1.
Millstone
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Millstones or mill stones are stones used in gristmills, for grinding wheat or other grains. The base or bedstone is stationary, above the bedstone is the turning runner stone which actually does the grinding. The runner stone spins above the stationary bedstone creating the scissoring or grinding action of the stones, a runner stone is generally slightly concave, while the bedstone is slightly convex. This helps to channel the ground flour to the edges of the stones where it can be gathered up. The runner stone is supported by a metal piece fixed to a mace head topping the main shaft or spindle leading to the driving mechanism of the mill. Neolithic and Upper Paleolithic people used millstones to grind grains, nuts, rhizomes and these implements are often called grinding stones. They used either saddle stones or rotary querns turned by hand, such devices were also used to grind pigments and metal ores prior to smelting. In India, grinding stones were used to grind grains and spices and these consist of a stationary stone cylinder upon which a smaller stone cylinder rotates. Smaller ones, for use, were operated by two people. Larger ones, for community or commercial use, used livestock to rotate the upper cylinder, the type of stone most suitable for making millstones is a siliceous rock called burrstone, an open-textured, porous but tough, fine-grained sandstone, or a silicified, fossiliferous limestone. In some sandstones, the cement is calcareous, derbyshire Peak stones wear quickly and are typically used to grind animal feed since they leave stone powder in the flour, making it undesirable for human consumption. French burrstones, used for finer grinding, not cut from one piece, but built up from sections of quartz, cemented together with plaster, and bound with iron bands. French Burr comes from the Marne Valley in northern France, in Europe, a third type of millstone was used. These were uncommon in Britain, but not unknown, cullen stones were quarried in the Rhine Valley near Cologne, Germany. The surface of a millstone is divided by deep grooves called furrows into separate areas called lands. Spreading away from the furrows are smaller grooves called feathering or cracking, the grooves provide a cutting edge and help to channel the ground flour out from the stones. The furrows and lands are arranged in repeating patterns called harps, a typical millstone will have six, eight or ten harps. The pattern of harps is repeated on the face of each stone, when in regular use stones need to be dressed periodically, that is, re-cut to keep the cutting surfaces sharp
2.
Chutney
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Chutney is a sauce in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent that can vary from a tomato relish to a ground peanut garnish or a yoghurt, cucumber and mint dip. An offshoot that took root in Anglo-Indian cuisine is usually a tart fruit such as sharp apples, nowadays, some of the making of pickles and chutneys that at one time in India was done entirely in peoples homes has passed over into commercial production. Regular consumption of products can add to total sugar, consumption being increased to unhealthy levels. In south India, Thogayal or Thuvayal are preparations similar to chutney, medicinal plants that are believed to have a beneficial effect are sometimes made into chutneys, for example Pirandai Thuvayal or ridged gourd chutney. Ridged gourd can be bought in Chinese and Indian shops in towns in the west. And, when dried, becomes a bath sponge known as a luffa or loofah, bitter gourd can also serve as a base for a chutney which is like a relish or, alternatively as a dried powder. Occasionally, chutneys that contrast in taste and colour can be served together—a favourite combination being a green mint and chile chutney with a sweet brown tamarind. Chutneys may be ground with a mortar and pestle or an ammikkal, spices are added and ground, usually in a particular order, the wet paste thus made is sautéed in vegetable oil, usually gingelly or peanut oil. Electric blenders or food processors can be used as labor-saving alternatives to stone grinding, American and European-style chutneys are usually fruit, vinegar, and sugar cooked down to a reduction, with added flavourings. These may include sugar, salt, garlic, tamarind, onion or ginger, western-style chutneys originated from Anglo-Indians at the time of the British Raj recreated Indian chutneys using English orchard fruits—sour cooking apples and rhubarb, for example. They would often contain dried fruit, raisins, currants and sultanas, South Indian chutney powders are made from roasted dried lentils to be sprinkled on idlis and dosas. Peanut chutneys can be wet or as a dry powder. Spices commonly used in chutneys include fenugreek, coriander, cumin, Major Greys Chutney is a type of sweet and spicy chutney popular in the United Kingdom and the United States. The recipe was created by a 19th-century British Army officer of the same name who presumably lived in Colonial India. Its characteristic ingredients are mango, raisins, vinegar, lime juice, onion, tamarind extract, sweetening, several companies produce a Major Greys Chutney, in India, the UK and the US. The word chutney is derived from the Hindi word चटनी chaṭnī and it is written differently in North and South Indian languages. Pacchadi, as written in Telugu script, refers specifically to pickled fruits, whilst chutney refers to minced foods, in India, chutney refers to fresh and pickled preparations indiscriminately. Several Indian languages use the word for fresh preparations only, a different word achār applies to pickles that often contain oil and are rarely sweet
3.
Dosa
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Dosa is a type of pancake made from a fermented batter. It is somewhat similar to a crepe but its ingredients are rice. Dosa is a part of the South Indian diet and popular all over the Indian subcontinent. Traditionally, Dosa is served hot along with sambar, stuffing of potatoes or paneer and it can be consumed with idli podi as well. Dosa is indigenous to South India, its birthplace in that region is a matter of conjecture. According to food historian K. T. Achaya, dosa was already in use in ancient Tamil country around the 1st century AD, according to P. Thankappan Nair, dosa originated in the Udupi town of present-day Karnataka. In popular tradition, the origin of dosa is linked to Udupi, also, the original Tamil dosa was softer and thicker. The thinner and crispier version of dosa, which became popular all over India, was first made in present-day Karnataka, a recipe for dosa can be found in Manasollasa, a 12th-century Sanskrit encyclopedia compiled by Someshvara III, who ruled from present-day Karnataka. Dosa is known by several names, the standard transliterations and pronunciations of the word in various South Indian languages are as follows, Dosa is high in carbohydrates and contains no added sugars or saturated fats. As its key ingredients are rice and black gram, it is also a source of protein. The fermentation process increases the vitamin B and vitamin C content, there are also instant mix products for making dosa which usually contain higher amounts of rice. A mixture of rice and black grams that has been soaked in water is ground finely to form a batter, some add a handful of fenugreek seeds soaked along with the rice. The proportion of rice to lentils is generally 4,1 or 5,1, the batter is allowed to ferment overnight. After the overnight fermentation, the batter is mixed with water to get the desired thickness, the batter is then ladled onto a hot tava greased with oil or ghee. It is spread out evenly with the base of a ladle or bowl to form a pancake, a dosa is served hot, either folded in half or rolled like a wrap. It is also served with chutney and sambar. The mixture of black grams and rice can be replaced with highly refined wheat flour or semolina, Dosa can be stuffed with fillings of vegetables and sauces to make a quick meal. They are typically served with a side dish which varies according to regional and personal preferences
4.
Idli
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Idli /ɪdliː/) is a traditional breakfast in South Indian households. Idli is a cake that is popular throughout India and neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka. The cakes are made by steaming a batter consisting of fermented black lentils, the fermentation process breaks down the starches so that they are more readily metabolized by the body. Idli has several variations, including rava idli, which is made from semolina, regional variants include sanna of Konkan and Enduri Pitha of Odisha. A precursor of the modern idli is mentioned in several ancient Indian works, vaddaradhane, a 920 CE Kannada language work by Shivakotiacharya mentions iddalige, prepared only from a black gram batter. The Western Chalukya king and scholar Someshwara III, reigning in the now called Karnataka, included an idli recipe in his encyclopedia. This Sanskrit-language work describes the food as iḍḍarikā, the food prepared using this recipe is now called uddina idli in Karnataka. The recipe mentioned in these ancient Indian works leaves out three key aspects of the modern recipe, the use of rice, the long fermentation of the mix. The references to the modern recipe appear in the Indian works only after 1250 CE, food historian K. T. Achaya speculates that the modern idli recipe might have originated in present-day Indonesia, which has a long tradition of fermented food. According to him, the cooks employed by the Hindu kings of the Indianised kingdoms might have invented the steamed idli there, Achaya mentioned an Indonesian dish called kedli, which according to him, was like an idli. However, Janaki Lenin was unable to find any recipe for an Indonesian dish by this name, the Gujarati work Varanaka Samuchaya mentions idli as idari, and also mentions its local adaption idada. The earliest extant Tamil work to mention idli is Maccapuranam, dated to the 17th century, to make Idli, four parts uncooked rice to one part whole white lentil are soaked separately for at least four hours to six hours or overnight. Optionally spices such as seeds can be added at the time of soaking for additional flavor. Once done soaking, the lentils are ground to a fine paste, next, the mixture is left to ferment overnight during which its volume will more than double. After fermentation some of the batter may be kept as a culture for the next batch. The finished idli batter is put into greased moulds of a tray or tree for steaming. The perforated molds allow the idlis to be cooked evenly, the tree holds the trays above the level of boiling water in a pot, and the pot is covered until the idlis are done. A more traditional method is to use instead of molds
5.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
6.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
7.
Stone tool
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A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, archaeologists often study such prehistoric societies, and refer to the study of stone tools as lithic analysis. Ethnoarchaeology has been a research field in order to further the understanding and cultural implications of stone tool use. Stone has been used to make a variety of different tools throughout history, including arrow heads, spearpoints. Stone tools may be made of ground stone or chipped stone. Chipped stone tools are made from materials such as chert or flint, radiolarite, chalcedony, obsidian, basalt. One simple form of reduction is to strike stone flakes from a nucleus of material using a hammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator, if the goal of the reduction strategy is to produce flakes, the remnant lithic core may be discarded once it has become too small to use. In some strategies, however, a flintknapper reduces the core to a rough unifacial or bifacial preform, more complex forms of reduction include the production of highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into a variety of tools such as scrapers, knives, sickles and microliths. Archaeologists classify stone tools into industries that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics and he assigned to them relative dates, Modes 1 and 2 to the Lower Palaeolithic,3 to the Middle Palaeolithic,4 to the Advanced and 5 to the Mesolithic. They were not to be conceived, however, as either universal—that is, they did not account for all lithic technology, Mode 1, for example, was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa. Clarkes scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community, one of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology, for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest, Kenya Stone tools found from 2011 to 2014 at Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genus Homo by half million years. The oldest known Homo fossil is 2.8 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools. Dating of the tools was by dating volcanic ash layers in which the tools were found, Oldowan tools were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly using core forms. The blunt end is the surface, the sharp, the distal. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter. The earliest known Oldowan tools yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during the Lower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered at Gona in Ethiopia. Homo habilis was the hominin who used the tools for most of the Oldowan in Africa, eventually, more complex, Mode 2 tools began to be developed through the Acheulean Industry, named after the site of Saint-Acheul in France
8.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
9.
Rhyolite
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Rhyolite is an igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic composition. It may have any texture from glassy to aphanitic to porphyritic, the mineral assemblage is usually quartz, sanidine and plagioclase. Biotite and hornblende are common accessory minerals and it is the extrusive equivalent to granite. Rhyolite can be considered as the equivalent to the plutonic granite rock. Due to their content of silica and low iron and magnesium contents, rhyolite melts are highly polymerized. They also occur as breccias or in volcanic plugs and dikes, rhyolites that cool too quickly to grow crystals form a natural glass or vitrophyre, also called obsidian. Slower cooling forms microscopic crystals in the lava and results in such as flow foliations, spherulitic, nodular. Some rhyolite is highly vesicular pumice, many eruptions of rhyolite are highly explosive and the deposits may consist of fallout tephra/tuff or of ignimbrites. Eruptions of rhyolite are relatively rare compared to eruptions of less felsic lavas, etsch Valley Vulcanite Group near Bolzano and the surrounding area Gréixer rhyolitic complex at Moixeró range Vosges Iceland, all active and extinct central volcanoes, e. g. g. Wichita Mountains within the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen St, in North American pre-historic times, rhyolite was quarried extensively in eastern Pennsylvania in the United States. Among the leading quarries was the Carbaugh Run Rhyolite Quarry Site in Adams County, comendite List of rock types Pantellerite Thunderegg University of North Dakota description of rhyolite Information from rocks-rock. com
