of this species suggest females are larger than males. Female Spanish mackerel mature at two years of age or around 80 cm in length. Spanish mackerel are voracious, opportunistic carnivores, as with other members of the genus, food consists mainly of small fishes with lesser quantities of shrimp and squid. Spanish mackerel are highly valued fish throughout their range in the Indo West Pacific, recreational anglers catch them from boats while trolling or drifting and from boats, piers, jetties, and beaches by casting spoons and jigs, and live-bait fishing. Commercial methods are primarily run-around gill netting, and rarely, by trolling lures similar to those used by recreational anglers, as most fish, the narrow-barred Spanish mackerel is infected by a variety of parasites. Spectacular parasites are the cysts of the larvae of the trypanorhynch cestode Callitetrarhynchus gracilis and these parasites are not appetizing, but represent no danger to humans
Scomberomorus commerson
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Cysts of the trypanorhynch Callitetrarhynchus gracilis in the body cavity
Scomberomorus commerson
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Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel
Scomberomorus commerson
–
Young angler with an average-sized Spanish mackerel off
Darwin, Northern Territory
Scomberomorus commerson
20.
Giant trevally
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The giant trevally, Caranx ignobilis, is a species of large marine fish classified in the jack family, Carangidae. Two were documented in the eastern tropical Pacific in the 2010s, the giant trevally is distinguished by its steep head profile, strong tail scutes, and a variety of other more detailed anatomical features. It is normally a silvery colour with dark spots. It is the largest fish in the genus Caranx, growing to a known size of 170 cm. The giant trevally inhabits a range of marine environments, from estuaries, shallow bays and lagoons as a juvenile to deeper reefs, offshore atolls. Juveniles of the species are known to live in waters of low salinity such as coastal lakes and upper reaches of rivers. The giant trevally is a predator in most of its habitats. The species predominantly takes various fish as prey, although crustaceans, cephalopods, the species has some quite novel hunting strategies, including shadowing monk seals to pick off escaping prey, as well as using sharks to ambush prey. The species reproduces in the months, with peaks differing by region. Spawning occurs at specific stages of the cycle, when large schools congregate to spawn over reefs and bays. The fish grows relatively fast, reaching maturity at a length of around 60 cm at three years of age. The giant trevally is both an important species to commercial fisheries and a recognised gamefish, with the species taken by nets and lines by professionals and by bait and lures by anglers. Catch statistics in the Asian region show hauls of 4000-10000 tonnes, the species is considered poor to excellent table fare by different authors, although ciguatera poisoning is common in the fish. Dwindling numbers around the main Hawaiian Islands have also led to proposals to reduce the catch of fish in this region. The giant trevally is classified within the genus Caranx, one of a number of known as the jacks or trevallies. Caranx itself is part of the jack and horse mackerel family Carangidae. He named the species Scomber ignobilis, with the specific epithet Latin for unknown and it was assigned to the mackerel genus Scomber, where many carangids were placed before they were classified as a separate family. This later revision in classification saw the species moved to the genus Caranx, despite the resemblance with the crevalle jack, the two species have never been phylogenetically compared, either morphologically or genetically, to determine their relationship
Giant trevally
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Giant trevally
Giant trevally
–
Profile of an adult giant trevally
Giant trevally
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A mature male giant trevally showing the black colouration common in these older fish
Giant trevally
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A giant trevally patrolling a reef in Hawaii
21.
Queenfish
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Queenfish are a species of croaker occurring from Uncle Sam Bank, Baja California, to Yaquina Bay, Oregon, they are the only species in the genus Seriphus. They are common during summer in water around pier pilings on sandy bottoms. They are found at depths up to 180 feet, however, queenfish are common in southern California, but are rare north of Monterey, California. The body of the queenfish is elongate and moderately compressed, the largest recorded specimen was 12 inches, the head is compressed with the upper profile depressed over the eyes. The color is bluish above becoming silvery below and the fins are yellowish, queenfish can be distinguished from other croakers by their large mouth, the base of the second dorsal and anal fins being about equal, and the wide space between the two dorsal fins. Queenfish feed on small, free swimming crustaceans, small crabs, adult queenfish spawn in the summer. Tiny young queenfish, less than 1 inch long, appear in summer and fall, first at depths of 20 to 30 feet. Queenfish may be caught using cut shrimp or squid as bait and they are one of the most commonly caught fish by anglers from California piers. Much of this article is copied from California Marine Sportfish by the California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region, a public domain resource
Queenfish
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Queenfish
Queenfish
–
This article is about the American usage of the term for fish. For the Southern hemisphere fish, see
Scomberoides. For the United States submarine, see
USS Queenfish.
22.
Coral trout
–
The coral trout, leopard coral grouper, or leopard coral trout is a species of fish in the Serranidae family. Native to the western Pacific Ocean, its habitat includes open seas. Coral trout are piscivorous, juveniles mostly eat crustaceans, especially prawns, Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas. The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998, initially described by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1802, the Coral trout belongs to a family of fish known as the Serranidae. This family includes groupers and coral cod, which are all characterised by having three spines on the cover and a large mouth lined with more than one row of sharp teeth. Its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs, studies suggest that coral trout move around considerably within a single reef, though often no further than 500 meters from it. Movement between neighbouring reefs does not occur to an extent, however, there have been a few cases where fish have moved from one reef to another. Much of this movement may be the result of moving towards or away from spawning sites. They start their lives as females and change sex later in life, the trigger of this sex change is unknown. On average, sex change occurs when fish are between 23 centimetres and 62 cm in length, the length at sex change is 42 centimetres. This is believed to happen most frequently in the immediately following spawning. ELF research has determined that the sex ratio differs in different areas of the Great Barrier Reef, sex ratios are an important consideration for management, as changes could seriously affect reproduction and thus the number of juveniles coming into the fishery in future years. All length classes of fish may have male and female individuals. However, small fish are females, while most large fish are males. Like many fish, coral trout spawning corresponds to an increase in temperature during late spring. In the northern Great Barrier Reef, coral trout spawn between September and December, whereas in the regions where the water is cooler, spawning occurs between October and February. The beginning and end of spawning can vary year to year as the water temperature varies. Coral trout generally aggregate to spawn and these aggregations are formed around reef slopes around 10 to 15 meters deep and peak at the new moon
Coral trout
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Coral trout
Coral trout
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Red leopard coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus -
Philippines "Lapu-lapu")
23.
BirdLife International
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It is the worlds largest partnership of conservation organisations, with over 120 partner organisations. BirdLife International was founded as in 1922 the International Council for Bird Preservation by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and it changed its name in 1993 to BirdLife International. In addition to the programmes, there are global programmes. Together these programmes help the partnership to focus and work on common priorities and they provide the framework for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating conservation work. BirdLife International publishes a magazine, World Birdwatch, which contains recent news and authoritative articles about birds, their habitats. BirdLife International is the official Red List authority for birds, for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, in the 2012 assessment,1,313 species of birds are considered threatened with extinction. This represents 13% of the 10,064 extant bird species in the world
BirdLife International
–
BirdLife International
24.
Roseate tern
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The roseate tern is a seabird of the tern family Sternidae. The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English stearn, tern, Roseate refers to the birds pink breast in breeding plumage. English naturalist George Montagu described the roseate tern in 1813, genetically, it is most closely related to the white-fronted tern, with their common ancestor a sister lineage to the black-naped tern. This species has a number of races, differing mainly in bill colour. S. d. dougallii breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America, the tropical forms S. d. korustes and S. d. bangsi are resident breeders from east Africa across the Indian Ocean to Japan. They have more red on the bill, the long-billed and short-winged S. d. gracilis breeds in Australia and New Caledonia. The north-western Indian Ocean holds populations of S. d. arideensis, some authors suggest that only three races arideensis, gracilis and nominate dougallii should be retained. This is a tern, 33–36 cm long with a 67–76 cm wingspan, which can be confused with the common tern, Arctic tern, and the larger. The roseate terns thin sharp bill is black, with a red base which develops through the breeding season and it is shorter-winged and has faster wing beats than common or Arctic tern. The upper wings are grey and its under parts white. The adults have long, flexible tail streamers and orange-red legs. In summer, the underparts of adults take on the pinkish tinge which gives this bird its name and it usually dives directly, and not from the stepped-hover favoured by Arctic tern. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display, unusual for a tern, the roseate tern shows some kleptoparasitic behaviour, stealing fish from other seabirds, at British colonies most often from puffins. This habit greatly increases their ability during bad weather when fish swim deeper, out of reach of plunge-diving terns. In winter, the forehead becomes white and the bill black, juvenile roseate terns have a scaly appearance like juvenile Sandwich Terns, but a fuller black cap than that species. This species breeds in colonies on coasts and islands, at times with other seabirds, in Australian territory, it has been recorded nesting alongside the black-naped tern, lesser crested tern, crested tern, fairy tern, bridled tern and silver gull. It nests in a scrape, often in a hollow or under dense vegetation. It is less defensive of its nest and young than other terns, often relying on Arctic
Roseate tern
–
Roseate tern
Roseate tern
–
Roseate tern profile
Roseate tern
–
Egg, Collection
Museum Wiesbaden
25.
Makassan contact with Australia
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The term Makassan is generally used to apply to all the trepangers who came to Australia, although some were from other islands in the Indonesian Archipelago, including Timor, Rote and Aru. The creature and the product are commonly known as sea cucumber, bêche-de-mer in French, trepang in Indonesian. Trepang live on the sea floor and are exposed at low tide, fishing was traditionally done by hand, spearing, diving or dredging. The catch was placed in boiling water before being dried and smoked, to preserve the trepang for the back to Makassar. Trepang is still valued by Chinese communities for its texture, its flavour-enhancing properties. Matthew Flinders made a record of how trepang was processed when he met Pobasso. Fishing fleets began to visit the coasts of Australia from Makassar in southern Sulawesi, Indonesia from about 1720. Ganter also notes that for some anthropologists, the impact of the trepang industry on the Yolngu people suggests a longer period of contact. Arnhem land rock art, recorded by archaeologists in 2008, appears to further evidence of Makassan contact in the mid-1600s. Contact has even been proposed from as early as the 1500s, at the height of the trepang industry, Makassans ranged thousands of kilometres along Australias northern coasts, arriving with the north-west monsoon each December. Makassan perahu or praus could carry a crew of thirty members, marege was the Makassan name for Arnhem land, from the Cobourg Peninsula to Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Kayu Jawa was the name for the grounds in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Other important fishing areas included West Papua, Sumbawa, Timor, matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia in 1803, met a Makassan trepang fleet near present day Nhulunbuy. He communicated at length with a Makassan captain, Pobasso, through his cook, who was also a Malay, ganter adds,1,000 Macassans. must have seen a veritable invasion against the fewer than 7,000 British nestled into Sydney Cove and Newcastle. Nicholas Baudin also encountered 26 large perahu off the northern coast of Western Australia in the same year, ganter states that the British settlements of Fort Dundas and Fort Wellington were established as a result of Phillip Parker Kings contact with Makassan trepangers in 1821. Using Daeng Rangka, the last Makassan trepanger to visit Australia, lived well into the 20th century and he first made the voyage to northern Australia as a young man. The trade continued to dwindle toward the end of the 19th century, due to the imposition of duties and licence fees. Using Daeng Rangka commanded the last Makassar perahu, which left Arnhem Land in 1907, Macknight and others note these areas have produced pieces of metal, broken pottery and glass, coins, fishhooks and broken clay pipes
Makassan contact with Australia
–
A Macassan
perahu or prau.
Makassan contact with Australia
–
A sea cucumber. This example is from the
Mediterranean
Makassan contact with Australia
–
Macassan Stone arrangement near
Yirrkala, Northern Territory. Photo by Ray Norris
Makassan contact with Australia
–
A female figure outlined in beeswax over painting of a white Macassan prau - Google Art Project
26.
Macassan
–
Makassar – sometimes spelled Macassar, Mangkasara – is the provincial capital of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is the largest city on Sulawesi Island in terms of population, and the fifth largest city in Indonesia after Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and Medan. From 1971 to 1999, the city was named Ujung Pandang, after a fort in the city. The city is located on the southwest coast of the island of Sulawesi, the citys area is 19,926 hectares and it had a population of around 1.6 million in 2013. Its built-up area has 1,976,168 inhabitants covering Makassar City and 15 districts. Its official metropolitan area, known as Mamminasata, with 17 additional districts, Makassar is mentioned in the Nagarakretagama, a Javanese eulogy composed in 14th century during the reign of Majapahit king Hayam Wuruk. In the text, Makassar is mentioned as an island under Majapahit dominance, alongside Butun, Salaya, beginning in the sixteenth century, Makassar was the dominant trading center of eastern Indonesia, and soon became one of the largest cities in island Southeast Asia. The Makassar kings maintained a policy of trade, insisting on the right of any visitor to do business in the city. Much of South Sulawesis early history was written in old texts that can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries, tolerant religious attitudes meant that even as Islam became the dominant faith in the region, Christians and others were still able to trade in the city. With these attractions, Makassar was a key center for Malays working in the trade, as well as a valuable base for European. The first European settlers were Portuguese sailors, Portuguese rulers called the city Macáçar. The arrival of the Dutch in the early 17th century altered events dramatically and they finally replaced the Portuguese as colonial masters in 1667. Their first objective was to create a hegemony over the trade and their first move was to capture the fort of Makassar in 1667. From this base they managed to destroy the strongholds of the Sultan of Gowa who was forced to live on the outskirts of Makassar. Following the Java War, Prince Diponegoro was exiled to Fort Rotterdam until his death in 1855, the character of this old trading centre changed as a walled city known as Vlaardingen grew. Gradually, in defiance of the Dutch, the Arabs, Malays and Buddhist returned to trade outside the fortress walls, and were joined later by the Chinese. Although the Dutch controlled the coast, it was not until the early 20th century that they gained power over the interior through a series of treaties with local rulers. Meanwhile, Dutch missionaries converted many of the Toraja people to Christianity, by 1938, the population of Makassar had reached around 84,000 – a town described by writer Joseph Conrad as the prettiest and perhaps, cleanest looking of all the towns in the islands
Macassan
–
The Makassar seafront
Macassan
–
Seal
Macassan
–
Fort Rotterdam in 2010
Macassan
–
Market Street (De Passarstraat) in the early 20th century
27.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
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The Netherlands in 5500 BC
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Flag
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The Netherlands in 500 BC
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An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
