1.
Arabic
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic
–
Arabic is the sole official language
Arabic
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
2.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
3.
Andalusia
–
Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
Andalusia
–
Map of the
Iberian peninsula dated 1770. The Kingdoms of
Jaén,
Córdoba and
Seville are collectively referred to under the name Andalucía, while the
Kingdom of Granada appears under its individual name.
Andalusia
–
Flag
Andalusia
–
Portrait of
Blas Infante, executed in
azulejos, located on the avenue in
Jerez de la Frontera named in his honor.
Andalusia
–
Andalusian firs,
Sierra de las Nieves
4.
Guadalmellato
–
The Guadalmellato is a 110.5 km long river in Andalusia, Spain. It is a right tributary to the Guadalquivir. The Guadalmellato River has two dams, the Guadalmellato flows roughly southwards for about 5 km into the San Rafael de Navallana Reservoir. Further downstream it meets the bank of the Guadalquivir just east of Alcolea. Part of the waters of the Guadalmellato are diverted before it flows into the Guadalquivir by means of a canal that runs parallel to the river, after flowing through Alcolea and parts of Córdoba town the canal ends near Villarrubia, a suburb of Córdoba. List of rivers of Spain List of Roman bridges Media related to Guadalmellato at Wikimedia Commons Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir
Guadalmellato
–
Puente Mocho bridge over the Guadalmellato near Alcolea, Córdoba.
5.
Seville
–
Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
Seville
–
Clockwise from top:
St. Mary of the See Cathedral and
Giralda,
Plaza de España in the
Maria Luisa Park,
Metropol Parasol, the Isabel II ("
Triana ") bridge and the
Torre del Oro.
Seville
–
Flag
Seville
–
View of the
Giralda from the Patio de Banderas (Courtyard of Flags), historic square with remains of Roman, Moorish and Castilian periods.
Seville
–
Cathedral of Saint Mary from Constitución Avenue
6.
Cazorla Range
–
Sierra de Cazorla is a mountain range of the Prebaetic System in the Jaén Province in Spain. It is named after the town of Cazorla and its highest point is the 1,847 m high Gilillo peak. This mountain range is located between the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra de Segura and Sierra del Pozo mountain ranges, the easiest route to reach it is from Cazorla town. The Santuario de la Virgen de Tíscar is a dedicated to the Virgin Mary located on a mountain pass in Sierra de Cazorla
Cazorla Range
–
Landscape in Sierra de Cazorla
7.
Quesada, Spain
–
Quesada is a town located in the province of Jaén, southern Spain. La Cañada de las Fuentes, which is in the municipality, is the headwaters of Guadalquivir. The Tíscar castle is in a state, but nearby is the Cueva del Agua, a cave where there is an impressive waterfall. The areas economy is agriculture-based, primarily on olives, there is an annual summer festival from August 23 until August 28. Sierra de Cazorla La Vila Joiosa, Spain
Quesada, Spain
–
Quesada
Quesada, Spain
–
Tíscar castle, located in Tíscar village
8.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Atlantic Ocean
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
9.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
10.
River
–
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
River
–
Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier,
Jasper National Park,
Alberta, Canada
River
–
The River Cam from the Green Dragon Bridge, Cambridge (United Kingdom)
River
–
Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta that has the classic Greek letter delta (Δ) shape after which river deltas were named.
River
–
A radar image of a 400-kilometre (250 mi) river of methane and ethane near the north pole of Saturn's moon
Titan
11.
Iberian Peninsula
–
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
Iberian Peninsula
–
Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula.
Iberian Peninsula
–
Iberian Peninsula and southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014
Iberian Peninsula
–
Map of Spain and Portugal, Atlas historique, dated approximately 1705–1739, of H.A. Chatelain.
Iberian Peninsula
–
An 18th-century map of the peninsula depicting various topographical features of the land, as published in Robert Wilkinson's General Atlas, circa 1794.
12.
Navigability
–
A body of water, such as a river, canal or lake, is navigable if it is deep, wide and slow enough for a vessel to pass or walk. Preferably there are few such as rocks or trees to avoid. High water speed may make a channel unnavigable, waters may be unnavigable because of ice, particularly in winter. Navigability depends on context, A small river may be navigable by craft, such as a motor boat or a kayak. Shallow rivers may be navigable by the installation of locks that increase and regulate water depth. Inland Water Transport Systems have been used for centuries in countries including India, China, Egypt, the Netherlands, the United States, Germany, China, and Bangladesh. In the Netherlands, IWT handles 46% of the nations inland freight, 32% in Bangladesh, 14% in the United States, what constitutes navigable waters can not be separated from the context in which the question is asked. Numerous federal agencies define jurisdiction based on navigable waters, including admiralty jurisdiction, pollution control, to the licensing of dams, the numerous definitions and jurisdictional statutes have created an array of case law specific to which context the question of navigability arises. Some of the most commonly discussed definitions are listed here, section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, approved 3 March 1899, prohibits the unauthorized obstruction of a navigable water of the U. S. For the purpose of establishing which river is public and therefore state-owned, if a river was considered navigable at the time of statehood, the land below the navigable water was conveyed to the state as part of the transportation network in order to facilitate commerce. Most states retained title to these rivers in trust for the public. Some states divested themselves of title to the land below navigable rivers, title to the lands submerged by smaller streams are considered part of the property through which the water flows and there is no public right to use private property. The scope of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission authority was granted under the Federal Power Act,1941, such authority is based on congressional authority to regulate commerce, it is not based exclusively on title to the riverbed or even navigability. Therefore, FERCs permitting authority extends to the flow from non-navigable tributaries in order to protect commerce downstream, also, the Clean Water Act has introduced the terms traditional navigable waters, and waters of the United States to define the scope of Federal jurisdiction under the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act expands a more limited jurisdiction beyond navigable waters sometimes extending limited federal jurisdiction under the Act over private property. S, Supreme Court decisions, Carabell v. United States and Rapanos v. United States. Finally, a water-body is presumed non-navigable with the burden of proof on the party claiming it is navigable, the U. S. Forest Service considers a waterbody not navigable until is adjudicated otherwise. See Whitewater v. Tidwell 770 F. 3d 1108, therefore, and public rights associated with navigability cannot be presumed to exist without a finding of navigability. Navigability is a term of art, which can lead to considerable confusion
Navigability
–
Navigation markers, entrance of
Fremantle harbour and the
Swan River, Western Australia
Navigability
–
Sunset on the
Intracoastal Waterway
Navigability
–
Port of Bratislava (Slovakia) at night.
13.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
14.
Sierra de Cazorla
–
Sierra de Cazorla is a mountain range of the Prebaetic System in the Jaén Province in Spain. It is named after the town of Cazorla and its highest point is the 1,847 m high Gilillo peak. This mountain range is located between the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra de Segura and Sierra del Pozo mountain ranges, the easiest route to reach it is from Cazorla town. The Santuario de la Virgen de Tíscar is a dedicated to the Virgin Mary located on a mountain pass in Sierra de Cazorla
Sierra de Cazorla
–
Landscape in Sierra de Cazorla
15.
Marsh
–
A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams and they are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds. If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs, Marshes provide a habitat for many species of plants, animals, and insects that have adapted to living in flooded conditions. The plants must be able to survive in wet mud with low oxygen levels, many of these plants therefore have aerenchyma, channels within the stem that allow air to move from the leaves into the rooting zone. Marsh plants also tend to have rhizomes for underground storage and reproduction, familiar examples include cattails, sedges, papyrus and sawgrass. Aquatic animals, from fish to salamanders, are able to live with a low amount of oxygen in the water. Some can obtain oxygen from the air instead, while others can live indefinitely in conditions of low oxygen, Marshes provide habitats for many kinds of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, waterfowl and aquatic mammals. Marshes have extremely high levels of production, some of the highest in the world. Marshes also improve water quality by acting as a sink to filter pollutants, Marshes are able to absorb water during periods of heavy rainfall and slowly release it into waterways and therefore reduce the magnitude of flooding. The pH in marshes tends to be neutral to alkaline, as opposed to bogs, Marshes differ depending mainly on their location and salinity. Both of these factors influence the range and scope of animal and plant life that can survive. The three main types of marsh are salt marshes, freshwater marshes, and freshwater marshes. These three can be found worldwide and each contains a different set of organisms, saltwater marshes are found around the world in mid to high latitudes, wherever there are sections of protected coastline. They are located close enough to the shoreline that the motion of the tides affects them and they flourish where the rate of sediment buildup is greater than the rate at which the land level is sinking. Salt marshes are dominated by specially adapted rooted vegetation, primarily salt-tolerant grasses, salt marshes are most commonly found in lagoons, estuaries, and on the sheltered side of shingle or sandspit. The currents there carry the fine particles around to the side of the spit. These locations allow the marshes to absorb the nutrients from the water running through them before they reach the oceans. Coastal development and urban sprawl has caused significant loss of these essential habitats, although considered a freshwater marsh, this form of marsh is affected by the ocean tides
Marsh
–
A marsh along the edge of a small river
Marsh
–
Marsh in shallow water on a lakeshore
Marsh
–
White water lilies are a typical marsh plant in European areas of deeper water.
Marsh
–
Many kinds of birds nest in marshes; this one is a
yellow-headed blackbird.
16.
Las Marismas
–
The Guadalquivir Marshes are a natural region of marshy lowlands on the lower Guadalquivir River. The Las Marismas zone forms a part of the province of Seville in Andalucia. The area includes parts of the municipalities of Isla Mayor, Los Palacios y Villafranca, La Puebla del Río, Utrera, Las Cabezas de San Juan and Lebrija. Approximately two millennia ago the wetlands comprised a large lagoon and estuary, known as Lacus Ligustinus in Latin, over time the lake silted up, gradually transforming into marshland. Nowadays the Guadalquivir wetland regions main economic activity is agriculture, specialising in the cultivation of rice, an area of about 400 km² is devoted to rice farming with an annual output of about 310,000 metric tonnes, equating to approximately 40% of Spains rice production. The wetland zone acts as a zone between the human settlements of the Guadalquivir region and Doñana National Park, a protected area of marshland, streams. Gulf of Cádiz Sanlúcar de Barrameda Coto de Doñana Sanlúcar Central Bureau for Tourism
Las Marismas
–
Landscape of Las Marismas with
rice fields in the
Isla Mayor area.
17.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
18.
Maghrebi Arabic
–
Maghrebi Arabic, or Maghrebi Darija, is the principal spoken language in the Maghreb region, including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its also called Western Arabic that includes Moroccan Arabic, Algerian Arabic, in Algeria, the Maghrebi as a colloquial language was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, and some textbooks exist. Speakers of Maghrebi call their language Derja, Derija or Darija and it is used as a spoken and sometimes as a written language for communication. Maghrebi Arabic is used as well in TV dramas and on advertising boards in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, the varieties of Maghrebi Arabic Darija have a significant degree of mutual intelligibility, specially between geographically adjacent ones but hardly between the Moroccan and Tunisian Darija. Conversely, the Moroccan Darija cannot be understood by Eastern Arabic speakers in general as it does derive from different substratums, a considerable number of linguists like Charles A. Ferguson, William Marçais and Abdou Elimam, tend to consider Maghrebi Arabic Darija as an independent language. Maghrebi dialects all use n- as the singular prefix on verbs, distinguishing them from Levantine dialects. Speakers frequently borrow words from French, Spanish and Italian and conjugate them according to the rules of Arabic with some exceptions, since it is not always written, there is no standard and it is free to change quickly and to pick up new vocabulary from neighbouring languages. This is somewhat similar to what happened to Middle English after the Norman conquest, linguistically, Siculo-Arabic and therefore its descendant Maltese are considered Maghrebi, but they are no longer mutually intelligible with the varieties spoken today in North Africa. When discussing modern languages, the word is given a geographic definition. It refers to any of the varieties of colloquial Maghrebi Arabic, for instance, Algerian Arabic would be referred as Dzayri and Tunisian Arabic as Tounsi, and Egyptian Arabic would be referred as Masri and Lebanese Arabic as Lubnani. Singer, Hans-Rudolf “Das Westarabische oder Maghribinische” in Wolfdietrich Fischer and Otto Jastrow Handbuch der arabischen Dialekte
Maghrebi Arabic
–
An overview of the different
Arabic dialects. Maghrebi varieties are shades of blue.
19.
Titus Livius
–
Livy and Augustuss wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations, although not related by blood. Livy was born as Titus Livius in Patavium in northern Italy, there is a debate about the year of Titus Livius birth,64 BC or more likely 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula. Patavium was a part of the province of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, in his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. Livy’s teen years were during the 40s BC, a time that coincided with the wars that were occurring throughout the Roman world. The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, a man called Asinius Pollio, had tried to bring Patavium into the camp of Marcus Antonius, the wealthier citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Therefore, Livy and the residents of Patavium did not end up supporting Marcus Antonius in his campaign for control over Rome. Later on, Asinius Pollio made a jibe at Livys patavinity and his jibe at Livy and his patavinity, however, may have been said because the city of Patavium had rejected Asinius Pollio, and he still harboured harsh feelings toward the city as a whole. Titus Livius probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent an amount of time in the city after this. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held any other governmental position and his elementary mistakes in military matters show that he was never a soldier. However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric and it seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life. He devoted a part of his life to his writings. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation and he was familiar with the emperor Augustus, formerly Octavian, and the imperial family. Octavian was one of the three men fighting for the control of Rome during the Civil Wars in the 40s BC, Octavian gained power after defeating Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra, and was later given the honorary name of Augustus. Considering that Augustus came to be known as the greatest Roman emperor in the eyes of the Romans and it is said that Livy was the one who encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC, to explore the writing of history during his childhood. Livy himself was married and had at least one daughter and one son, Livy’s most famous work was his history of Rome. In it he explains the history of the city of Rome. Because he was writing under the emperor Augustus, Livy’s history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome and he wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor
Titus Livius
–
Bust of Caesar Augustus from the
Musei Capitolini,
Rome
Titus Livius
–
Titus Livius (fictitious portrait)
20.
Tartessians
–
Tartessos or Tartessus was a semi-mythical harbor city and the surrounding culture on the south coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. It appears in sources from Greece and the Near East starting during the first millennium BC, herodotus, for example, describes it as beyond the Pillars of Heracles. Archaeological discoveries in the region have built up a picture of a widespread culture, identified as Tartessian. The Tartessians were rich in metal, in the 4th century BC the historian Ephorus describes a very prosperous market called Tartessos, with much tin carried by river, as well as gold and copper from Celtic lands. Trade in tin was very lucrative in the Bronze Age, since it is a component of true bronze and is comparatively rare. Herodotus refers to a king of Tartessos, Arganthonios, presumably named for his wealth in silver, the people from Tartessos became important trading partners of the Phoenicians, whose presence in Iberia dates from the 8th century BC and who nearby built a harbor of their own, Gadir. Several early sources, such as Aristotle, refer to Tartessos as a river, Aristotle claims that it rises from the Pyrene Mountain and flows out to sea outside the Pillars of Hercules, the modern Strait of Gibraltar. No such river traverses the Iberian peninsula, according to Pytheas, in the 4th century BC, as reported by Strabo in the 1st century AD, the Turduli occupied the area that was Tartessos which was the Baetis River. The river, which is the largest in Iberia and tidal, those of a day called Baetis and there are some who think that Tartessus was the ancient name of Carpia. The river known in his day as the Baetis is now the Guadalquivir, thus, Tartessos may be buried, Schulten thought, under the shifting wetlands. The river delta has gradually been blocked by a sandbar that stretches from the mouth of the Rio Tinto, near Palos de la Frontera, the area is now protected as the Parque Nacional de Doñana. In the 2nd century AD Appian thought that Karpessos was previously known as Tartessos, subsequent discoveries were widely reported, in September 1923 archaeologists discovered a Phoenician necropolis in which human remains were unearthed and stones found with illegible characters. It may have been colonized by the Phoenicians for trade because of its richness in metals, J. M. Luzón was the first to identify Tartessos with modern Huelva, based on discoveries made in the preceding decades. Alluvial tin was panned in Tartessian streams from an early date, the spread of a silver standard in Assyria increased its attractiveness. The invention of coinage in the 7th century BC spurred the search for bronze, henceforth trade connections, formerly largely in elite goods, assumed an increasingly broad economic role. By the Late Bronze Age, silver extraction in Huelva Province reached industrial proportions, pre-Roman silver slag is found in the Tartessian cities of Huelva Province. Cypriot and Phoenician metalworkers produced 15 million tons of pyrometallurgical residues at the vast dumps of Riotinto, tartessic artifacts linked with the Tartessos culture have been found, and many archaeologists now associate the lost city with Huelva. In excavations on spatially restricted sites in the center of modern Huelva, Huelva contains the largest accumulation of imported elite goods and must have been an important Tartessian center
Tartessians
–
Treasure of El Carambolo, exhibited in the
Archaeological Museum of Seville
Tartessians
–
Tartessos cultural area.
Tartessians
–
The Tartessian Fonte Velha inscription (Bensafrim, (Lagos))
21.
Turdetani
–
The Turdetani were an ancient pre-Roman people of the Iberian peninsula, living in the valley of the Guadalquivir, in what was to become the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica. Strabo considers them to have been the successors to the people of Tartessos, the Turdetani were in constant contact with their Greek and Carthaginian neighbors. Herodotus describes them as enjoying a civilized rule under a king, Arganthonios, the Turdetani are said to have possessed a written legal code and to have employed Celtiberian mercenaries to carry on their wars against Rome. Strabo notes that the Turdetani were the most civilized peoples in Iberia, after the end of the Second Punic War, the Turdetani rose against their Roman governor in 197 BCE. When Cato the Elder became consul in 195 BCE, he was given the command of the whole of Hispania, Cato first put down the rebellion in the northeast, then marched south and put down the revolt by the Turdetani, the least warlike of all the Hispanic tribes. Cato was able to return to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two provinces, turdus is the genus of the thrushes.17 and following sections
Turdetani
–
High-relief showing an Auletris (woman playing an
aulos). Ancient Iberian artwork sculpted in
limestone at the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BC. It is part of the so-called Sculptures of
Osuna,
Seville Province,
Andalusia,
Spain.
Turdetani
–
Approximate area where the Turdetani people lived
22.
Tartessus
–
Tartessos or Tartessus was a semi-mythical harbor city and the surrounding culture on the south coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. It appears in sources from Greece and the Near East starting during the first millennium BC, herodotus, for example, describes it as beyond the Pillars of Heracles. Archaeological discoveries in the region have built up a picture of a widespread culture, identified as Tartessian. The Tartessians were rich in metal, in the 4th century BC the historian Ephorus describes a very prosperous market called Tartessos, with much tin carried by river, as well as gold and copper from Celtic lands. Trade in tin was very lucrative in the Bronze Age, since it is a component of true bronze and is comparatively rare. Herodotus refers to a king of Tartessos, Arganthonios, presumably named for his wealth in silver, the people from Tartessos became important trading partners of the Phoenicians, whose presence in Iberia dates from the 8th century BC and who nearby built a harbor of their own, Gadir. Several early sources, such as Aristotle, refer to Tartessos as a river, Aristotle claims that it rises from the Pyrene Mountain and flows out to sea outside the Pillars of Hercules, the modern Strait of Gibraltar. No such river traverses the Iberian peninsula, according to Pytheas, in the 4th century BC, as reported by Strabo in the 1st century AD, the Turduli occupied the area that was Tartessos which was the Baetis River. The river, which is the largest in Iberia and tidal, those of a day called Baetis and there are some who think that Tartessus was the ancient name of Carpia. The river known in his day as the Baetis is now the Guadalquivir, thus, Tartessos may be buried, Schulten thought, under the shifting wetlands. The river delta has gradually been blocked by a sandbar that stretches from the mouth of the Rio Tinto, near Palos de la Frontera, the area is now protected as the Parque Nacional de Doñana. In the 2nd century AD Appian thought that Karpessos was previously known as Tartessos, subsequent discoveries were widely reported, in September 1923 archaeologists discovered a Phoenician necropolis in which human remains were unearthed and stones found with illegible characters. It may have been colonized by the Phoenicians for trade because of its richness in metals, J. M. Luzón was the first to identify Tartessos with modern Huelva, based on discoveries made in the preceding decades. Alluvial tin was panned in Tartessian streams from an early date, the spread of a silver standard in Assyria increased its attractiveness. The invention of coinage in the 7th century BC spurred the search for bronze, henceforth trade connections, formerly largely in elite goods, assumed an increasingly broad economic role. By the Late Bronze Age, silver extraction in Huelva Province reached industrial proportions, pre-Roman silver slag is found in the Tartessian cities of Huelva Province. Cypriot and Phoenician metalworkers produced 15 million tons of pyrometallurgical residues at the vast dumps of Riotinto, tartessic artifacts linked with the Tartessos culture have been found, and many archaeologists now associate the lost city with Huelva. In excavations on spatially restricted sites in the center of modern Huelva, Huelva contains the largest accumulation of imported elite goods and must have been an important Tartessian center
Tartessus
–
Treasure of El Carambolo, exhibited in the
Archaeological Museum of Seville
Tartessus
–
Tartessos cultural area.
Tartessus
–
The Tartessian Fonte Velha inscription (Bensafrim, (Lagos))
23.
Hispania
–
Hispania was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula. Under the Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, during the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Tarraconensis. Subsequently, the part of Tarraconensis was split off, first as Hispania Nova. The name, Hispania, was used in the period of Visigothic rule. The modern placenames Spain and Hispaniola are both derived from Hispania, one theory holds it to be of Punic derivation, from the Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage. Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate of Hebrew אי-שפניא meaning Island of the Hyrax or island of the hare or island of the rabbit. Others derive the word from Phoenician span, in the sense of hidden, and make it indicate a hidden, that is, Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis. Occasionally Hispania was called Hesperia Ultima, the last western land in Greek, by Roman writers, another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for border or edge, thus meaning the farthest area or place. The use of Latin Hispania, Castilian España, Catalan Espanya and French Espaigne, a document dated 1292 mentions the names of foreigners from Medieval Spain as Gracien dEspaigne. You are, Oh Spain, holy and always happy mother of princes and peoples and you, by right, are now the queen of all provinces, from whom the lights are given not only the sunset, but also the East. Navarre followed soon after in 1512, and Portugal in 1580, during this time, the concept of Spain was still unchanged. The King of Portugal would protest energetically when during a public act King Fernando talked about the Crown of Spain and it was after the independence of Portugal in 1640 when the concept of Spain started to shift and be applied to all the Peninsula except Portugal. Even so, Portugal would still complain when the terms Crown of Spain or Monarchy of Spain were still used in the 18th century with the Treaty of Utrecht. The Iberian peninsula has long inhabited, first by early hominids such as Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis. In the Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals entered Iberia and eventually took refuge from the migrations of modern humans. In the 40th millennium BC, during the Upper Paleolithic and the last ice age and these were nomadic hunter-gatherers originating on the steppes of Central Asia. When the last Ice Age reached its maximum extent, during the 30th millennium BC, in the millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local modern human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that found in LArbreda Cave and in the Côa Valley. In the Mesolithic period, beginning in the 10th millennium BC and this was an interstadial deglaciation that lessened the harsh conditions of the Ice Age
Hispania
–
Archaeological Roman Ensemble of Mérida (Emerita Augusta), Extremadura, Spain.
Hispania
–
Roman provinces of Hispania
Hispania
–
The
Tower of Hercules in La Coruña, Galicia, Spain, is the world's oldest Roman lighthouse still in use.
Hispania
–
The Roman
Aqueduct of Segovia, Castile, Spain.
24.
Baetica
–
Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis, Baetica was part of Al-Andalus under the Moors in the 8th century and approximately corresponds to modern Andalucia. Baetica remained one of the divisions of Hispania under the Visigoths down to 711. Before Romanization, the area that was to become Baetica was occupied by several settled Iberian tribal groups. Celtic influence was not as strong as it was in the Celtiberian north, phoenician Gadira was on an island against the coast of Hispania Baetica. Other important Iberians were the Bastetani, who occupied the Almería, towards the southeast, Punic influence spread from the Carthaginian cities on the coast, New Carthage, Abdera and Malaca. Some of the Iberian cities retained their names in Baetica throughout the Roman era. Granada was called Eliberri, Illiberis and Illiber by the Romans, in Basque, iri-berri or ili-berri, the central and north-eastern Celtiberians soon followed suit. It took Cato the Elder, who became consul in 195 BC and was given the command of the peninsula to put down the rebellion in the northeast. He then marched southwards and put down a revolt by the Turdetani, Cato returned to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two Iberian provinces. In the late Roman Republic, Hispania remained divided like Gaul into a Nearer and a Farther province, as experienced marching overland from Gaul, Hispania Citerior, the battles in Hispania during the 1st century BC were largely confined to the north. In the reorganization of the Empire in 14 BC, when Hispania was remade into the three Imperial provinces, Baetica was governed by a proconsul who had formerly been a praetor. The Senatorial province of Baetica became so secure that no Roman legion was required to be stationed there. Legio VII Gemina was permanently stationed to the north, in Hispania Tarraconensis, so in spite of some social upsets, as when Septimius Severus put to death a number of leading Baetians— including women — the elite in Baetica remained a stable class for centuries. Columella, who wrote a twelve volume treatise on all aspects of Roman farming and knew viticulture, the vast olive plantations of Baetica shipped olive oil from the coastal ports by sea to supply Roman legions in Germania. Amphoras from Baetica have been found everywhere in the Western Roman empire and it was to keep Roman legions supplied by sea routes that the Empire needed to control the distant coasts of Lusitania and the northern Atlantic coast of Hispania. Baetia was Roman until the invasion of the Vandals and Alans passed through in the 5th century. The province formed part of the Exarchate of Africa and was joined to Mauretania Tingitana after Belisarius reconquest of Africa, the Catholic bishops of Baetica, solidly backed by their local population, were able to convert the Arian Visigoth king Reccared and his nobles
Baetica
–
The Iberian Peninsula in approx. AD 10, showing in purple the
senatorial province of Hispania Baetica (modern Andalusia, Spain).
Baetica
–
Betica
amphora found in
Essaouira, 1–2nd century AD
25.
Phoenicians
–
The enterprising, sea-based Phoenician civilization spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC. Their civilization was organized in city-states, similar to those of Ancient Greece, perhaps the most notable of which were Tyre, Sidon, Arvad, Berytus and Carthage. Each city-state was an independent unit, and it is uncertain to what extent the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality. In terms of archaeology, language, lifestyle, and religion there was little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other Semitic Canaanites. The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make use of alphabets. By their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks, the name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī, comes from Greek Φοίνικες. The word φοῖνιξ phoînix meant variably Phoenician person, Tyrian purple, the word may be derived from φοινός phoinós blood red, itself possibly related to φόνος phónos murder. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the ethnonym, the oldest attested form of the word in Greek may be the Mycenaean po-ni-ki-jo, po-ni-ki, possibly borrowed from Ancient Egyptian fnḫw Asiatics, Semites, although this derivation is disputed. The folk-etymological association of Φοινίκη with φοῖνιξ mirrors that in Akkadian which tied kinaḫni, the land was natively known as knʿn and its people as the knʿny. In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani, the ethnonym survived in North Africa until the 4th century AD. Herodotus account refers to the myths of Io and Europa, according to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. The Greek historian Strabo believed that the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain, Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain. The people of Tyre in South Lebanon in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, however, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place. Canaanite culture apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture, Byblos is attested as an archaeological site from the Early Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, fernand Braudel remarked in The Perspective of the World that Phoenicia was an early example of a world-economy surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed c, archaeological evidence consistent with this understanding has been difficult to identify. A unique concentration in Phoenicia of silver hoards dated between 1200 and 800 BC, however, contains hacksilver with lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain. This metallic evidence agrees with the memory of a western Mediterranean Tarshish that supplied Solomon with silver via Phoenicia
Phoenicians
–
Sarcophagus of Eshmunazor II, Phoenician King of Sidon found near Sidon, in southern Lebanon
Phoenicians
–
Map of Phoenicia and its Mediterranean trade routes
Phoenicians
–
Assyrian warship (probably built by Phoenicians) with two rows of oars, relief from
Nineveh, c. 700 BC
Phoenicians
–
A naval action during the siege of Tyre (350 BC). Drawing by
André Castaigne, 1888–1889.
26.
Tartessos
–
Tartessos or Tartessus was a semi-mythical harbor city and the surrounding culture on the south coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. It appears in sources from Greece and the Near East starting during the first millennium BC, herodotus, for example, describes it as beyond the Pillars of Heracles. Archaeological discoveries in the region have built up a picture of a widespread culture, identified as Tartessian. The Tartessians were rich in metal, in the 4th century BC the historian Ephorus describes a very prosperous market called Tartessos, with much tin carried by river, as well as gold and copper from Celtic lands. Trade in tin was very lucrative in the Bronze Age, since it is a component of true bronze and is comparatively rare. Herodotus refers to a king of Tartessos, Arganthonios, presumably named for his wealth in silver, the people from Tartessos became important trading partners of the Phoenicians, whose presence in Iberia dates from the 8th century BC and who nearby built a harbor of their own, Gadir. Several early sources, such as Aristotle, refer to Tartessos as a river, Aristotle claims that it rises from the Pyrene Mountain and flows out to sea outside the Pillars of Hercules, the modern Strait of Gibraltar. No such river traverses the Iberian peninsula, according to Pytheas, in the 4th century BC, as reported by Strabo in the 1st century AD, the Turduli occupied the area that was Tartessos which was the Baetis River. The river, which is the largest in Iberia and tidal, those of a day called Baetis and there are some who think that Tartessus was the ancient name of Carpia. The river known in his day as the Baetis is now the Guadalquivir, thus, Tartessos may be buried, Schulten thought, under the shifting wetlands. The river delta has gradually been blocked by a sandbar that stretches from the mouth of the Rio Tinto, near Palos de la Frontera, the area is now protected as the Parque Nacional de Doñana. In the 2nd century AD Appian thought that Karpessos was previously known as Tartessos, subsequent discoveries were widely reported, in September 1923 archaeologists discovered a Phoenician necropolis in which human remains were unearthed and stones found with illegible characters. It may have been colonized by the Phoenicians for trade because of its richness in metals, J. M. Luzón was the first to identify Tartessos with modern Huelva, based on discoveries made in the preceding decades. Alluvial tin was panned in Tartessian streams from an early date, the spread of a silver standard in Assyria increased its attractiveness. The invention of coinage in the 7th century BC spurred the search for bronze, henceforth trade connections, formerly largely in elite goods, assumed an increasingly broad economic role. By the Late Bronze Age, silver extraction in Huelva Province reached industrial proportions, pre-Roman silver slag is found in the Tartessian cities of Huelva Province. Cypriot and Phoenician metalworkers produced 15 million tons of pyrometallurgical residues at the vast dumps of Riotinto, tartessic artifacts linked with the Tartessos culture have been found, and many archaeologists now associate the lost city with Huelva. In excavations on spatially restricted sites in the center of modern Huelva, Huelva contains the largest accumulation of imported elite goods and must have been an important Tartessian center
Tartessos
–
Treasure of El Carambolo, exhibited in the
Archaeological Museum of Seville
Tartessos
–
Tartessos cultural area.
Tartessos
–
The Tartessian Fonte Velha inscription (Bensafrim, (Lagos))
27.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
28.
Hispalis
–
Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
Hispalis
–
Clockwise from top:
St. Mary of the See Cathedral and
Giralda,
Plaza de España in the
Maria Luisa Park,
Metropol Parasol, the Isabel II ("
Triana ") bridge and the
Torre del Oro.
Hispalis
–
View of the
Giralda from the Patio de Banderas (Courtyard of Flags), historic square with remains of Roman, Moorish and Castilian periods.
Hispalis
–
Cathedral of Saint Mary from Constitución Avenue
Hispalis
–
Courtyard of the Maidens in the
Alcázar of Seville
29.
Torre del Oro
–
The Torre del Oro is a dodecagonal military watchtower in Seville, southern Spain. It was erected by the Almohad Caliphate in order to access to Seville via the Guadalquivir river. Constructed in the first third of the 13th century, the served as a prison during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the shine it projected on the river. The tower is divided into three levels, with the third and uppermost being circular in shape and added in 1769, the Torre de la Plata, an octagonal tower, is located nearby, and is believed to have been constructed during the same era. It is one of two points for a large chain that would have been able to block the river. The other anchor-point has since been demolished or disappeared, possibly from collapsing during the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the chain was used in the citys defense against the Castilian fleet under Ramón de Bonifaz in 1248 Reconquista. Bonifaz broke the river defenses and isolated Seville from Triana, the besieged Muslim city soon surrendered to the Christian forces. The Tower of Gold was built 1220-1221, by order of the Almohad governor of Seville, Abu l-Ulà and it barred the way to the Arenal district with a section of wall joining it to the Tower of Silver, a part of the city walls that defended the Alcazar. There is a tradition that a heavy chain went across the river from this tower to another located on the modern-day Fortaleza Street in Triana. That street was called Limones Street until the nineteenth century, and also and they mention the Torre del Oro by name, and only a chain that held a set of boats bridging Seville with what is now the Castle of St. George, on the Triana side. The Castilian fleet commanded by Admiral Ramon de Bonifaz broke through that chain and bridge of boats in 1248 to go up the river, while the troops of Ferdinand III of Castile besieged the city. This historic passage led by Asturian and Cantabrian sailors in the service of the Castilian navy has been immortalized on the shields of Aviles and of the Four Villas of the Coast of Cantabria. It was later incorporated in the Coat of Arms of Cantabria as well, represented by the Tower of Gold, after this re-conquest, the tower was first used as a chapel dedicated to St. Isidore of Seville, and later it became a prison. The name Torre del Oro clearly comes from the gleam of lime mortar, the legend that the tower was a storehouse for the gold and silver brought from America is completely false. Also false is the sixteenth century claim of chronicler Luis Peraza that the tower was covered with tiles that sparkled in the light of the sun. This same chronicler and Lopez de Ayala say that King Pedro I kept treasures of gold and silver in the tower, which is true. Gold was processed at the Mint, several yards away, and Pedro I kept not only coins in the tower, but also the sister of Maria Coronel, the king had fallen in love with Aldonza and took her out of the Convent of Santa Clara in 1357
Torre del Oro
–
The Torre del Oro.
Torre del Oro
–
Top of the tower at sunset.
Torre del Oro
–
Torre del Oro by night
30.
Americas
–
The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
Americas
–
CIA political map of the Americas in
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection
Americas
–
The Americas
Americas
–
Parkin Site, a Mississippian site in Arkansas, circa 1539.
Americas
–
World map of
Waldseemüller (Germany, 1507), which first used the name America (in the lower-left section, over South America)
31.
Seville Province
–
The Province of Seville is a province of southern Spain, in the western part of the autonomous community of Andalusia. It is bordered by the provinces of Málaga, Cádiz in the south, Huelva in the west, Badajoz in the north, Seville is the provinces as well as the Andalusian autonomous communitys capital. Located on the bank of the Guadalquivir river, the city of Seville is the largest one in Andalusia. The former province of Andalusia was divided by the Moors into four separate kingdoms—Seville, Cordova, Jaen, Seville has the highest GDP among the provinces of Andalusia. The Provinces of Málaga and Cadiz are 2nd and 3rd respectively, the Port of Seville is of great economic importance to the province. The area of the province is 14,042 km² and its population is 1,914,958, of whom 40% live in the capital, Seville, and its population density is 125. 25/km². The province shares the Parque Nacional de Doñana with Huelva province and it also has the Sierra Norte de Sevilla Natural Park. The 177,484 hectares park is Andalusias largest protected area, the Guadalquivir crosses the province from east to west. Guadiana, Pinta and Xenil are other important rivers, the northern part of the province is mostly mountainous. Seville has a warm Mediterranean climate with an average temperature of 18.5 °C. Winters are generally mild while summers are hot, the maximum temperatures in summer often surpass 40°C. The locality of Écija is popularly known as the “Frying Pan of Andalusia” for its torrid summers, Écija is known for its high value of corn production. The province of Seville generates 1. 92% of the Spanish hotel movement, in terms of tourism the city of Seville is one of the leading cities in Andalusia, situated behind Barcelona and Madrid on a national level. In 208 B. C. the whole population of an outpost in the present town of Estepa burnt their houses, the capital city Seville is the worlds most dense one in terms of Baroque churches. The Socialist Workers Party won the elections in the province from 1982–2000, in comparison to other Spanish provinces, Seville is underdeveloped. List of municipalities in Seville Media related to Province of Seville at Wikimedia Commons
Seville Province
–
Flag
32.
Puente del Alamillo
–
The Alamillo Bridge is a structure in Seville, Andalucia, which spans the Canal de Alfonso XIII, allowing access to La Cartuja, a peninsula between the canal and the Guadalquivir River. The bridge was constructed as part of improvements for Expo 92. Construction of the began in 1989 and was completed in 1992 from a design by Santiago Calatrava. The bridge is of the cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge type and consists of a single pylon, the original intent was to build two symmetrical bridges on either side of the island, but in the end, the Alamillos singular design has proved most striking. With no economic constraints on construction, the goal was to create a bridge of symbolic importance, similar to the Brooklyn Bridge, there is an elevated walkway for pedestrians. In addition to the walkway, the Alamillo Bridge features a lookout at the top of the mast. The Puente del Alamillo is the bridge that is balanced solely through added weights not requiring any type of back anchorage. There are 54 steel piles under the bridge but they act passively under the mast, calatravas Sundial Bridge in Redding, California, and Chords Bridge in Jerusalem are similar in design to the Alamillo Bridge. broer
Puente del Alamillo
–
The Alamillo Bridge at night
Puente del Alamillo
–
The Puente del Alamillo, viewed from the left (east) side of the
Guadalquivir river.
33.
Hydroelectricity
–
Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated 16. 6% of the total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013, China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants, the average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U. S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and reservoir it is also a source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, by the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well, in 1878 the worlds first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power an arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No.1 near Niagara Falls in the U. S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30,1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, by 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the U. S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U. S. alone, at the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors, by 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land, as the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century, Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty. Hoover Dams initial 1,345 MW power station was the worlds largest hydroelectric station in 1936
Hydroelectricity
–
The
Three Gorges Dam in Central China is the
world's largest power producing facilitiy of any kind.
Hydroelectricity
–
Museum Hydroelectric power plant ″Under the Town″ in
Serbia, built in 1900.
Hydroelectricity
–
Turbine row at Los Nihuiles Power Station in
Mendoza, Argentina
34.
Franco regime
–
It is the opinion of several historians that during the Spanish Civil War, Francos goal was to turn Spain into a totalitarian state based on fascism like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Franco was also able to take advantage of the resources of the Axis Powers, Francos regime evolved into a more classic autocratic regime. The Spanish Civil War started as a coup by the Spanish military on the peninsula, the coup escalated into a civil war lasting for three years once Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany agreed to support Franco, starting with airlifting of the africanistas onto the mainland. However, the Falange remained the party throughout Francos regime and its ideology, National Syndicalism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regimes own figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger, and disease related to the conflict. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. On July 26,1947 Spain was declared a kingdom, Franco was to be succeeded by his Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government with the intention of continuing the Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination. With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain and he initiated the countrys subsequent transition to democracy, ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. After Francos victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the legal party in Spain. The Organic Law made the government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, as all ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco as the Chief of state and government, he was effectively the only source of legislation. The law of national referendums, passed in 1945 approved for all laws to be approved by a popular referendum. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through elections, however, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on the same year and Franco named a civilian, Carlos Arias Navarro as the countrys new Prime Minister. Concerns about the situation, Spains possible entry into World War II. The army maintained a strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the war, Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Francos rule. During the Algerian War, Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria, despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, the year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War. Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, in 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spains colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco
Franco regime
–
By decision of King Juan Carlos I, Franco is entombed in the monument of
Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos.
Franco regime
–
Flag
Franco regime
–
Equestrian statue of Generalisimo Franco in the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (City Hall Plaza) of
Santander. It was taken down in late 2008.
35.
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
–
The twenty-foot equivalent unit is an inexact unit of cargo capacity often used to describe the capacity of container ships and container terminals. Also, it is common to designate 45-foot containers as 2 TEU, the standard intermodal container is designated as twenty feet long and 8 feet wide. The twistlocks on a ship are put at a distance so that two standard twenty-foot containers have a gap of three inches which allows a single forty-foot container to be put on top, the forty-foot containers have found wider acceptance, as they can be pulled by semi-trailer truck. The length of such a combination is within the limits of national road regulations in many countries, requiring no special permission. As some road regulations allow longer trucks, there are variations of the standard forty-foot container — in Europe. Containers with a length of 48 feet or 53 feet are restricted to transport in the United States. Although longer than 40 feet, these variants are put in the class of forty-foot equivalent units. Container ships only take 40-foot and 20-foot containers below deck, plus 45-foot containers above deck, ninety percent of the containers that container ships carry are 40-foot units. As container ships carry 90% of the freight, at least 81% of the worlds freight moves via 40-foot containers. As the TEU is a unit, it cannot be converted precisely into other units. The related unit forty-foot equivalent unit, however, is defined as two TEU, the most common dimensions for a 20-foot container are 20 feet long,8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, for a volume of 1,360 cubic feet. However, both 9-foot-6-inch-tall High cube and 4-foot-3-inch half height containers are also reckoned as 1 TEU and this gives a volume range of 680 to 1,520 cubic feet for one TEU. While the TEU is not itself a measure of mass, some conclusions can be drawn about the mass that a TEU can represent. The maximum gross mass for a 20-foot dry cargo container is 24,000 kilograms, subtracting the tare mass of the container itself, the maximum amount of cargo per TEU is reduced to approximately 21,600 kilograms. Similarly, the gross mass for a 40-foot dry cargo container is 30,480 kilograms. After correcting for tare weight, this gives a capacity of 26,500 kilograms. Twenty-foot, heavy tested containers are available for goods such as heavy machinery. These containers allow a maximum weight of 67,200 pounds, an empty weight of 5,290 pounds, Container ship Container terminal Containerization List of unusual units of measurement Panama Canal toll system shipping ton Maersk Shipping
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
–
A 20-foot-long (6.1 m)
ISO container equals 1 TEU.
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
–
Forty-foot containers stacked on top of two twenty-foot containers. These four containers represent 6 TEU.
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
–
Load bearing of container stacking is at the 40-foot corner stone couplings.
36.
Containerized cargo
–
Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers made of weathering steel. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes, all containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. The system, developed after World War II, dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the boom in international trade. Containerization did away with the sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced many thousands of workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo. Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time and reduced losses from damage, before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory, when the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo, delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable, containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat Starvationer with 10 wooden containers, in 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal. By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, originally used for moving coal on and off barges, loose boxes were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones, the early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks, prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems. In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon, the Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland
Containerized cargo
–
Shipping containers at the
Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal in New Jersey, USA
Containerized cargo
–
A container-freight train on the
West Coast Main Line near Nuneaton, England
Containerized cargo
–
A
container ship being loaded by a
portainer crane in
Copenhagen Harbor
Containerized cargo
–
Loading assorted break bulk cargo onto ships manually
37.
List of rivers of Spain
–
This is an incomplete list of rivers that are at least partially in Spain. The rivers are grouped by sea or ocean, the rivers flowing into the sea are sorted along the coast. Rivers flowing into other rivers are listed by the rivers flow into. The rivers that have their mouths in Portugal are given in italics, the list begins in Catalonia at the French border and moves clockwise around the Iberian Peninsula
List of rivers of Spain
–
el Llobregat
List of rivers of Spain
–
the River Aragón
List of rivers of Spain
–
the
Segura in
Murcia
List of rivers of Spain
–
Near the mouth of the Almanzora, on a lake formed by a dam.
38.
World Rowing Championships
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The World Rowing Championships is an international rowing regatta organized by FISA. It is an event held at the end of the northern hemisphere summer. The first event was held in Lucerne, Switzerland, in 1962, the event then was held every four years until 1974, when it became an annual competition. Also in 1974, Mens lightweight and Womens open weight events were added to the championships, in 1985 Womens lightweight events were added to the schedule. Since 1996, during Olympic years, the Junior World Rowing Championships are held at the same time, in 2002 adaptive rowing events were introduced for the following classes of disability, LTA, TA, and A. In 2009 the A category was replaced by AS, and an ID category was added, from 2017 the designations AS, TA, and LTA have been changed to PR1, PR2, and PR3. Rowing takes place in 21 different boat classes, apart from during Olympic years when only non-Olympic boat classes race, national teams generally take less interest in the non-Olympic events, as the Olympic events are considered the premier events. The table below shows the classes, O indicates the boat races at both the Olympics and World Championships. WC indicates this is only a World Championship event, after 2007, the coxed fours no longer runs as a world championship event. Similarly after 2011 the womens coxless four was no longer included, lightweight mens eight was removed after 2015. As a result of the IOCs aim for gender parity, it is likely that for 2020 onwards the lightweight coxless four will be removed from the Olympics
World Rowing Championships
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Australian rowing
39.
Rotsee
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The Rotsee is a natural rowing lake on the northern edge of Lucerne, Switzerland. It is 2,400 metres long with no current. The first regatta was hosted here in 1933 and since been the venue of a number of international rowing events. The lake is the venue for the leg of the World Rowing Cup series. When a World Championships is also being held in Lucerne then no World Cup race is held on the lake, media related to Rotsee at Wikimedia Commons Official Rotsee website Map
Rotsee
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Rotsee
40.
Lake Bled
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Lake Bled is a lake in the Julian Alps of the Upper Carniolan region of northwestern Slovenia, where it adjoins the town of Bled. The area is a tourist destination, the lake is 35 km from Ljubljana International Airport and 55 km from the capital city, Ljubljana. The lake is of mixed glacial and tectonic origins and it is 2,120 m long and 1,380 m wide, with a maximum depth of 29.5 m and has a small island. The lake is situated in an environment, surrounded by mountains. The medieval-era Bled Castle stands above the lake on the north shore, the Zaka Valley lies at the west end of the lake. The World Rowing Championships in 1966,1979,1989 and 2011 were held at Lake Bled, the church has a 52 m tower and there is a Baroque stairway from 1655 with 99 stone steps leading up to the building. The church is visited and weddings are held there regularly. Traditionally it is considered good luck for the groom to carry his bride up the steps on the day of their wedding before ringing the bell, Tourism in Slovenia Bled island website Lake Bled Tourism Exploring With Josh Location
Lake Bled
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Lake Bled seen from Little Osojnica Hill
Lake Bled
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Bled Island
Lake Bled
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Lake Bled and island at twilight
Lake Bled
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Lake Bled Rowboat
41.
Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course
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The Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course is a rowing facility that is located in Port Dalhousie, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. The facility was constructed in 1903 as a permanent venue for the Royal Canadian Henley Regatta, the facility is located on the Martindale Pond. In 1966, the facility was renovated, it was renovated extensively in 1999 to stage the 1999 World Rowing Championships. The venue also hosted the 1970 World Rowing Championships, the venue hosted the rowing competitions at the 2015 Pan American Games held in Toronto. To stage the games the venue was renovated, with completions scheduled completed by 2014. The venue is considered by FISA as a A class venue
Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course
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Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course
Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course
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The grandstand of the rowing course.
42.
Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre
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Holme Pierrepont Country Park, home of The National Watersports Centre is located in the hamlet of Holme Pierrepont near Nottingham, England and on the River Trent. Run by Serco on behalf of Nottinghamshire County Council, it was one of five National Sports Centres. Set in 270 acres of parkland, Holme Pierrepont Country Park not only offers a host of water activities, further, the River Trent is also accessible from the site. Holme Pierrepont Country Park also has an Outdoor Adventure Park, formerly known as the Family Fun Park, there are two new gyms which were opened in 2014 - these include a 60 station Life Fitness gym which overlooks the Regatta Lake and a specific Strength and Conditioning gym. The site also has an 18-acre campsite containing a mixture of grass and hard standing pitches, the centre offers conference and meeting facilities and has four refurbished conference rooms, with the largest room catering for up to 150 people. Holme Pierrepont Country Park also offers team building activities alongside their conferencing packages, the course is a focal point for English whitewater rafting and kayaking, often holding international events for slalom, freestyle and wild water racing. One hosted event is the National Student Rodeo, the largest freestyle kayaking event in the world, during this event the Centre received coverage in local news, and publications such as Canoe & Kayak UK magazine. The whitewater course is located between the weir on the canalised River Trent and the regatta lake, built in 1986, the course is made primarily from concrete. It is approximately 1500 metres long, drops just over 4 metres in height to produce Grade 3 whitewater rapids, the course is gravity fed, does not use electricity to power it, and therefore is relatively cheap to run. Due to the nature of the design, swimming through the course is safer than other locations around the UK due to deep channels. The amount of water flowing through the course depends on rainfall, and canal usage, the course is more likely to close due to too much water, rather than too little. The length of the lake is cut up into many 250 m sections. The course had a refit in 2009, along with essential maintenance, some of the original concrete obstacles were removed and Omniflots were added. The Holme Pierrepont Canoe Club gives lessons on the flat water lake and the course and it also hosts rafting, playboating, slalom, kayaking plus squirt boaters, open boat canoeists and wild water racing. One of the sports held at the centre is rowing, using the 2000 metre multi-lane rowing lake. The Centre was the venue for the World Rowing Junior Championships in 1973, and for the World Rowing Championships in 1975 and 1986, typically the safety is outsourced to local lifeguard unit Colwick Park Lifeguards who have been part of the team at Holme Pierrepont since 1979. The centre is also the venue for many Triathlon events, including the Outlaw Half, the full triathlon sees over 1100 athletes from all over the world taking on a 2.4 mile swim,112 mile bike ride and 26.2 mile run. The centre is the base for the Holme Pierrepont Running Club, the centre was chosen to host the Sea Scout 100 national Sea Scout Centenary Jamboree in August 2009
Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre
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A view of the Sports Centre across the rowing lake
Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre
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Holme Pierrepont
Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre
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Historic buildings
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Lake Ossiach
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Lake Ossiach is the third largest lake in the Austrian state of Carinthia, superseded only by Lake Wörth and Lake Millstatt. It is situated in the southern Nock Mountains range of the Gurktal Alps along the road between Villach and Feldkirchen, at a height of 501 m and it reaches a maximum depth of 52.6 m, the surface area is about 10.8 km2. Lake Ossiach is a lake with mixing periods in spring. In summer the waters reach 28 °C, several uninhabited parts of the shore are protected as natural reserves. Landskron Castle Media related to Ossiacher See at Wikimedia Commons Carinthian Institute of Limnology
Lake Ossiach
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Ossiacher See Lake Ossiach
Lake Ossiach
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Main lakes
