1.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
2.
Air-sea rescue
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Air-sea rescue is the coordinated search and rescue of the survivors of emergency water landings as well as people who have survived the loss of their seagoing vessel. ASR can involve a variety of resources including seaplanes, helicopters, submarines, rescue boats. Specialized equipment and techniques have been developed, military and civilian units can perform air-sea rescue. Air-sea rescue operations carried out during war have saved valuable trained and experienced airmen, air-sea rescue by flying boat or floatplane was the first method used to pick up aviators or sailors who were struggling in the water. Any other aircraft design had the danger of ditching in the water and requiring immediate rescue. Long range, endurance, and the ability to stay on station for periods of time were seen as essential to naval aviation requirements for rescue aircraft. Robust radio equipment was necessary for contact with land and ocean surface forces, training and weather accidents could require an aircrew to be rescued, and seaplanes were occasionally used for that purpose. The limitation was that if the surface were too rough. The most that could be done was to drop supplies to the survivors. An early air-sea rescue was performed in August 1911 by Hugh Robinson who landed his Curtiss Aeroplane Company seaplane on Lake Michigan to pull a crashed pilot out of the water, dedicated air-sea rescue units were not organized by any nation until the end World War I. When the Marine Craft Section of the newly formed RAF, was formed in 1918, it inherited over 200 operational vessels and these boats were regarded primarily as seaplane tenders, being primarily tasked with the movement of cargo, munitions and crew from the land to the seaplane. The poor navigation skills of the crews also restricted the scope of operations to a purely inshore one. T. E. Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia, joined the RAF in 1929, working at the boat station. He immediately began to press his commanding officer for the introduction of fast motorboat launches as rescue boats. Lawrence had experience using this type of vessel, having assisted with the 1929 Schneider Trophy race while at the helm of a Biscayne Baby, a fast boat when the temperamental engines were running. The result, built by the BPBC, was the 200-Class Seaplane tender, testing on the launch continued from 1931-32 to ensure that the engines could run at sustained high speeds. The ship was a success and was followed up with the MkI and MkIA tenders. These formed the mainstay of the Marine Sections rescue launches all the way through to the Second World War, nine of these boats were ordered for use by the RAF Marine service by 1932
3.
Flying boat
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A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It differs from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float, Flying boats may be stabilized by under-wing floats or by wing-like projections from the fuselage. Flying boats were some of the largest aircraft of the first half of the 20th century and their advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue. Their use gradually trailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war. In the 21st century, flying boats maintain a few uses, such as dropping water on forest fires, air transport around archipelagos. Many modern seaplane variants, whether float or flying boat types, are convertible amphibious aircraft where either landing gear or flotation modes may be used to land, on 6 June 1905 Gabriel Voisin took off and landed on the River Seine with a towed kite glider on floats. The first of his flights was 150 yards. He later built a powered floatplane in partnership with Louis Blériot, other pioneers also attempted to attach floats to aircraft in Britain, Australia, France and the USA. On 28 March 1910 Frenchman Henri Fabre successfully flew the first successful powered seaplane, the Gnome Omega-powered hydravion, fabres first successful take off and landing by a powered seaplane inspired other aviators and he designed floats for several other flyers. The first hydro-aeroplane competition was held in Monaco in March 1912, featuring aircraft using floats from Fabre, Curtiss, Tellier and this led to the first scheduled seaplane passenger services at Aix-les-Bains, using a five-seat Sanchez-Besa from 1 August 1912. The French Navy ordered its first floatplane in 1912, in 1911-12 François Denhaut constructed the first seaplane with a fuselage forming a hull, using various designs to give hydrodynamic lift at take-off. Its first successful flight was on 13 April 1912, throughout 1910 and 1911 American pioneering aviator Glenn Curtiss developed his floatplane into the successful Curtiss Model D land-plane, which used a larger central float and sponsons. Combining floats with wheels, he made the first amphibian flights in February 1911 and was awarded the first Collier Trophy for US flight achievement, from 1912 his experiments with a hulled seaplane resulted in the 1913 Model E and Model F, which he called flying-boats. In February 1911 the United States Navy took delivery of the Curtiss Model E, in Britain, Captain Edward Wakefield and Oscar Gnosspelius began to explore the feasibility of flight from water in 1908. They decided to use of Lake Windermere in the Lake District. Meanwhile, Wakefield ordered a similar to the design of the 1910 Fabre Hydravion. By November 1911, both Gnosspelier and Wakefield had aircraft capable of flight from water and awaited suitable weather conditions, gnosspeliers flight was short-lived as the aircraft crashed into the lake
4.
Grumman
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The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century U. S. producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6,1929, by Leroy Grumman and partners, factory in Baldwin on Long Island, New York. All of the early Grumman employees were former Loening employees, the company was named for Grumman because he was its largest investor. The company filed as a business on December 5,1929, keeping busy by welding aluminum tubing for truck frames, the company eagerly pursued contracts with the US Navy. Grumman designed the first practical floats with a landing gear for the Navy. The first Grumman aircraft was also for the Navy, the Grumman FF-1 and this was followed by a number of other successful designs. Grumman ranked 22nd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts, Grummans first jet aircraft was the F9F Panther, it was followed by the upgraded F9F/F-9 Cougar, and the less well known F-11 Tiger in the 1950s. The companys big postwar successes came in the 1960s with the A-6 Intruder and E-2 Hawkeye and in the 1970s with the Grumman EA-6B Prowler, Grumman products were prominent in the film Top Gun and numerous World War II naval and Marine Corps aviation films. The U. S. Navy still employs the Hawkeye as part of Carrier Air Wings on board aircraft carriers, Grumman was the chief contractor on the Apollo Lunar Module that landed men on the moon. The firm received the contract on November 7,1962, as the Apollo program neared its end, Grumman was one of the main competitors for the contract to design and build the Space Shuttle, but lost to Rockwell International. The company ended up involved in the program nonetheless, as a subcontractor to Rockwell, providing the wings. In 1969 the company changed its name to Grumman Aerospace Corporation, the company built the Grumman Long Life Vehicle, a light transport mail truck designed for and used by the United States Postal Service. The LLV entered service in 1986, Gulfstream business jets continue to be currently manufactured by Gulfstream Aerospace which is a wholly owned subsidiary of General Dynamics. For much of the Cold War period Grumman was the largest corporate employer on Long Island, Grummans products were considered so reliable and ruggedly built that the company was often referred to as the Grumman Iron Works. At its peak in 1986 it employed 23,000 people on Long Island, a portion of the airport property has been used for the Grumman Memorial Park. Northrop Grummans remaining business at the Bethpage campus is the Battle Management and Engagement Systems Division, under the Grumman Olson brand it made the P-600 and P-6800 step vans for UPS. Grumman manufactured fire engines under the name Firecat and aerial tower trucks under the Aerialcat name, the company entered the fire apparatus business in 1976 with its purchase of Howe Fire Apparatus and ended operations in 1992. Grumman canoes were developed in 1944 as World War II was winding down, Company executive William Hoffman used the companys aircraft aluminum to replace the traditional wood design
5.
Hellenic Navy
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The Hellenic Navy is the naval force of Greece, part of the Hellenic Armed Forces. The modern Greek navy has its roots in the forces of various Aegean Islands. During the periods of monarchy it was known as the Royal Navy, the total displacement of all the navys vessels is approximately 150,000 tons. The motto of the Hellenic Navy is Μέγα το της Θαλάσσης Κράτος from Thucydides account of Pericles oration on the eve of the Peloponnesian War and this has been translated as The rule of the sea is a great matter. Pericles words are written across the top of the emblem, the navy, as it represents a necessary weapon for Greece, should only be created for war and aim to victory. The history of the Hellenic Navy begins with the birth of modern Greece, the fleet was of crucial importance to the success of the revolt. Its goal was to prevent as much as possible the Ottoman Navy from resupplying the isolated Ottoman garrisons, although Greek crews were experienced seamen, the light Greek ships, mostly armed merchantmen, were unable to stand up to the large Turkish ships of the line in direct combat. So the Greeks conducted the equivalent of modern-day naval special operations, resorting to the use of fireships and it was in the use of such ships that courageous seamen like Constantine Kanaris won international renown. Under the leadership of capable admirals, most prominently Andreas Miaoulis of Hydra, however, as Greece became embroiled in a civil war, the Sultan called upon his strongest subject, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, for aid. Despite victories at Samos and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the Battle of Navarino in 1827. There the Egypto-Ottoman fleet was defeated by the combined fleets of the Britain, France. When Ioannis Capodistrias became governor of newly liberated Greece in 1828, the Greek fleet consisted of few remaining ships, which had participated in the war for independence. The first minister of Naval affairs was Constantine Kanaris, and the most powerful ship of the fleet at that time, the frigate Hellas, had been constructed in the United States in 1825. The Hellenic Navy established its headquarters at the island of Poros, furthermore, continuous efforts towards the education of officers were initiated. Young people were trained at the military school of Scholi Evelpidon and afterwards they were transferred to the navy. In 1831, Greece descended into anarchy with numerous areas, including Mani and Hydra and it was during this revolt that the flagship Hellas, docked at Poros, was set on fire by Admiral Andreas Miaoulis. Capodistrias was assassinated a few months after, the first Naval School was founded in 1846 on the Corvette Loudovikos and Leonidas Palaskas was assigned as its director. During the 1850s, the progressive elements of the navy won out
6.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
7.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
8.
Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
9.
Amphibious aircraft
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This article discusses fixed-wing amphibious aircraft. For rotary-wing amphibious aircraft, see Amphibious helicopter, an amphibious aircraft or amphibian is an aircraft that can take off and land on both land and water. Some amphibians are fitted with reinforced keels which act as skis, many amphibian aircraft are of the flying boat type. While these impose weight and drag, amphibious aircraft also face the possibility of getting hit when operating from a runway. A common solution is to make them retractable as those found on the Consolidated Catalina however these are heavier than fixed floats. Some aircraft may have the tip floats removed for extended use from land and these are not built to take the impact of the aircraft landing on them. An occasional problem with amphibians is with ensuring the wheels are in the position for landing. In normal operation, the uses a checklist, verifying each item. Since amphibians can land with them up or down though, the pilot must take care to ensure they are correct for the chosen landing place. Landing wheels up on land may damage the keel, while landing wheels down on water will almost always flip the aircraft upside down, Amphibious aircraft are heavier and slower, more complex and more expensive to purchase and operate than comparable landplanes but are also more versatile. Even if they cannot hover or land vertically, for jobs they compete favorably with helicopters. This makes an amphibious aircraft, such as the Grumman Albatross, the most notable being the Short Sunderland which carried out many anti-submarine patrols over the North Atlantic on sorties of 8 –12 hours duration. The Grumman Corporation, late-comers to the game, introduced a pair of light utility amphibious aircraft - the Goose, however, their military potential could not be ignored, and many were ordered by the US Armed forces and their allies during World War II. Not coincidentally, the Consolidated Catalina was redeveloped from being a flying boat into an amphibian during the war. Development of amphibians continues in Russia with the jet engined Beriev Be-200, italy, bordering the Mediterranean and Adriatic has had a long history of waterborne aircraft going back to the first Italian aircraft to fly. While most were not amphibians, quite a few were, including the Savoia-Marchetti S. 56A, although successful, flying boat amphibians like it ultimately proved less versatile than floatplane amphibians and are no longer as common as they once were. Many today are homebuilts, by necessity as the demand is too small to justify the costs of development, Amphibious helicopter Amphibious vehicle List of seaplanes and amphibious aircraft Floatplane Flying boat Seaplane Tigerfish Aviation Unmanned aerial vehicle
10.
Grumman G-73 Mallard
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The Grumman G-73 Mallard is a medium, twin-engined amphibious aircraft. Many have been modified by replacing the original Pratt & Whitney Wasp H radial engines with modern turboprop engines, manufactured from 1946 to 1951, production ended when Grummans larger SA-16 Albatross was introduced. Building on the success of the Goose and Widgeon, Grumman Aircraft developed larger G-73 Mallard for commercial use, unlike the smaller aircraft, the Mallard featured tricycle gear, stressed skin, a two-step hull and wingtip fuel tanks. The Mallard prototype first flew on 30 April 1946, with the first production aircraft entering service in September of that year, a number of smaller air carriers did use the Mallard in its intended role, notably Tahiti-Hawaii Airlines and Pacific Western Airlines. However, most of the 59 Mallards delivered were for corporate use, a prominent user in the United States was Roy Fruehauf and the Fruehauf Trailer Corporation. Fruehauf owned and operated a camp, Killarney Lodge at Georgian Bay, Canada. Another, Detroiter, William Packer of General Motors, also owned a Mallard, another Mallard was purchased in the early 1950s by the Aga Khan. The Royal Egyptian Air Force used a Mallard as part of their Royal Flight, today, through attrition, only 32 Mallards remain registered in the United States. Many of the rest are in use around the globe, the fleet has been extensively rebuilt and also refitted with PT6A turbines, and is currently undergoing a life extension program. Chalks Ocean Airways purchased Mallard N1208 from the Fruehauf Corporation and later acquired several examples of the aircraft. The type received much attention after a Turbo Mallard, operating as Chalks Ocean Airways Flight 101, crashed after takeoff from Miami Harbor on 19 December 2005 bound for Bimini, eighteen passengers and two crew perished when the right wing separated from the fuselage of the 58-year-old aircraft. The cause of the accident was determined by the subsequent investigation to be undetected cracks and/or corrosion in the wing spar, australia Paspaley Pearling Co. com Left at the Evening Star - selling a beloved Mallard Grumman Mallards and the Fruehauf Trailer Company
11.
JATO
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JATO, is a type of assisted take-off for helping overloaded aircraft into the air by providing additional thrust in the form of small rockets. The term JATO is used interchangeably with the term RATO, for rocket-assisted take-off, early experiments using rockets to boost gliders into the air were conducted in Germany in the 1920s, and later both the Royal Air Force and the Luftwaffe introduced such systems in World War II. After firing, the rocket was released from the back of the plane to fall into the water, the task done, the pilot would fly to friendly territory if possible or parachute from the plane, hopefully to be picked up by one of the escort vessels. Over two years the system was only employed nine times to attack German aircraft with eight kills recorded for the loss of a single pilot. The use of reaction-assisted takeoff methods became especially important late in the war when the lengths of usable runways were severely curtailed due to the results of Allied bombing. A parachute pack at the front of the motors exterior housing was used to slow its fall after being released from the plane. Two prototypes of the Heimatschützer versions of the Me 262 were built and test flown, in late 1941 von Kármán and his team attached several 50-pound thrust, solid fuel Aerojet JATOs to a light Ercoupe plane, and Army Captain Homer Boushey took off on test runs. On the last run they removed the propeller, attached six JATO units under the wings, and Boushey was thrust into the air for a short flight, both armed services used solid fuel JATO during the war. As the take-off thrust of jet engines has grown, JATO has fallen from favor and it is still used, however, when heavily-laden aircraft need to take off from short runways or when operating in Hot and high conditions. The US Air Force used a modified Republic F-84, designated EF-84G, the Soviet VVS used a modified MiG-19 fighter, designated SM-30, launched from a special launcher, and using a nearly identical solid-fueled rocket booster design to that of the EF-84G. The F-100 and F-104 were also used for zero-length launch experiments, the JATO Junior was an attempt by Aerojet Engineering to introduce smaller JATO units to small commercial aircraft, but was blocked by the U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. The Boeing 727 had provision for Aerojet JATO assist for use in hot, the JATO Rocket Car is an urban legend that relates the story of a car equipped with JATO units that is later found smashed into a mountainside. This story is given as an example of a Darwin Award, it appears to be apocryphal. The legend has been examined several times on the Discovery Channel show MythBusters, for the first attempt, in a 2003 pilot episode, the crew replicated the scene and the thrust of the JATO with some commercially available amateur rocket motors. The car did go very fast, outrunning the chase helicopter, but nowhere near the 300 mph reported in the original story, and failed to become airborne. The myth was revisited in 2007, using a different configuration of rockets in an attempt to make the car fly, the myth was again revisited in 2013 in the 1st Episode of Mythbusters Series 12 - as a celebration for the 10th year on air. A JATO-equipped 1958 Dodge Coronet car on the El Mirage dry lake was used for a TV advertisement to demonstrate the power of their total contact brakes and this was broadcast during The Lawrence Welk Show in the late 1950s. Notes Video of the Heinkel He 111 fitted with Walters rocket boosters Birth of JATO, popular Science, July 1946, pp. 74–75
12.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
13.
Air Rescue Service
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The Air Rescue Service is a disestablished organization in the United States Air Force. As ARRS, it retained the same status with MAC. Rescues worth was proven time and again,996 combat saves in Korea and 2,780 in Southeast Asia, the crews, both fixed-wing and helicopter, shared the motto, These things we do that others may live. First Air Commando Sergeant Pilot Ed “Murphy” Hladovcak had crash-landed his L-1 aircraft with three wounded British soldiers on board, taxing his YR-4 helicopter to its performance limits, Harmon made four flights to the site, making the final hasty liftoff just as shouting soldiers burst from the jungle. He learned later the soldiers were not Japanese, but an Allied land rescue party, in March 1946, the Air Rescue Service was established under the Air Transport Command to provide rescue coverage for the continental United States. By 1949, ARS aircraft covered all the transport routes. The Air Rescue Service emblem was created by Tech Sgt William R. Steffens stationed at Hickam Airforce Base in 1952, the emblem was selected by the government to be used as the official logo for Air Rescue Service until the branch had disestablished and Pararescue was created. The guardian angel and latin phrase Ut Alique Viva, That Others May Live, are used in the current logo for the United States Air Force Pararescue. During the Korean War, the use of helicopters on rescue missions helped save more lives. By the time of the Korean Armistice, ARS crews were credited with rescuing 9,898 United Nations personnel, in 1954, ARS moved its headquarters to Orlando Air Force Base, Florida. The Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service peacetime force was not equipped, trained, as lessons were learned, the services rescue capability increased. During the Vietnam War, ARRS crews would save 4,120 people,2,780 of them in combat situations. But the HH-43 was slow, short-ranged and unarmed, having been procured primarily for the local base recovery mission at air bases in the United States. The LBR concept also included a fire suppression role, with an external AFFF foam bottle, standardized training and mission concepts were also implemented. ”The HH-43Bs combat radius of only 75 miles was increased with added fuel drums strapped in the cabin. It was eventually replaced with the armored HH-43F model, which had internal fuel tanks. The HH-43F units were staffed with USAF Pararescue personnel as part of the recovery team. Throughout the war, both HH-43B and HH-43F helicopters flew deep into North Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, hH-43s saved more lives than any other rescue helicopter in the Vietnam War. In July 1965, ARS received its first CH-3C, a considered a adequate aircrew rescue vehicle
14.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
15.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
16.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
17.
Search and rescue
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Search and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations. The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS, there are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved. Canadian Forces, Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger. United States Coast Guard, The use of resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress. One of the worlds earliest well-documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the west coast of Australia, survivors sought help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success. All 5 crew members of an oil barge, which had run aground on Penfield Reef, were saved before the barge sank, in 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 with 269 occupants was shot down by a Soviet aircraft near Sakhalin. The Soviets sent SAR helicopters and boats to Soviet waters, while a search, South Korean, and Japanese ships and aircraft in international waters, but no survivors were found. In July 2009, Air France Flight 447 was lost in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, an international SAR effort was launched, to no avail. A third effort nearly two years later discovered the site and recovered the black boxes. In early 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 crashed under mysterious circumstances, many nations contributed to the initial SAR effort, which was fruitless. 3mn to date on fuel and food in its own effort. The search for Flight 370 has become the largest SAR so far with the largest budget, mountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain. Ground search and rescue is the search for persons who are lost or in distress on land or inland waterways, some ground search teams also employ search and rescue dogs. Urban search and rescue, also referred to as Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, is the location and rescue of persons from collapsed buildings or other urban and industrial entrapments. Due to the nature of the work, most teams are multi-disciplinary and include personnel from police, fire. While earthquakes have traditionally been the cause of US&R operations, terrorist attacks, combat search and rescue is search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones. Air-sea rescue refers to the use of aircraft and surface vessels, to search for. This treaty contains the definition of high seas, at Article 1, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations
18.
Naval air station
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A naval air station is a military air base, and consists of a permanent land-based operations locations for the military aviation division of the relevant branch of a navy. These bases are typically populated by squadrons, groups or wings, their various support commands, the term Naval Air Station is used by many countries navies, such as the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy, the British Royal Navy, and the Indian Navy. In the case of the U. S. Navy, similar facilities in the U. S. Marine Corps are known as Marine Corps Air Stations, runways also serve domestic airlines at almost all Argentine military airbases. The Navy operates Estacion Aeronaval which have smaller crews and are not normally assigned aircraft and these include Ezeiza, Rio Gallegos and Ushuaia. The Argentine Naval Prefecture, serving as a Coast Guard, also operates air stations at Posadas, Buenos Aires, Mar del Plata, Aircraft operating out of these bases are heavily involved in sea rescues. In Australia, there is one Naval Air Station, NAS Nowra, HMAS Albatross, in 2016, the French Navy has four naval air stations, all located in metropolitan territory. The United Kingdom has two Royal Naval Air Stations, RNAS Yeovilton and RNAS Culdrose, until 2006, the former served as the main operating base for the Royal Navys Sea Harriers, which were based upon the three Invincible class aircraft carriers. However, upon the withdrawal of the BAe Sea Harrier in that year and it is believed that all of their successors will be based at RAF Lossiemouth. The site also contains the Royal Naval Air Museum, that showcases a variety of aircraft from the Royal Naval Air Service until the present day, RNAS Yeovilton also has RNAS Merryfield as its training and satellite station. RNAS Culdrose serves a variety of helicopter and fixed-wing squadrons, such as the Sea King, among the features at RNAS Culdrose is the Dummy deck which is used to train pilots to land on ships, the Merlin training facility, and the Fleet Requirements Air Direction Unit. Its satellite airfield is RNAS Predannack, in the United States, a Naval Air Station is an air base of the United States Navy. When located in countries, they are often identified as US Naval Air Stations. A slightly lower level of air base in the U. S. Navy is the Naval Air Facility and these facilities normally support smaller numbers of naval aircraft. Permanently based naval aircraft are usually minimal, with the focus being on supporting naval aircraft deployed from other installations. There are also a number of former Naval Air Stations that have been realiged as part of larger Naval Stations or redesignated to other functions in the Navy. This includes the former NAS Norfolk, Virginia, the former NAF Mayport, Florida, the former NAS Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and the former NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey. In the case of NAS Memphis, Tennessee, the airfield and flight line was turned over to civilian authorities. The first naval air station in the United States was located at Greenbury Point, at the mouth of the Severn River near Annapolis, Maryland
19.
Guam
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Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 210 sq mi and a population density of 770/sq mi. It is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia, among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest density at 3, 691/sq mi, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119/sq mi. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 406 meters above sea level, the Chamorros, Guams indigenous people, settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first European to visit the island on March 6,1521, Guam was colonized in 1668 with settlers, like Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons, during the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21,1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10,1898, Guam is among the seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories of the United Nations. Before World War II, Guam and three other territories – American Samoa, Hawaii, and the Philippines – were the only American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean. On December 7,1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, during the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. Guam endured hostilities when American forces recaptured the island on July 21,1944, since the 1960s, the economy is supported by two industries, tourism and the United States Armed Forces. The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC and they evolved into the Chamorro people. The ancient-Chamorro society had four classes, chamorri, matua, achaot, the matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also makåhna, skilled in healing and medicine, belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans, Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands, and, they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built, Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top
20.
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
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The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia administered by the United States from 1947 to 1986. Spain initially claimed the islands that comprised the territory of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Subsequently, Germany established competing claims over the islands, Germany, in turn, continued to retain possession until the islands were captured by Japan during World War I. The League of Nations formally placed the islands in the former South Pacific Mandate, the islands then remained under Japanese control until captured by the United States in 1944 during World War II. The TTPI entered UN trusteeship pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21 on July 18,1947 and was designated an area in its 1947 trusteeship agreement. The Territory contained 100,000 people scattered over an area the size of continental United States. They represented a variety of cultures and spoke nine languages, the Ponapeans and Kusaieans, Marshallese and Palauans, Truckese, Yapese and Chamorros had little in common, except they were in the same general area of the Pacific Ocean. The large distances between people, lack of an economy, language and cultural barriers, all worked against the union, the six district centers became upscale slums, containing deteriorated Japanese-built roads, with electricity, modern music and distractions, alienated youth and bewildered elders. The remainder of the islands stayed as they were historically, not progressing, a Congress of Micronesia first levied an income tax in 1971. It affected mainly foreigners working at bases in the region. On October 21,1986, the U. S. ended its administration of the Marshall Islands District. The termination of U. S. administration of the Chuuk, Yap, Kosrae, Pohnpei, in 1969, the 100 occupied islands comprised 700 square miles over an area of 3,000,000 square miles of sea. The latter area was comparable in size to the continental United States, the water area is about 2% of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the islands was 200,000 in the part of the 19th century. The population decreased to 100,000 by 1969 due to emigration, war, at that time, the population inhabited less than 100 out of 2,141 of the Marshall, Mariana, and Caroline Islands. The area is now divided into four jurisdictions, The following sovereign states have become associated with the United States under the Compact of Free Association
21.
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base
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The base is on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba. It is the oldest overseas U. S. Naval Base, since 2002, the naval base has contained a military prison, the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, for unlawful combatants captured in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other places during the War on Terror. Cases of torture of prisoners, and their denial of protection under the Geneva Conventions, have been condemned internationally. S. Coast Guard Aviation Detachment Guantanamo Bay U. S. GTMO-5, GTMO-6 and GTMO-7, besides servicemen, the base houses a large number of civilian contractors working for the military. These contractors are largely imported from Jamaica and Philippines, and are thought to constitute up to 40% of the bases population, on 30 April 1494, Christopher Columbus, on his second voyage, arrived and spent the night. The place where Columbus landed is now known as Fishermans Point, Columbus declared the bay Puerto Grande. The bay and surrounding areas came under British control during the War of Jenkins Ear, prior to British occupation, the bay was referred to as Walthenham Harbor. The British renamed the bay Cumberland Bay, the British retreated from the area after a failed attempt to march to Santiago de Cuba. During the Spanish–American War, the U. S. fleet attacking Santiago secured Guantánamos harbor for protection during the season of 1898. The Marines landed at Guantanamo Bay with naval support, and American and Cuban forces routed the defending Spanish troops, the war ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898, in which Spain formally relinquished control of Cuba. Although the war was over, the US maintained a military presence on the island. In 1901 the US government passed the Platt Amendment as part of an Army Appropriations Bill, the Constitution took effect in 1902, and land for a naval base at Guantanamo Bay was granted to the United States the following year. The 1903 lease agreement was executed in two parts, the second agreement, signed five months later in July 1903, established the amount of USD$2,000 to be paid to Cuba annually by the US. The lease amount was changed in 1933 to $3676.50, payments have been sent annually, but only one lease payment has been cashed since the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro claimed that this check was deposited due to confusion in 1959, during World War II, the base was set up to use a nondescript number for postal operations. The base used the Fleet Post Office, Atlantic, in New York City, until the 1953–59 revolution, thousands of Cubans commuted daily from outside the base to jobs within. In mid-1958, vehicular traffic was stopped, workers were required to walk through the several gates. Public Works Center buses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tides of workers to and from the gate
22.
Naval Air Station Barbers Point
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Naval Air Station Barbers Point, also called John Rodgers Field is a former United States Navy airfield closed in the 1990s. It was later reopened as Kalaeloa Airport in 1999, parts of the former air station serve as a film and television studio for the Hawaii State Film Office. On December 7,1941, Barbers Point was one of the targets attacked by the Japanese during the attack on Pearl Harbor. During the second wave, American pilots George Welch and Kenneth Taylor engaged Japanese aircraft, however, Coast Guard Air Station Barbers Point, with its complement of HH-65 Dolphin helicopters and HC-130H Hercules aircraft, remained after the Navys departure. Coast Guard Air Station Barbers Point is the only Coast Guard Air Station within the 14th United States Coast Guard District, ABC Studios and Marvel Televisions Inhumans was the first production to use the newly created production facility. afhra. af. mil/. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
23.
Naval Air Station North Island
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Naval Air Station North Island or NAS North Island is located at the north end of the Coronado peninsula on San Diego Bay and is the home port of several aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. It is part of the largest aerospace-industrial complex in the United States Navy, Naval Base Coronado in San Diego County, the Commanding Officer of NAS North Island is also the Commanding Officer, Naval Base Coronado. NASNI, with only its commands in the metropolitan San Diego Area, NAS North Island itself is host to 23 aviation squadrons and 80 additional tenant commands and activities, one of which, the Naval Aviation Depot, is the largest aerospace employer in San Diego. NAS North Island also operates two other airfields in the Southern California region, one is Naval Auxiliary Landing Facility San Clemente Island, located approximately 70 miles northwest of San Diego in the Channel Islands. The other is Outlying Field Imperial Beach, formerly an independent naval air station, OLF Imperial Beach is located in the city of Imperial Beach, on the U. S. -Mexico border,10 miles south of NAS North Island. The air station was known as Ream Field in 1950s and 1960s. NAS North Island resembles a city in its facility content. It has its own police and fire departments, as well as advanced military security stations and it has large factory-type buildings which comprise the Naval Aviation Depot, employing 3,300 civilians, and its own commissary, Navy Exchange, and housing units. Recreation facilities include officer, chief petty officer and enlisted clubs, movie theater, golf course, tennis courts, bowling alley, parks and beaches. Its airfield has over 230 stationed aircraft, and its wall is homeport to two aircraft carriers, USS Carl Vinson and USS Theodore Roosevelt. Additionally, the base is home to the Navys only Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles, Mystic, the DSRV motor vessel support ships are also homeported here. S. Pacific Fleet, responsible for maintenance and training of all aircraft and aircraft carriers in the Pacific Fleet. DOD Contractors perform transportation flights from the air station to NALF San Clemente Island and these DOD Contractors also provide tactical training warfare for the United States Defense Department in joint efforts with the U. S. Navy and U. S. Marine Corps. Some of these aircraft include C-26 Metroliner, Learjet, and Gulfstream aircraft, North Island was commissioned a Naval Air Station in 1917, called Naval Air Station San Diego until 1955. On August 15,1963, the station was granted recognition as the Birthplace of Naval Aviation by resolution of the House Armed Services Committee. The Navys first aviator, Lieutenant Theodore Ellyson, and many of his colleagues were trained at North Island starting as early as 1911 and this was just eight years after Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first manned aircraft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. At that time, North Island was a sand flat. It had been used in the late 19th century for horseback riding and hunting by guests of J. D. Spreckelss resort hotel, North Island derived its name from the original geography
24.
Naval Air Station Key West
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Naval Air Station Key West, is a naval air station and military airport located on Boca Chica Key, four miles east of the central business district of Key West, Florida, United States. The U. S. Navys presence in Key West dates back to 1823 when a Naval Base was established to stop piracy in this area, the lower Keys were home to many wealthy shipping merchants whose fleets operated from these waters. This drew the interest of such as Blackbeard and Captain William Kidd. The base also figured prominently during the Spanish–American War, in 1898, the battleship Maine sailed from Key West to Havana, Cuba, where it later exploded while at anchor and sank. The sinking of the Maine resulted in the United States declaring war on Spain, atlantic Fleet moved to Key West for the duration of the war. During World War I the base was expanded again, and in 1917 and its mission during World War I was to supply oil to the U. S. fleet and to block German ships from reaching Mexican oil supplies. The nations southernmost Naval Base proved to be an ideal year-round training facility with rapid access to the sea lanes. The Navys forces were expanded to include seaplanes, submarines and blimps, Ground was broken for construction of a small coastal air patrol station on 13 July 1917 at what is now Trumbo Point on land leased from the Florida East Coast Railroad Company. The project involved dredging, erection of buildings, three seaplane ramps, a dirigible hangar, a hydrogenerator plant, and temporary barracks. On 22 September of that year, the log book recorded the first naval flight ever made from Key West – a Curtiss N-9 seaplane flown by U. S. Coast Guard Lieutenant Stanley Parker. About three months later, on 18 December, Naval Air Base Key West was commissioned and LT Parker became the first Commanding Officer, Naval Air Base Key West pilots flew in search of German submarines resting on the surface to recharge batteries. The aircraft was armed only with a machine gun. The slow Curtiss biplanes flew low over surfaced subs, and gunners dropped grenades into open conning towers, Naval aviation antisubmarine warfare was beginning to prove itself in combat. The base was used for antisubmarine patrol operations and as an elemental flight training station. After World War I, the base was decommissioned and its personnel were transferred or released, most of the buildings were destroyed or dismantled and moved to other locations. The remaining facilities were used only occasionally during 1920–1930 for seaplane training, the station remained inactive until 1939. This set the stage for Americas entry into World War II, Naval Base Key West was reopened just prior to the United States entry into World War II to support Navy destroyers, submarines, patrol craft and PBY flying boat and amphibious aircraft. By 1943, German submarines were operating so near Key West that they were sinking allied ships within sight of land, submarine raids peaked in May of that year, when 49 ships were torpedoed off the coast of Florida
25.
Naval Air Station Jacksonville
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Naval Air Station Jacksonville is a military airport, eight miles south of the central business district of Jacksonville, Florida, United States. NAS Jacksonville and Naval Station Mayport are the two bases in Duval County. During World War I, the now occupied by NAS Jacksonville, often referred to colloquially as NAS Jax, was named Camp Joseph E. Johnston. The United States Army trained quartermasters and the center included more than 600 buildings, by 1918 Camp Johnston was the largest of all Quartermaster mobilization and training camps. The second largest rifle range in the U. S. was constructed there, the Florida National Guard began using the site in 1928 and it was renamed Camp J. Clifford R. Foster. Most of their names are lost to history, only two are known, Charles Bennett and Ira Lane. On the same date, Captain Charles P. Mason, USN, prior to the commissioning, on September 7, Commander Jimmy Grant became the first pilot to land on the still unfinished runway in his N3N-3 biplane. More than 10,000 pilots and 11,000 aircrewmen followed their lead to earn their wings of gold at the air station during World War II, increased training and construction characterized NAS Jacksonville’s response to America’s entry into World War II. Three runways over 6,000 feet long were operating, as were seaplane runways in the St. Johns River and seaplane ramps leading from the water. More than 700 buildings sprung to life on the base before V-J Day, including an 80-acre hospital, archbishop Francis J. Spellman dedicated the Catholic Chapel at its Birmingham Avenue location on January 17,1943. The chapel and other buildings constructed during the war years, intended for a life of only 20 years, are still in use, during the late 1940s, the jet age was dawning and in 1948 the Navy’s first jet carrier air groups and squadrons came to NAS Jacksonville. NAS Jacksonville continued growing throughout the late 1940s, Fleet Air Wing Eleven made its move to the base, bringing with it Patrol Squadron THREE from NAS Coco Solo, Panama and Patrol Squadron FIVE from NAS San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Blues would not return to the station for more than two years, in the early 1950s, Naval Air Technical Training Center Jacksonville was also reactivated and included nine different schools. In the mid-1950s, an air control center for joint use by the Navy, Air Force. Major changes also occurred as parking ramps were added shore-based aircraft hangars, by the mid-1950s, with the stations continuing growth, the Navy was having a tremendous impact on the economic growth in the Jacksonville and Duval County area. The station had over 11,000 military personnel assigned, along with 5,000 civilians, vMA-142 would remain at NAS Jax until its relocation to nearby NAS Cecil Field in 1978. These squadrons consisted of Attack Squadron TWO ZERO THREE, Patrol Squadron SIXTY-TWO, in 1973, with the assignment of Helicopter Antisubmarine Wing One, the station’s primary mission became antisubmarine warfare. Accompanying the wing were five helicopter squadrons which are based here today
26.
NAS Pensacola
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Naval Air Station Pensacola or NAS Pensacola, The Cradle of Naval Aviation, is a United States Navy base located next to Warrington, Florida, a community southwest of the Pensacola city limits. Because of contamination by metals and other hazardous materials during this history. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps and U. S. Coast Guard, the NATTC facility at NAS Pensacola is also home to the USAF Detachment 1, a GSU whose home unit is the 359th TRS located at Eglin AFB. Detachment 1 trains over 800 Airmen annually in three structural maintenance disciplines, Low Observable, Non-Destructive Inspection, and Aircraft Structural Maintenance. TRAWING SIX consists of the Training Squadron 4 Warbucks, Training Squadron 10 Wildcats and Training Squadron 86 Sabrehawks, flying the T-45C Goshawk, the 479 FTG is a tenant activity at NAS Pensacola and a geographically separated unit of the 12th Flying Training Wing at Randolph AFB, Texas. The 479 FTG operates USAF T-6A Texan II and T-1A Jayhawk aircraft, a total of 131 aircraft operate out of Sherman Field, generating 110,000 flight operations each year. The site now occupied by NAS Pensacola has been controlled by varying nations, in 1559, Spanish explorer Don Tristan de Luna founded a colony on Santa Rosa Island, considered the first European settlement of the Pensacola area. The Spanish built the wooden Fort San Carlos de Austria on this bluff in 1697-1698, although besieged by Indians in 1707, the fort was not taken. Spain was competing in North America with the French, who settled lower Louisiana, the French destroyed this fort when they captured Pensacola in 1719. After Great Britain defeated the French in the Seven Years War and exchanging some territory with Spain, British colonists took over this site, in 1781, as an ally of the American rebels during the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish captured Pensacola. Britain ceded West Florida to Spain following the war, the Spanish completed the fort San Carlos de Barrancas in 1797. Barranca is a Spanish word for bluff, the natural feature that makes this location ideal for the fortress. Pensacola was taken by General Andrew Jackson in November 1814 during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States, British forces destroyed Fort San Carlos as they swept through the area. The Spanish remained in control of the region until 1821, when the Adams-Onís Treaty confirmed the purchase of Spanish Florida by the United States, in 1825, the US designated this area for the Pensacola Navy Yard was designated and Congress appropriated $6,000 for a lighthouse. Operational that year, it is said to be haunted by a light keeper murdered by his wife, Fort Barrancas was rebuilt, 1839-1844, the U. S. Army deactivating it on 15 April 1947. Designated a National Historic Site in 1960, control of the site was transferred to the National Park Service in 1971, after extensive restoration during 1971-1980, Fort Barrancas was opened to the public. Navy captains William Bainbridge, Lewis Warrington, and James Biddle selected the site on Pensacola Bay, Construction began in April 1826, and the Pensacola Navy Yard, also known as the Warrington Navy Yard, became one of the best equipped naval stations in the country. Pensacola Navy Yard was built with enslaved labor, Captain Lewis Warrington The first Commandant of the Pensacola Navy Yard complained to the Board of Navy Commissioners “neither laborers nor mechanics are to be obtained here
27.
Dassault Falcon 20
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The Dassault Falcon 20 is a French business jet. It was the first of a family of business jets built by Dassault Aviation, marcel Dassault gave the go-ahead for production of an eight- or ten-seat executive jet or military liaison aircraft the Dassault-Breguet Mystère 20 in December 1961. The Mystère 20 was a monoplane with two rear-mounted Pratt & Whitney JT12A-8 engines. The prototype, registered F-WLKB, first flew on 4 May 1963 at Bordeaux-Merignac, under the influence of Pan American the aircraft was re-engined with two General Electric CF700 engines and some dimensions were increased. Pan American signed a contract to distribute the Mystère 20 in the western hemisphere, the re-engined aircraft first flew on 10 July 1964. The first production aircraft flew on 1 January 1965 and both French and American certification was awarded in June 1965. On 10 June 1965, Jacqueline Auriol set the world record speed in the first Mystère 20 prototype, F-WLKB. This prototype was used in the 1966 comedy How to Steal a Million, starring Audrey Hepburn, deliveries began to the Pan American outfitting facility at Burbank Airport, California. In 1966 the company redesignated the American-delivered aircraft as the Fan Jet Falcon, military orders from Australia and Canada were received. All non-American aircraft were fitted out before delivery at Bordeaux-Merignac, in 1967 Pan American Business Jets Division, a business unit of Pan American World Airways, increased their firm orders to 160 aircraft. Some Falcon 20s powered by General Electric CF700 engines were re-engined with Garrett TFE731 engines under AMD-BA Service Bulletin No.731 and these aircraft were redesignated with a -5 after the model number. Volpar, Inc. worked on a program to reengine Falcon 20s with the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW305 engines and this modification is commonly used to modify Falcon 20s to operate as special mission aircraft with underwing stores. The improved Falcon 200 featured more advanced jet engines and other improvements to increase range, capacity. The aircraft proved to be so popular that production did not end until 1988, the Falcon 20G, HU-25 and Falcon 200 were powered by Garrett ATF3 engines. A total of 473 Falcon 20s and 35 Falcon 200s were built by the production ended in 1988. In 2012, a Falcon 20 became the first civil jet to fly on 100% biofuel when it performed a test flight for Canadas National Research Council. In 2013, the FAA modified 14 CFR part 91 rules to prohibit the operation of jets weighing 75,000 pounds or less that were not Stage 3 noise compliant after 31 December 2015, the Falcon 20 was listed explicitly in Federal Register 78 FR39576. 14 CFR §91.883 Special flight authorizations for jet airplanes weighing 75,000 pounds or less - lists special flight authorizations that may be granted for operation after 31 December 2015
28.
Lockheed HC-130
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The HC-130H Hercules and HC-130J Hercules versions are operated by the United States Coast Guard in a SAR and maritime reconnaissance role. The HC-130P Combat King and HC-130J Combat King II models are operated by the United States Air Force for long-range SAR and CSAR, in this latter role, they are primarily used to extend the range and endurance of combat search and rescue helicopters. In July 2015, it was announced that the U. S. Forest Service will be receiving some of the U. S, the United States Coast Guard was the first recipient of the HC-130 variant. Six USCG HC-130E aircraft were produced in 1964, but production switched to the new C-130H platform which was entering service. The first HC-130H flew on 8 December 1964 and the USCG still operates this aircraft, first flown in 1964, the USAF HC-130P Combat King aircraft has served many roles and missions. They were also modified to employ the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, although this system has since been discontinued. The HC-130N was an order without the Fulton recovery system. The aircraft can routinely fly low-level NVG tactical flight profiles to avoid detection, other capabilities are extended visual and electronic searches over land or water, tactical airborne radar approaches and unimproved airfield operations. A team of three Pararescuemen, trained in emergency medicine, harsh environment survival and assisted evasion techniques, is part of the basic mission crew complement. HC-130P/N aircraft of the Combat Air Forces are currently undergoing extensive modifications, like their USAF counterparts, USCG HC-130s also have the capability of air dropping rescue equipment to survivors at sea or over open terrain. The MC-130P Combat Shadow series of aircraft initially entered service in December 1965 during the Vietnam War as the HC-130H CROWN airborne controller, the CROWN airborne controllers located downed aircrew and directed Combat Search and Rescue operations over North Vietnam. In February 1996, AFSOCs 28-aircraft tanker fleet was redesignated the MC-130P Combat Shadow, at the same time as this redesignation, USAF continued to field HC-130P/N aircraft as dedicated CSAR platforms under the Air Combat Command. The new HC-130J aircraft are derived from the Lockheed Martin KC-130J tanker operated by the U. S. Marine Corps, the USCG has six HC-130Js in service, but they are not capable of refueling helicopters in flight. The first delivery of this variant to the United States Coast Guard was in October 2003, the first of these modified Coast Guard HC-130Js was delivered in March 2008. The HC-130J Combat King II is also capable of itself being refueled in flight by boom-equipped tankers, Lockheed Martin officials conducted the first flight of the USAF HC-130J version on 29 July 2010. The first HC-130J was delivered to the USAF in September 2010, the HC-130J personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft’s refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production and this test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. The first HC-130J was delivered to the 563d Rescue Group at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, the Coast Guard also currently operates an additional 6 HC-130J aircraft from CGAS Elizabeth City, North Carolina
29.
National Museum of the United States Air Force
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The National Museum of the United States Air Force is the official museum of the United States Air Force located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,6 miles northeast of Dayton, Ohio. The NMUSAF has one of the worlds largest collections with more than 360 aircraft, the museum draws more than 1 million visitors each year, making it one of the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum dates to 1923, when the Engineering Division at Daytons McCook Field first collected technical artifacts for preservation, in 1927, it moved to then-Wright Field in a laboratory building. In 1932, the collection was named the Army Aeronautical Museum, in 1948, the collection remained private as the Air Force Technical Museum. In 1954, the Air Force Museum became public and was housed in its first permanent facility, Building 89 of the former Patterson Field in Fairborn, many of its aircraft were parked outside and exposed to the weather. It remained there until 1971, when the current facility opened. Not including its annex on Wright Field proper, the museum has more than tripled in square footage since 1971, with the addition of a hangar in 1988, a third in 2003. The museum announced a new name for the facility in October 2004, the former name, United States Air Force Museum, changed to National Museum of the United States Air Force. The museum is a component of the National Aviation Heritage Area. The museums collection contains many rare aircraft of historical or technological importance, in 2010, the museum launched its 360-degree Virtual Tour, allowing most aircraft and exhibits to be viewed online. The museum has several Presidential aircraft, including those used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The centerpiece of the aircraft collection is SAM26000, a modified Boeing 707 known as a VC-137C, used regularly by Presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson. This aircraft took President and Mrs. Kennedy to Dallas on November 22, vice President Johnson was sworn in as president aboard it shortly after the assassination, and the aircraft then carried Kennedys body back to Washington. It became the presidential aircraft after Nixons first term. It was temporarily removed from display on December 5,2009, all presidential aircraft are now displayed in the Presidential Gallery, in the new fourth building. A large section of the museum is dedicated to pioneers of flight, especially the Wright Brothers, a replica of the Wrights 1909 Military Flyer is on display, as well as other Wright brothers artifacts. The building also hosts the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which includes educational exhibits. The museum has many pieces of U. S. Army Air Forces and U. S. Air Force clothing, at any time, more than 50 World War II-vintage A-2 leather flying jackets are on display, many of which belonged to famous figures in Air Force history
30.
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
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Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base and census-designated place just east of Dayton, Ohio, in Greene and Montgomery counties. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot, Patterson Field is approximately 10 miles northeast of Dayton, Wright Field is approximately 5 miles northeast of Dayton. The host unit at Wright-Patterson AFB is the 88th Air Base Wing, assigned to the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center and Air Force Materiel Command. The bases origins begin with the establishment of Wilbur Wright Field on 22 May and McCook Field in November 1917, McCook was used as a testing field and for aviation experiments. Wright was used as a field, Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot, armorers’ school. McCooks functions were transferred to Wright Field when it was closed in October 1927, Wright-Patterson AFB was established in 1948 as a merger of Patterson and Wright Fields. In 1995, negotiations to end the Bosnian War were held at the resulting in the Dayton Agreement that ended the war. The 88th Air Base Wing is commanded by Col. John M. Devillier Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant John M. Mazza, the base had a total of 27,406 military, civilian and contract employees in 2010. The Greene County portion of the base is a census-designated place, Wright-Patterson AFB is one of the largest, most diverse, and organizationally complex bases in the Air Force with a long history of flight tests spanning from the Wright Brothers into the Space Age. It is the headquarters of the Air Force Materiel Command, one of the commands of the Air Force. It is also the base of the 445th Airlift Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command. Wright-Patterson is also the headquarters of the Aeronautical Systems Center and the Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson is the host of the annual United States Air Force Marathon which occurs the weekend closest to the Air Forces anniversary. The Wing reports to the Aeronautical Systems Center, a major development and their flight exhibition company and the Wright Company School of Aviation returned 1910–1916 to use the flying field. In 1918, Wilbur Wright Field agreed to let McCook Field use hangar and shop space as well as its enlisted mechanics to assemble, after World War I,347 German aircraft were brought to the United States—some were incorporated into the Army Aeronautical Museum. The training school at Wilbur Wright Field was discontinued, Wilbur Wright Field and the depot merged after World War I to form the Fairfield Air Depot. In 1924, the Committee presented the deeds to president Calvin Coolidge for the construction of a new engineering center. The entire acreage was designated Wright Field, which had such as the Headquarters, 5th Division Air Service. New facilities were built 1925–27 on the portion of Wright Field west of Huffman Dam to house all of the McCook Field functions being relocated, on 1 July 1931, the portion of Wright Field east of Huffman Dam was redesignated Patterson Field in honor of Lieutenant Frank Stuart Patterson
31.
National Naval Aviation Museum
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The Phase I portion of the current facility was dedicated Sunday 13 April 1975, although it had been informally open since November 1974. Construction of the new location began in November 1972, the museum is devoted to the history of naval aviation, including that of the United States Navy, the United States Marine Corps, and the United States Coast Guard. Its mission is to select, collect, preserve and display” appropriate memorabilia representative of the development, growth and these historic and one-of-a-kind aircraft are displayed both inside the Museums 300,000 square feet of exhibit space and outside on the Museums 37-acre grounds. In a similar manner to U. S, in addition to the displays, the museum operates an IMAX theatre, museum store, and cafe. The Cubi Point Café is itself an exhibit as it displays squadron memorabilia from the closed NAS Cubi Point Officers Club. Also the museum is the home of the National Flight Academy, the Academy is currently planning a 245, 000-square-foot expansion to the museum which would add classroom and dormitory space for the students during their stay. The museum is open 9,00 am to 5,00 pm every day except Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Day, parking and admission to the museum are free, though donations are welcome. Some exhibits inside the museum, such as the theatre, charge separate admission, practice demonstrations by the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels, may be viewed from the museum most Tuesday and Wednesday mornings between March and November. These practices are weather permitting, and a tentative practice schedule may be viewed on the Blue Angels’ website. Captain Robert L. Rasmussen, a retired Navy captain, former Navy fighter pilot and former Blue Angel demonstration pilot, was the former director and he hand-sculpted many of the statues and painted many of the watercolor and oil paintings in the museum as well. He retired in 2014 and was replaced by Captain Sterling Gilliam, Pacific Aviation Museum, US Pacific Fleet and Japanese aviation, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
32.
Otis Air National Guard Base
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It was previously known as Otis Air Force Base prior to its transfer from the active duty Air Force to the Air National Guard. In the local community, it is commonly known as Otis Air Base or simply Otis. It is also called by its old name, Otis Air Force Base. It was named in honor of pilot and Boston surgeon, Lt. Frank Jesse Otis, today major units include the Coast Guard Air Station Cape Cod and the 102nd Intelligence Wing. Otis Air National Guard Base is named for pilot, flight surgeon and he was a member of the 101st Observation Squadron who was killed on 11 January 1937 when his Douglas O-46A crashed at Hennepin, Illinois, while on a cross-country training mission. In 1938, the field area at Camp Edwards was named Otis Field in his memory. Ten years later the base was renamed Otis Air Force Base in his honor, until 1973, it was the largest Aerospace Defense Command base in the world and is the only base named for a doctor. During World War II, the field was known as Naval Auxiliary Air Facility Otis and was a field for Naval Air Station Quonset Point. During the Cold War, the base was a key Aerospace Defense Command installation, the 551st flew the EC-121 Warning Star before moving to Hanscom Air Force Base in 1969. The 551st was also the first Air Force wing to fly the EC-121, the 33rd flew various fighter jets in conjunction with the 60th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. The expanding mission led to the runways being lengthened in 1960, the base was also home to the 26th Air Defense Missile Squadron, which operated BOMARC surface-to-air missiles. The regular air force began leaving Otis in the late 1960s as improvements in radar made the 551st more costly compared to newer technologies. The 551st and the 60th left Otis when the Air Force began to move the air defense mission over to the Air National Guard. Strategic Air Command maintained the 19th Air Refueling Squadron at Otis AFB flying the KC-97 Stratofreighter, after active duty units left, the Massachusetts Air National Guards 102d Fighter Wing became the main unit at the base, flying fighter and air defense missions. The Wings 101st Tactical Fighter Squadron shared missions with the 33rd Tactical Fighter Wing during the Cold War, in 1987, the 102 FW transitioned to the F-15A Eagle, and, later, to the F-15C Eagle. The base was utilized as a stopover for a French Air Force Mirage IV on the way to French Polynesia for Operation Tamoure. Following the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission, the 102 FW was directed to transfer its F-15 aircraft to its sister unit, all F-15 aircraft were transferred by January 2008 and the 102 FW was redesignated as the 102d Intelligence Wing, a non-flying unit. President John F. Kennedy used Otis on many occasions for the landing of Air Force One when he traveled to the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis and he would then board an Army or Marine Corps helicopter which would then take him to the compound
33.
Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
34.
Continental Micronesia
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Continental Micronesia, Inc. was a company which was a wholly owned subsidiary of Continental Airlines. It operated daily flights to Honolulu, Hawaii, as well as services to Asia, Micronesia and Australia from its base of operations at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport on Guam, a U. S. territory in the western Pacific Ocean, during its final years, the airline, a Delaware corporation, was headquartered in the old terminal building at Won Pat International Airport and in Tamuning, Guam. This step was intended to simplify future integration steps between Continental and United, the callsign, ICAO and IATA codes were changed to reflect the new operating certificate. As of 2012 the Continental Micronesia employee group, now a subset of United Continental Holdings, had 1,222 employees, in airport terminals, Continental Micronesia flights were listed separately with its IATA code CS. During the final decade, three airports had both Air Mike and mainline Continental present, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Honolulu, service was started with a Boeing 727-100, number 475, which was nicknamed Ju-Ju, and a Douglas DC-6. It also operated two Grumman SA-16/ HU-16 Albatross amphibians to fly from Chuuk to Pohnpei, until an airfield could be built that could accommodate the 727, the 727s underside was coated with teflon, due to it having to operate on coral runways. Additionally, the plane had to spare parts and a mechanic, as well as open-water survival gear and onboard doppler radar. By 1983, Continental Micronesia was operating all-passenger Boeing 727-100 and 727-200 aircraft in addition to mixed passenger/freight 727-100 Combi aircraft from its Guam hub. William H. Stewart added that the jets distorted the travelers impression of time and distance, the airline had a virtual monopoly in the Micronesia region. In the 1970s, each district that the airline flew to had an entirely Micronesian employee base, with the exception of Saipan, william H. Stewart of the Saipan Tribune said the airline was the only travel link many had with the world beyond the horizon. In the early 1980s the airline started service from Guam to Japan, as Continentals share and roles in Air Mike changed, the airlines name became Continental Air Micronesia. Before being headquartered in Guam, Continental Micronesia was headquartered in Saipan, as time passed, the airlines Saipan traffic decreased due to the 1986 breakup of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which was subdivided into smaller political units. Because of the breakup, fewer people needed to travel to Saipan, by 2003 the Guam International Airport Authority moved commuter airlines out of Antonio B. Won Pat International Airports Commuter Terminal and leased the facility to Continental. As of 2004 most of the employees were Guam-based, due to the location of the corporate headquarters. By 2005 Continental Micronesias business on the island of Saipan had decreased, as of January 2008, Continental Micronesia employed 1,500 people and was Guams largest private-sector employer. It operated 236 departures each week between 23 cities, massachusetts-based Cape Air began services in the Mariana Islands under the Continental Connection banner on July 1,2004
35.
Rolls-Royce Dart
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The Rolls-Royce RB.53 Dart is a long-lived British turboprop engine designed, built and manufactured by Rolls-Royce Limited. First run in 1946 it powered the first Vickers Viscount maiden flight in 1948 and in the Viscount was the first turboprop engine to enter service, with British European Airways. On 29 July 1948 a flight between Northolt and Paris–Le Bourget Airport with 14 paying passengers in a Dart-powered Viscount was the first scheduled flight by any turbine-powered aircraft. The Dart was still in production when the last Fokker F27 Friendships, following the company convention for naming gas turbine engines after rivers, this turboprop design was named after the River Dart. Improvements in design led to the Dart RDa.3 of 1,400 shp which went into production for the Viscount in 1952. The RDa.6 increased this rating to 1,600 shp, later Darts were rated up to 3,245 ehp and the Dart remained in production until 1987, some 7,100 having been produced and the engine type having flown some 170 million flying hours. The Dart was also produced under licence in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, haworth and his team later went on to design and develop the Rolls-Royce Tyne. As well as the RB.53 designation each mark of Dart engine was allocated a Ministry of Supply RDa. n number as well as Mk. numbers. Mk.506 Mk.510 Mk.511 Mk.514 Mk.520 Mk.525 Mk.526 Mk.527 Mk.528 Mk.529 Mk.530 Mk.531 Mk.551 Mk.552 Mk.540 Mk. The list includes, Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy, Medium-range transport Avro 748, manufactured version of the Fokker F27 Friendship. The original model on which several other airliners where based, Grumman Gulfstream I, Executive transport & small airliner. Includes the stretched Grumman Gulfstream I-C, handley Page Dart Herald, Small airliner Hawker Siddeley Andover, Military transport NAMC YS-11, Short/medium range airliner Some Douglas DC-3 transport aircraft have been upgraded to use Darts. DC-3s in BEA service with this update were called Pionairs, another conversion is the Conroy Turbo Three. Power output was around 1,500 hp in early versions, Some versions of the engine were fitted with water methanol injection, which acted as a power restorative in hot and high conditions. A Rolls-Royce Dart is on display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford. Two Dart engines are on display at Brooklands Museum, Weybridge, Surrey, a Rolls-Royce Dart is on public display at the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, James A. Allison Exhibition in Indianapolis. A Rolls-Royce Dart is on display at the Gatwick Aviation Museum. A Rolls-Royce Dart is on display at the National Air
36.
Chalk's International Airlines
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It operated scheduled seaplane services to the Bahamas. Its main base was Miami Seaplane Base until 2001, with a hub at Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, on September 30,2007, the United States Department of Transportation revoked the flying charter for the airline, and later that year, the airline ceased operations. The airline was founded by Arthur Pappy Chalk, and started charter operations as the Red Arrow Flying Service in 1917. Chalks first base was an umbrella on the Miami shore of Biscayne Bay. In 1926 a landfill island, Watson Island, was created in Biscayne Bay close to Miami, Chalks built an air terminal there, and operated from the island for the next 75 years. During Prohibition, Chalks was a source of alcohol smuggled from the Bahamas to the United States. Pappy Chalk sold the airline to a friend in 1966, and he died in 1977 at the age of 88. By 1985 three of Chalks eight Grumman Mallards had been converted, with five ex-military piston engined Grumman Albatross aircraft making up the balance of the fleet, the television show Miami Vice, a symbol of both Miami and the 1980s, featured a Chalks seaplane in its opening credits. The music video for George Michaels Careless Whisper featured a Chalks seaplane, in one of the final scenes of the motion picture Silence of the Lambs, Dr Frederick Chilton is seen disembarking a Chalks aircraft in Bimini, where Hannibal Lecter is waiting to have him for dinner. A Chalks plane also makes an appearance at the end of the movie After The Sunset with Pierce Brosnan, Chalks fleet was as high-maintenance as it was glamorous. It was a carrier, its Watson Island base being the smallest port of entry in the United States. Chalks revenues were about $7.5 million in 1986, when it carried 130,000 passengers, most were staying at Resorts International properties, although island residents used the airline for shopping trips to Miami. United expanded Chalks service to Key West, Florida, and Nassau and acquired additional aircraft, in 1996, United sold Chalks to a group of investors, who operated the airline under the name Pan Am Air Bridge. James Confalone, a businessman and former Eastern Airlines pilot, purchased Chalks out of bankruptcy for $925,000 on August 2,1999, Confalone bought five additional Grumman Mallard seaplanes and arranged a contract to buy 14 larger Grumman G-111 seaplanes to expand the operation. On December 17,1999, the airline was relaunched as Chalks Ocean Airways, in late 2001 following the September 11 attacks, Chalks was forced to leave its longtime operations base on Watson Island due to security concerns over its proximity to the Port of Miami. Helicopter traffic had increased around Watson Island. Operations moved to Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, where Chalks already had its maintenance base, the airline suspended operations after the crash of Chalks Ocean Airways Flight 101 on December 19,2005. It resorted to using wet leased from and operated by Big Sky Airlines to operate flights from Fort Lauderdale to Key West and to St. Petersburg
37.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
38.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
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Hiller Aviation Museum
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The Hiller Aviation Museum is an aircraft history museum located at the San Carlos Airport in San Carlos, California. The museum was founded by Stanley Hiller in June 1998. and is endowed by members of the Hiller family and it specializes in Northern California aircraft history and helicopter history. The museum is also an affiliate within the Smithsonian Affiliations program and this museum has more than 50 aerospace vehicles along with companion descriptive displays concerning the history of flight. A Grumman Albatross HU-16RD that flew around the world, the NASA AD-1 oblique wing research aircraft. Coleopter List of aerospace museums Fact Sheet Stanley Van Winkle Hiller 1888-1968 Hiller Aviation Museum, Fascinating Family Fun Hiller Aviation Museum official website
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Boulder City, Nevada
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Boulder City is a city in Clark County, Nevada. It is approximately 26 miles southeast of Las Vegas, as of the 2010 census, the population of Boulder City was 15,023. Boulder City is one of two cities in Nevada that prohibits gambling. The land upon which Boulder City was founded was a harsh and its sole reason for existence was the need to house workers contracted to build the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Men hoping for work on the dam project had begun settling along the river in tents soon after the site for the dam had been chosen by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1930. Their ramshackle edifices were collectively known as Ragtown, Boulder City was originally built in 1931 by the Bureau of Reclamation and Six Companies, Inc. as housing for workers who were building the Hoover Dam. The sheer scale of the dam and duration of the project required the Bureau of Reclamation to consider the construction of a semi-permanent town rather than a temporary arrangement, Boulder City was exceptionally rare as an example of a town fully planned under government supervision. This is unlike 19th century privately funded company town examples found in the United Kingdom, such as Port Sunlight, or in the United States, such as Pullman, Chicago. Boulder City was carefully planned through federal supervision as a model community, DeBoer had been a planner for Denver, Colorado, and was to design many towns and suburbs around the Rocky Mountain region. There was to be an emphasis on an environment for dam workers. The plan submitted by DeBoer in 1930 was formal and symmetrical with a park, the plan was deemed too expensive to carry out in its original form and was modified to allow for more regular block sizes. Nevertheless, its allowance for public space and copious amounts of landscaping earned it the moniker Nevadas Garden City, the provision of green landscape was another expression of the Bureau of Reclamations mission to reclaim and green the American West. The town was designed to house approximately 5,000 workers, the status of the workers on the Hoover Dam was reflected in their house sizes and locations. The most important employees had their residences on top of the nearer the apex. Managers were housed further down the hill, and dwellings for manual laborers were located furthest away from the public buildings, the most radically modified portions of DeBoers plan were in these lower-class residential blocks, where open space and parks were largely eliminated. Commercial development was restricted and severely regulated under Sims Ely, the city manager, there were limits to the number of different types of stores allowed in the city, and all who wished to begin a business were screened for character and financial viability. On the other hand, there was no provision for schools in the burgeoning city, the town made do with makeshift schoolrooms until the city won the right for state-funded schools to be established on the federal reservation upon which Boulder City was situated. No hospitals were provided in the city either, injured workers had to travel 33 miles to Las Vegas Hospital, and when a hospital was established in the city, females were not admitted for a number of years
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Naval Air Station Patuxent River
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Naval Air Station Patuxent River, also known as NAS Pax River, is a United States naval air station located in St. Marys County, Maryland, on the Chesapeake Bay near the mouth of the Patuxent River. Commissioned on 1 April 1943, on land acquired through eminent domain. The Cedar Point community included several churches, a post office, some of the old homes now serve as quarters for Navy personnel stationed there. C. and the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Cedar Point was selected due to its location on the coastline, well removed from air traffic congestion. The onset of American involvement in World War II spurred establishment of the new air station, rear Admiral John Henry Towers, Chief of Bureau of Aeronautics, requested approval and authorization to begin construction on December 22,1941. Secretary of the Navy, Frank Knox, gave approval on 7 January 1942, many residents were forced to sell land that had been in their families for generations. Some families had roots in the going back 300 years. These included traditional farming, crabbing and fishing families and there were protests, National wartime urgency was however felt in Washington at the time to take precedence, and the process of eminent domain went through. Rail service ended in 1965, and the line was subsequently scrapped, a highway extension to the new air station was required by the project—250,000 tons of material were transported by either truck or water routes during a year of construction. Marines first arrived and took over security, during construction, housing needs far outstripped supply, and barracks were built for workers on the station. The station was formally commissioned U. S. Naval Air Station, Patuxent River, in a ceremony presided over by RADM John S. McCain, Sr. then chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Patuxent River was referred to as the most needed station in the Navy. The base also served as the facility for the V-22 Osprey. VQ-4 provided long-range, very-low-frequency communications relay between the National Command Center and the ballistic missile submarine fleet, cooperation with the British also led to transatlantic visits to PAX River by RAF squadrons. Research and development at NAS Patuxent River forged ahead in the 1970s, helicopter programs also achieved major milestones during the 1970s. The Naval Air Test Center at NAS Patuxent River took part in development and testing for new roles. The final flight of the acceptance trials for the Bell AH-1 SuperCobra gunship were made at NATC Patuxent River. On 1 April 1976, Patuxent Rivers air field was named after pioneering aviator VADM Frederick M. Trapnell, keynote address speaker, ADM Frederick H. Michaelis, Chief of Naval Material, noted, All who fly in Navy blue remain indebted to Vice Admiral Trapnell. This field will serve as a reminder of that debt
42.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
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Argentine Air Force
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The Argentine Air Force is the national aviation branch of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic. In 2010 it had 14,600 military personnel and 6,900 civilian personnel, the Air Forces history begins with the establishment of the Army Aviation Services Escuela de Aviación Militar on 10 August 1912. Several military officers were amongst the pioneers of Argentine aviation, including Jorge Newbery, the school began to turn out military pilots who participated in milestone events in Argentine aviation, such as the crossing of the Andes mountains. In 1927 the Dirección General de Aeronáutica was created to coordinate the military aviation. In that same year the Fábrica Militar de Aviones, which would become the heart of the aviation industry, was founded in Córdoba. By 1938–39 Argentinas air power had about 3,200 staff, about 150 of these were operated by the army and included Dewoitine D. In addition, a number of Avro Lincoln and Avro Lancaster bombers were acquired, also locally developed aircraft, like the I. Ae. 22 DL trainer and the I. Ae,24 Calquin tactical bomber, were added to the inventory. In the 1960s new aircraft were incorporated, including the F-86 Sabre fighter, during the 1970s the Air Force re-equipped itself with modern aircraft, including Mirage III interceptors, IAI Dagger multi-role fighters, and C-130 Hercules cargo planes. A counter-insurgency airplane, the Pucará, was used in substantial numbers. The Falklands War, took a toll on the Air Force. After the war, due to the economic situation, international opposition and political distrust of the military. This, coupled with diminishing budgets, led to a period of reduced activity, other equipment was bought,23 US Army surplus OV-1 Mohawks,22 Ex-Israeli IAI Dagger,2 C-130B and 1 Lockheed L-100-30. The FAA has been involved in United Nations peacekeeping missions around the world and they sent a Boeing 707 to the 1991 Gulf War. Since 1994 the UN Air contingent in Cyprus under UNFICYP mandate is provided by the FAA, the FAA has also since 2005 deployed Bell 212 helicopters to Haiti under MINUSTAH mandate. The possibility of purchasing surplus French Air Force Mirage 2000C fighters, since the 1990s the FAA has established good relations with its neighbours, the Brazilian and Chilean Air Forces. They annually meet, on a basis, in the joint exercises Cruzex in Brazil, Ceibo in Argentina. In 2007 an FAA FMA IA58 Pucará was converted to use a modified engine operating on soy-derived bio-jet fuel, the project, financed and directed by the Argentine Government, made Argentina the second nation in the world to propel an aircraft with biojet fuel
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Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
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Brazilian Air Force
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The Brazilian Air Force is the air branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces and one of the three national uniformed services. The FAB was formed when the Army and Navy air branch were merged into a military force initially called National Air Forces in 1941. Both air branches transferred their equipment, installations and personnel to the new force, the Brazilian Air Force is the largest air force in the Southern hemisphere and the second largest in the Americas after the United States Air Force. Together with these events the Brazilian strategists were also influenced by the theories of Giulio Douhet, Billy Mitchell and Hugh Montague Trenchard. The first public manifest to create a military air service came up in 1928 when an army Major called Lysias Rodrigues wrote an article called An urgent need. Two years later the French Military Mission, working for the Brazilian Army, the idea got more support when a group of Brazilian airmen came from Italy in 1934 and explained the advantages of having a military aviation unified. Also, the Spanish Revolution and the first movements of World War II at the end of the thirties showed the importance of Air power for military strategies, one of the main supporters of the plan to create an independent air arm was the then-president Getúlio Vargas. He organized a study group early in 1940 and the structure of the Ministry of Aeronautics was established the end of that year. This new governmental agency was responsible for the all aspects of the civil and military aviation including infrastructure, formally, the Ministry of Aeronautics was founded on January 20,1941 and so its military branch called National Air Forces, changed to Brazilian Air Force on May,22. The Army and Navy air branches were extinguished and all personnel, aircraft, installations, the Brazilian Air force made important contributions to the Allied war effort in World War II, especially as part of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force on the Italian front. From mid-1942 until the end of the war, the FAB also patrolled the Atlantic, on 31 July 1943 it claimed the German submarine U-199, which was located on the surface, off Rio de Janeiro, at 23°54′S 42°54′W. Two Brazilian aircraft, a PBY Catalina and a Lockheed Hudson, the Catalina, named Ärará, was captained by 2º Ten. -Av. Alberto M. Torres, and hit U-199 with depth charges, forty-nine of the crew were killed, although twelve Germans managed to escape, including the captain. This was possible due to the Catalina’s crew, who threw a lifeboat to the survivors, 1º Grupo de Aviação de Caça, which saw action in Italy, was formed on December 18,1943. The group had 350 men, including 43 pilots, the group was divided into four flights, Red, Yellow, Blue, and Green. The CO of the group and some officers were not attached to any specific flight, unlike the BEFs Army component, the 1º GAVCA had personnel who were experienced Brazilian Air Force pilots. One of them was Alberto M. Torres, who had piloted a PBY Catalina that had sunk U-199, the group trained for combat in Panama, where 2º Ten. -Av. Dante Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident, on May 11,1944, the group was declared operational and became active in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
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