1.
Gulf of Venezuela
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The Gulf of Venezuela is a gulf of the Caribbean Sea bounded by the Venezuelan states of Zulia and Falcón and by Guajira Department, Colombia. A54 km strait connects it with Maracaibo Lake to the south, there is currently a dispute between Colombia and Venezuela over the gulf that has not been resolved, despite the decades-long negotiations conducted by a bilateral commission. Territorial waters are also in dispute over the gulf, the border dispute surged after the independence of Colombia and Venezuela from Spain in the 19th Century. The Spanish empire did not delimit the area because the Wayuu indigenous group posed resistance in the area, the land boundary was finally settled in 1941, but not the maritime. The main factor that gives importance to these waters is the fact that it connects the Caribbean Sea and Lake Maracaibo, the gulf therefore helps connect the wells and refineries in Lake Maracaibo to the world markets
2.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
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The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
3.
Peninsula
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A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on the majority of its border, while being connected to a mainland from which it extends out. Examples include the upper and lower peninsulas of the state of Michigan, the surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as a single body of water. Peninsulas are not always named as such, one can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, a point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also said to form a peninsula within the loop of water. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulas can be found on coastlines and in smaller bodies of water throughout the world, ranging in scale from square meters to millions of square kilometers. Theres the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe, and in Southern Europe theres the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, south America has the Brunswick Peninsula, and Antarctica has the Antarctic Peninsula. In Africa, theres the Horn of Africa, and in Australia, asia has the 3 largest peninsulas in the world, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Peninsula, and the Indochinese Peninsula
4.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
5.
Venezuela
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Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
6.
Manaure, La Guajira
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Manaure or Salinas de Manaure is a town and municipality located in the Colombian Department of La Guajira. Manaures main economic activity is the exploitation of the vast amounts of salt in the area, the municipality of Manaure is within the Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub with water streams determined by precipitations during the rainy seasons. The municipality seat of Manaure is crossed by the Limón Creek which flows into the Caribbean sea, the coastline has high concentration of salt, rocks and clay over predominantly flat plains, slightly undulated in some areas. The area has two seasons averaging 150 mm from May to June and from October to November) and two dry seasons in between these months. Chronicles from the Spanish explorer first detailed some indigenous in the area called Coanaos which traveled between the Cabo de la Vela and the region of Valledupar to exchange salt for gold. During the 19th century salt in the region was exploited at Honda Bay, in 1777 the Spanish government ordered the administration of the Salinas. In 1824 the government declared the Salinas or salt mines as national patrimony of the establishing a regulatory price control. In 1932 the bank of the Republic was given authority over the administration and exploitation of mines in Zipaquirá, Nemocón. By 1948 salt production in Manaure was between 20,000 and 30,000 tons a year, in 1970 the concession of Manaure salt mines was transferred to the IFI-Concesión Salinas which intensified the production to one million tons a year. The Wayuu began to claim the area as their ancestral land, the accords were not met and the Wayuus sued the government in 1994. The court ordered the creation of Sociedad Salinas de Manaure, SAMA based on the original agreement, the Wayuu would have 25%, but once again the agreements were not met due to legal problems
7.
Calabozo
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It is the seat of the Roman Catholic archdiocese of Calabozo. Calabozo is situated in the midst of an extensive llano on the bank of the Guárico River. In its vicinity are thermal springs, the principal occupation of its inhabitants is cattle-raising. The town is built, regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and possesses several fine old churches. It is a place of commercial importance because of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It is believed to have been an Indian town originally, and was made a town as one of the stations of the Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas in 1730. However, like most Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century, in 1820 the Spanish forces under Francisco Tomás Morales were defeated here by the revolutionists under Simón Bolívar and José Antonio Páez. Its waters have accumulated numbers of Caribbean fish, this book changed the economic face of Calabozo happened to become the pilot site of a complex agricultural economy. The irrigation system has encouraged the cultivation of rice, maize, pulses, snuff, tomatoes, paprika, cotton and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
8.
Magdalena Department
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Magdalena is a department of Colombia, located to the north of the country by the Caribbean Sea. The capital of the Magdalena Department is Santa Marta and was named after the Magdalena River and it inherited the name of one of the original nine states of the United States of Colombia that its current territory integrated. The Department of Magdalena is located on the North Coast of the Colombian Caribbean Region, on the north it borders the Caribbean Sea. On the northeast it borders the La Guajira Department, being divided by the Palomino River, on the east it borders with the Cesar Department, which is in part divided by the Guaraní River. On the west, it is divided by the Magdalena River, and it borders the departments of Atlantico in the Northwest, the territory of the Department of Magdalena is formed by four drainage basins which are very different in composition and importance. Sierra Nevada’s Northern Slope The drainage basin of the Sierra Nevada’s western slope is located in the part of the department. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta creates different rivers that run mainly through the municipality of Santa Marta, and that finally end up draining into the Caribbean Sea. Magdalena Basin The Magdalena River Basin is the largest drainage basin in the department, it is formed by the Magdalena River and its tributaries that feed on to the river and the Marsh. The Mompóx Depression is found within this basin, this runs from the Zapatosa Marsh to the delta of the Magdalena River. This depression collects the most water in the department as its where the Cauca River, Cesar River, marshes The department of Magdalena is characterized by its many marshes and extensive marshland valleys. The whole western side of the department its dotted with marshes and lakes due to the Magdalena River that borders the department on this side, most of this marshes are located in the northwestern side. The permanent marshes are, Chilloa, La Rinconada, Tesca, Pijiño, Juan Criollo, Jaraba, Playa Afuera, Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta, and Zapatosa. It is located in the northwest of the department and is separated from the sea by a thin margin of land. It has an extension of 4,280 km², of whitch 730 km² are just water mirrors with a depth of 2 to 6 meters. The Zapatosa Marsh, located in the municipality of El Plato in the southernmost part of the department, it is shared with the Cesar Department and it has an extension of 310 km² and at its deepest it reaches about 8m. In it many rivers of different importance merge, the Zapatosa Marsh drains into the Magdalena River by an arm of about 16 km of length. The Department of Magdalena, because of its terrain, and proximity to the sea has an unstable weather and its Climate is mainly dictated by its global positioning, and because the department of Magdalena is located on the Intertropical Convergence Zone it possess an inter-tropical climate. Temperature in the department is affected by currents, precipitation and atmospheric pressure, it mainly has a hot temperatures with high humidity
9.
La Guajira Department
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La Guajira is a department of Colombia. It occupies most of the Guajira Peninsula in the northeast region of the country, on the Caribbean Sea and bordering Venezuela, the capital city of the department is Riohacha. Various indigenous tribes populated the plains of the region prior to the Spanish arrival to the Americas. In 1498, Alonso de Ojeda sailed around the peninsula of La Guajira, during the colonial era, the territory of La Guajira was disputed by the governors of Santa Marta and Venezuela, owing to deposits of pearls. English pirates, Frenchmen, and Germans also disputed the territory, martin Fernandez de Enciso founded Nuestra Señora Santa María de los Remedios del Cabo de la Vela, the first village in the territory. In 1535, Nicolás de Federmán refound the settlement as the village of Riohacha, in 1544, it was moved to the site of the present-day city. In 1871, the region was separated from the Department of Magdalena, the Intendance of La Guajira was created in 1898. In 1954, the Intendance of la Guajira was created again, finally, in 1964, the Department of La Guajira was created. The economy of the department is based on royalties from the coal mining at Cerrejón, Natural gas exploitation. A popular tourist destination is Cabo de la Vela, a fishing village located on the tip of the peninsula in the Guajira desert. The name Guajira comes from the Cariban languages, according to Picon, the word Guajiros was first used in the year 1600 to designate some 200 indigenous families inhabiting the region of Riohacha. They were known for having large herds of goats, the term was then expanded to define all the indigenous in the peninsula who seemed to be goat herders. According to Oliver, the term Guajiro did not appear on Spanish records until the year 1626 in a document by a friar named Pedro Simón, the Sinú Valley dry forests lie in between. In the far south are the headwaters of the Cesar River which flow south towards the Magdalena River. The Ranchería River, which rises in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, crosses the Guajira Peninsula from south to north and flows through the Valley of Upar. The Serranía del Perijá and the Montes de Oca lie in the part of the department. The department was divided into three based on geographical characteristics, Upper-, Middle-, and Southern Guajira. The Upper Guajira covers the northernmost part of the peninsula, with mostly scarce semi-desertic vegetation, and containing only a low altitude mountain range
10.
Zulia
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Zulia State is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. As of the 2011 census, it has a population of 3,704,404 and it is also one of the few states in Venezuela in which voseo is widely used. Zulia State is in northwestern Venezuela, bordering Lake Maracaibo, the largest body of water of its kind in Latin America and its basin covers one of the largest oil and gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere. The Lake Maracaibo Basin covers the largest oil and gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere, a long and mostly uninhabited border separates Venezuela from Colombia to the north and west, from the Guajira Peninsula to the Perijá Mountains. Venezuelas Andean states of Táchira, Mérida and Trujillo border Zulia State at the end of Lake Maracaibo and finally the states of Lara. The name Venezuela comes from the lake, when Spanish conquistadors sailed into the area, they found the indigenous peoples living in communities of huts supported by stilts along the shores of the lake. They were reminded of Venice and named the place Little Venice or Venezuela, the lake has a number of islands, some of which are populated. Near the mouth of the Catatumbo River, where it empties into Lake Maracaibo, is the famous Catatumbo lightning which is represented on the states flag, there are several competing theories about the origin of the states name. One is that Guaimaral, son of the cacique Mara, was on pilgrimage in the Pamplona region, where he fell in love with the beautiful Zulia, but she was killed in a battle against the conquerors. Gaimaral sadly returned to his fathers domains, naming rivers, towns and regions for his lost love there is historical proof. Alternatively, it had said that the state was named after the Zulia River, known in Colombia as Batatas. Another story says that both names, river and state, came from the princess Zulia, daughter of a famous cacique Cinera, Zulia was first seen by Europeans in 1499 during an expedition commanded by Alonso de Ojeda. In 1789, the covered the territory of the current Venezuelan states of Zulia, Apure, Barinas, Táchira, Mérida. In 1810, Mérida and Trujillo were separated as new provinces, the Zulia Province declared independence from Spain on January 28,1821. During the Gran Colombia period in 1824, it received the name of Zulia Department, with the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, it was named Maracaibo Province and was one of the 11 provinces of Venezuela. Venezuelas federal constitution, April 22,1864, changed the denomination of province to state, at the end of the same year, the states legislation determined to change the name to the Sovereign State of Zulia, but that lasted only a few months. In 1874, its name again became Zulia State, federal government orders in 1881 created the combined Falcón Zulia state. Its autonomous state status continued until April 1,1890, when congress legislated the separation of the Falcon-Zulia State and it suffered further territorial changes towards the end of the 19th century, until the current delimitation in 1899 was finally drawn
11.
Punta Gallinas
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Punta Gallinas is a headland in northern Colombia and the northernmost point on the mainland of South America and one of the Extreme points of South America. Punta Gallinas is situated in the part of the department of La Guajira Department on the coast of the Caribbean Sea. The cape is at the tip of the Guajira Peninsula in the municipality of Uribia about 150-kilometre northeast of Riohacha. The area has been populated by the indigenous Wayuu people for a long time, the headland is also the location of the northernmost lighthouse in South America the 18 m high Faro de Punta Gallinas opened in 1989. Punta Gallinas Tour About the area Map of the area
12.
Trade winds
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Trade winds also transport African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well as portions of southeastern North America. Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes, and are capped from becoming taller by a trade wind inversion, the weaker the trade winds become, the more rainfall can be expected in the neighboring landmasses. The term trade winds originally derives from the fourteenth century late Middle English word trade. The Portuguese recognized the importance of the winds in navigation in both the north and south Atlantic ocean as early as the 15th century. From West Africa, the Portuguese had to sail away from continental Portugal and they could then turn northeast, to the area around the Azores islands, and finally east to mainland Europe. They also learned that to reach South Africa, they needed to go far out in the ocean, head for Brazil, following the African coast southbound means upwind in the Southern hemisphere. In the Pacific ocean, the wind circulation, which included both the trade wind easterlies and higher-latitude Westerlies, was unknown to Europeans until Andres de Urdanetas voyage in 1565. The captain of a sailing ship seeks a course along which the winds can be expected to blow in the direction of travel, for example, Manila galleons could not sail into the wind at all. Between 1847 and 1849, Matthew Fontaine Maury collected enough information to create wind, as part of the Hadley cell circulation, surface air flows toward the equator while the flow aloft is towards the poles. A low-pressure area of calm, light winds near the equator is known as the doldrums, near-equatorial trough, intertropical front. When located within a region, this zone of low pressure. Around 30° in both hemispheres, air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high-pressure belts known as subtropical ridges. The subsident air is dry because as it descends, the temperature increases, but the absolute humidity remains constant. This warm, dry air is known as an air mass. An increase of temperature with height is known as a temperature inversion, when it occurs within a trade wind regime, it is known as a trade wind inversion. The surface air flows from these subtropical high-pressure belts toward the Equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect. These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds of both hemispheres meet at the doldrums. As they blow across tropical regions, air masses heat up over lower latitudes due to direct sunlight
13.
Antilles
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See also West Indies, Caribbean The Antilles are an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east. The Lucayan Archipelago, though part of the West Indies, are not included among the Antillean islands. Geographically, the Antillean islands are considered a subregion of North America. In terms of geology, the Greater Antilles are made up of rock, as distinct from the Lesser Antilles. The Antilles were called multiple names before their current name became the norm, early Spanish visitors called them the Windward Islands. They were also called the Forward Islands by 18th-century British, thereafter, the term Antilles was commonly assigned to the formation, and Sea of the Antilles became a common alternative name for the Caribbean Sea in various European languages. The Antilles were described in 1778 by Thomas Kitchin as once being called the Caribbee Isles in homage to the Carib people who were the islands first inhabitants. S
14.
Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub
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The Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion in Colombia and Venezuela, covering an estimated area of 150,000 km2. Rainfall varies from 125 to 1,000 mm, and the temperature is 26 °C. The ecoregion occupies the Guajira Peninsula, the valley of Rancheria river and Guajira Department, the valleys lie in the rain shadow of the surrounding Serranía de Macuira, which reaches an elevation of 900 m over sea level. These mountains trap some of the winds, causing mist. An important tourist destination in the area is Cabo de la Vela, the ecoregion is dominated by thorny trees and succulents. Common species include Acacia glomerosa, Bourreria cumanensis, Bulnesia arborea, Caesalpinia coriaria, Copaifera venezolana, jacquinia pungens, Malpighia glabra, Myrospermum frutescens, Opuntia caribaea, Pereskia guamacho, Piptadenia flava, Prosopis juliflora, and Stenocereus griseus. Forests dominated by Lonchocarpus punctatus are often accompanied by Bunchosia odorata, other forests exist in which Prosopis juliflora, Erythrina velutina and Clerodendron ternifolium are dominant. A variety of plant communities occur where two plant species are dominant, the ecoregion is notable for being the habitat of a large community of Caribbean flamingo, besides a diversity of birds and bats. Most of the Serranía de Macuira lies within National Natural Park of Macuira, nearby is the 80 km2 Los Flamencos Sanctuary, which is a center of plant diversity for species of Hechtia, Salvia, and cactus. Of the 2700 species found within, approximately 30% are endemic, martha Ligia Castellanos, Luis Carlos Pardo L.2000. Caracterización y primera aproximación a la determinación del índice de biodiversidad en los suelos de la cuenca del arroyo Mekijanao, Serranía de la Macuira, en, Juan Carlos Pérez X Congreso Nacional de la Ciencia del Suelo. El suelo un componente del medio natural, medellín, Octubre 11 al 13 de 2000 Edith González, Gabriel Guillot, Néstor Miranda, Diana Pombo
15.
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
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The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an isolated mountain range separated from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. The Sierra Nevada encompasses about 17,000 km2 and serves as the source of 36 rivers, the range is in the Departments of Magdalena, Cesar and La Guajira. SRTM data and local topographic maps show that their true elevations are approximately 5,700 m, the Sierra Nevada is a compact group, relatively small in area, and completely surrounded by lands with elevations below 200 m. Although it is associated with the Tropical Andes, the backbone of the Andes cannot be reached from the Sierra Nevada without dropping below this level. This makes its highest point the worlds fifth most prominent summit, several peaks in the Sierra Nevada are intervisible with Cerro Paramillo, a 3,730 m peak in Antioquia Department. This implies a direct line of sight of just over 500 km. It is calculated that the average rainfall is 4,000 mm at elevations of 500 m to 1,500 m. The temperature varies between 0 °C and 27 °C, the tropical rainforest is made up of perennial trees, with a canopy reaching between 30 m to 40 m. There is a variety and large populations of epiphytes and lianas. The indigenous peoples made an alcoholic beverage from fruits of the palm Attalea maripa found at the lower elevations, of Colombias 340 endemic species,44 are found in the park, for example seven species of endemic hummingbirds. Of the 3,057 endangered species,44 are found here, the area is home to 440 species of birds, including black-fronted wood-quail, king vulture, Andean condor, Santa Marta warbler and Santa Marta parakeet. Mammals found in the include, tapir, cougar, jaguar, squirrel, Transandinomys talamancae, otter. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is home to a number of ecoregions, the Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub region lies near the Caribbean seacoast to the north of the range. The Sinú Valley dry forests cover the lower slopes, up to an elevation of 500 m. The Santa Marta montane forests lie above 500 m to 800 m, the montane forests are separated from other moist forests by the lower-elevation dry forests and xeric shrublands, and have large numbers of endemic species. Above 900 m is a transitional forest zone of smaller trees, the Santa Marta Páramo, a high altitude belt of montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with marshes and acid bogs, occupies the zone between 3,300 m and 5,000 m. The Santa Marta Páramo is the northernmost enclave of Páramo in South America, above 5,000 m meters lies the permanent snow cap. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park is Colombias second oldest national park and it is located in the Cordillera Oriental range, between the departments of La Guajira, Magdalena and Cesar, in the mountain range of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
16.
Desert
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A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation, about one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the regions where little precipitation occurs. Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation falls, by the temperature that prevails. Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces, although rain seldom occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and this picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms. Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface, rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes, other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones. These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place, other desert features include rock outcrops, exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate, there may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers. Where these are found, oases can occur, plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment. Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves, water-resistant cuticles, some annual plants germinate, bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture. Animals need to cool and find enough food and water to survive. Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day and they tend to be efficient at conserving water, extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine. Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods and they then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy. People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding lands for millennia. Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available, the cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification. Many trade routes have been forged across deserts, especially across the Sahara Desert, large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara
17.
Mist
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Mist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended in air. Physically, it is an example of a dispersion and it is most commonly seen where warm, moist air meets sudden cooling, such as in exhaled air in the winter, or when throwing water onto the hot stove of a sauna. It can be created artificially with aerosol canisters if the humidity and it can also occur as part of natural weather, when humid air cools rapidly, for example when the air comes into contact with surfaces that are much cooler than the air. The formation of mist, as of other suspensions, is aided by the presence of nucleation sites on which the suspended water phase can congeal. The only difference between mist and fog is visibility, the phenomenon is called fog if the visibility is one kilometre or less. In the UK the definition of fog is visibility less than 100 metres, otherwise it is known as mist. Mist makes a beam of light visible from the side via refraction and reflection on the water droplets. Scotch mist is a steady drizzle. Mist usually occurs near the shores, and is associated with fog. Mist can be as high as mountain tops when extreme temperatures are low, freezing mist is similar to freezing fog, only the density is less and the visibility greater. Aerosol Aeroponics Brocken spectre Drizzle Haze Spray
18.
Protected area
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Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the laws of each country or the regulations of the international organisations involved. There are over 161,000 protected areas in the world with more added daily, by contrast, only 1. 17% of the worlds oceans is included in the worlds ~6,800 Marine Protected Areas. Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation, often providing habitat, Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Generally, protected areas are understood to be those in human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a range of governance types. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success, subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock,15. 2% is contained within protected areas, Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the worlds carbon stock, which is the highest percentage of any country in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock. Rainforests,18. 8% of the worlds forest is covered by protected areas, of the 670 ecoregions with forest cover, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990, the categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. Protecting places and resources is by no means a modern concept, over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years, moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal, for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific and in parts of Africa. However, the protected areas movement doesnt begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery, in Africa, the concern was with game parks, in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, international programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive, with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. There is increasing pressure to take account of human needs when setting up protected areas. Such negotiations are never easy but usually stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources, one of the main concerns regarding protected areas on land and sea is their effectiveness at preventing the ongoing loss of biodiversity
19.
Los Flamencos Sanctuary
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Los Flamencos Sanctuary has been a designated wildlife sanctuary since 1977. It is located in the Guajira Peninsula of Colombias Caribbean Region and its main attraction is the American flamingoes, and their nests that can reach 60 cm high. Many other shore and water birds can be found in the such as roseate spoonbills, great egrets, laughing gulls. The surrounding xerophytic scrub habitat is home to many endemic birds such as buffy hummingbirds, white-whiskered spinetails, Tocuyo sparrows. List of national parks of Colombia Caribbean Natural Region, Colombia Birding Colombia - Los Flamencos Sanctuary SFF Los Flamencos
20.
Indigenous peoples in Colombia
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Indigenous peoples of Colombia, or Native Colombians, are the ethnic groups who have been in Colombia prior to the Europeans in the early 16th century. Known as pueblos indígenas in Spanish, they comprise 3. 4% of the countrys population, approximately 80% of the indigenous peoples of Colombia live in the La Guajira, Cauca, and Nariño Departments. While the Amazonian region of Colombia is sparsely populated, it is home to over 70 different indigenous ethnic groups. Some theories claim the earliest human habitation of South America to be as early as 43,000 BC, anthropologist Tom Dillehay dates the earliest hunter-gatherer cultures on the continent at almost 10,000 BC, during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. According to his evidence based on rock shelters, Colombias first human inhabitants were concentrated along the Caribbean coast. By that time, these regions were forested and had a climate resembling todays. Dillehay has noted that Tibitó, located just north of Bogotá, is one of the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of human occupation in Colombia. Colombias indigenous culture evolved from three main groups—the Quimbaya, who inhabited the western slopes of the Cordillera Central, the Chibchas, and the Kalina. The two most advanced cultures of Amerindian peoples at the time were the Muisca and Taironas, who belonged to the Chibcha group and were skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft. D. The Taironas, who were divided into two subgroups, lived in the Caribbean lowlands and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Muisca civilization was organized into distinct provinces governed by communal land laws and powerful caciques. At the end of the period, the native population still constituted about half of the total population. In the agricultural chiefdoms of the highlands, the Spaniards successfully imposed institutions designed to ensure their control of the Amerindians, the colonists had organized political and religious administration by the end of the sixteenth century, and they had begun attempts to religiously convert the Amerindians. The most important institution that regulated the lives and welfare of the highland Amerindians was the resguardo, under this system, Amerindians were allowed to use the land but could not sell it. As land pressures increased, however, encroachment of white or mestizo settlers onto resguardo lands accelerated, the government generally had not attempted to legislate in the past in matters affecting the forest Amerindians. During the colonial period, Roman Catholic missions were granted jurisdiction over the lowland tribes, division of the resguardos stopped in 1958, and a new program of community development began to try to bring the Amerindians more fully into the national society. New resguardos have been created, and others have been reconstituted, the 1991 constitution opened special political and social arenas for indigenous and other minority groups. For example, it allowed for creation of a commission to design a law recognizing the black communities occupying unsettled lands in the riverine areas of the Pacific Coast
21.
Wayuu people
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Wayuu is a Native American ethnic group of the Guajira Peninsula in northern Colombia and northwest Venezuela. The Wayuu language is part of the Maipuran language family, the Wayuu inhabit the arid Guajira Peninsula straddling the Venezuela-Colombia border, on the Caribbean Sea coast. Even though the Wayuu were never subjugated by the Spanish, the two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war, there had been rebellions in 1701,1727,1741,1757,1761 and 1768. In 1718 Governor Soto de Herrera called them barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law, of all the Indigenous peoples in the territory of Colombia, they were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses. In 1769 the Spanish took 22 Wayuus captive in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena, the reaction of the Indians was unexpected. On May 2,1769, at El Rincón, near Río de la Hacha, they set their village afire, burning the church, the Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Indians. At the head of this force was José Antonio de Sierra, the Guajiros recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed and this success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak there were 20,000 Indians under arms, many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. These enabled the rebels to take all the settlements of the region. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed, many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards who could took refuge in Río de la Hacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valle de Upar, Santa Marta, the rebels themselves were not unified. Sierras relatives among the Indians took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death, a battle between the two groups of Indians was fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of the Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade away, the process of evangelization of the Wayuu people restarted in 1887 with the return of the Capuchin friars under reverend friar José María de Valdeviejas. In 1905, Pope Pius X created the Vicariate of La Guajira with friar Atanasio Vicente Soler y Royo as first Vicar, the friars constantly visited the settlements inviting the Wayuu to attend mass. Wayuu children in the orphanage were educated with traditional European customs, conflicts between the Wayuu people and the Colombian government decreased since then. In 1942 Uribia celebrated Christmas and New Years Eve for the first time, the Wayuu occupy a total area of 4,171 square miles within approximately ten Indian reservations, eight of which are located south of the Department. In Venezuela, the Wayuu population is estimated at some 293,777 individuals, according to the 2001 census and this makes the Wayuu the largest indigenous group in Venezuela, representing 57. 5% of the Amerindian population
22.
Cesar River
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The Cesar River is a river in northern Colombia which is a part of the Magdalena Basin. It separates the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta from the ranges of the Serranía del Perijá an extension of the Cordillera Oriental. Valledupar is the major city on its route. Badillo River Guatapuri River Ariguani River Villanueva River,43 kilometres in length out of the Cerro Pintao, various streams of the Zapatosa Marshes including the Bartolazo wetlands, Pancuiche wetlands, Pancuichito wetlands, La Palma wetlands, Santo Domingo wetlands, and Tiojuancho wetlands. Striffler, Luis El Río César, Relación de un viaje a la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta en 1876 Senado de la República, Bogotá, OCLC23356826
23.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
24.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
25.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
26.
Ecotourism
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It means responsible travel to natural areas conserving the environment and improving the well being of the local people. Since the 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, several university programs use this description as the working definition of ecotourism. Generally, ecotourism deals with interaction with components of the natural environments. Ecotourism focuses on responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna, Ecotourism is intended to offer tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects of tourism on the environment. For these reasons, ecotourism often appeals to advocates of environmental and social responsibility, the term ecotourism, like sustainable tourism, is considered by many to be an oxymoron. Like most forms of tourism, ecotourism generally depends on air transportation, additionally, the overall effect of sustainable tourism is negative, where, like ecotourism, philanthropic aspirations mask hard-nosed immediate self-interest. An ecotourist is different from a tourist in the sense that, he or she is mindful of his environment, Ecotourism is a responsible tourism which conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people. For many countries, ecotourism is not simply a marginal activity to finance protection of the environment, for example, in Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nepal, Kenya, Madagascar and territories such as Antarctica, ecotourism represents a significant portion of the gross domestic product and economic activity. Ecotourism is often misinterpreted as any form of tourism that involves nature, self-proclaimed practitioners and hosts of ecotourism experiences assume it is achieved by simply creating destinations in natural areas. According to critics of this commonplace and assumptive practice, true ecotourism must, above all, sensitize people to the beauty and these critics condemn some operators as greenwashing their operations, using the labels of green and eco-friendly”, while behaving in environmentally irresponsible ways. Currently, there are moves to create national and international ecotourism accreditation programs. National ecotourism certification programs have been put in place in such as Costa Rica, Australia, Kenya, Estonia. Ecotourism is a late 20th-century neologism compounded from eco- and tourism, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, ecotour was first recorded in 1973 and ecotourism, probably after ecotour, in 1982. One source claims the terms were used earlier, claus-Dieter Hetzer, an academic and adventurer from Forum International in Berkeley, CA, supposedly coined ecotourism in 1965 and ran the first ecotours in the Yucatán during the early 1970s. The failure to acknowledge responsible, low-impact ecotourism puts legitimate ecotourism companies at a competitive disadvantage, many environmentalists have argued for a global standard of accreditation, differentiating ecotourism companies based on their level of environmental commitment, creating a standard to follow. The decisions of the board would be sanctioned by governments, so that non-compliant companies would be required to disassociate themselves from the use of the ecotourism brand
27.
Cabo de la Vela
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Cabo de la Vela is a headland in the Guajira Peninsula in Colombia with an adjacent small fishing village. The aboriginal inhabitants of the area were a group of Arawaks. Their descendants, the Wayuu people, still inhabit the area, cabo de La Vela is a sacred place to them, since they believe it is the place where the souls of all the deceased travel to rest with the ancestors, as the gate to afterlife. The cape is surrounded by the La Guajira Desert, part of the larger Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub, there are in the area several saline lagoons and mudflats visited by large populations of American flamingos
28.
Bow and arrow
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The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the kinetic energy of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, today, bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting and for the sport of archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows is a fletcher —or in the case of the manufacture of arrow heads. The bow and arrow appears around the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, at the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons. After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, the oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are made following the Holmegaard design. Microliths discovered on the south coast of Africa suggest that arrows may be at least 71,000 years old, the bow was an important weapon for both hunting and warfare from prehistoric times until the widespread use of gunpowder in the 16th century. Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, the British upper class led a revival of archery from the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, under the patronage of George, the basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved elastic limbs, traditionally made from wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a known as the bow string. By pulling the string backwards the archer exerts compressive force on the section, or belly, of the limbs as well as placing the outer section, or back. While the string is held, this stores the energy released in putting the arrow to flight. The force required to hold the string stationary at full draw is used to express the power of a bow. Other things being equal, a draw weight means a more powerful bow. The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections, the topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring to the limbs, the riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window
29.
Arrow
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An arrow is a shafted projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures, an arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow, dating to c.64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, South Africa. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago and they had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago. Arrow sizes vary greatly across cultures, ranging from eighteen inches to five feet, however, most modern arrows are 75 centimetres to 96 centimetres, most war arrows from an English ship sunk in 1545 were 76 centimetres. Very short arrows have been used, shot through a guide attached either to the bow or to the archers wrist and these may fly farther than heavier arrows, and an enemy without suitable equipment may find himself unable to return them. The shaft is the structural element of the arrow, to which the other components are attached. Traditional arrow shafts are made from wood, bamboo or reeds, while modern shafts may be made from aluminium, carbon fibre reinforced plastic. Such shafts are made from an aluminium core wrapped with a carbon fibre outer. The stiffness of the shaft is known as its spine, referring to how little the shaft bends when compressed, hence, an arrow which bends less is said to have more spine. In order to strike consistently, a group of arrows must be similarly spined, center-shot bows, in which the arrow passes through the central vertical axis of the bow riser, may obtain consistent results from arrows with a wide range of spines. Higher draw-weight bows will generally require stiffer arrows, with more spine to give the amount of flex when shot. The weight of a shaft can be expressed in GPI. The length of a shaft in inches multiplied by its GPI rating gives the weight of the shaft in grains, for example, a shaft that is 30 inches long and has a GPI of 9.5 weighs 285 grains, or about 18 grams. This does not include the elements of a finished arrow. Sometimes a shaft will be made of two different types of wood fastened together, resulting in what is known as a footed arrow, known by some as the finest of wood arrows, footed arrows were used both by early Europeans and Native Americans. Footed arrows will typically consist of a length of hardwood near the head of the arrow
30.
Pope Pius X
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Pope Saint Pius X, born Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto, was Pope from August 1903 to his death in 1914. Pius X is known for vigorously opposing modernist interpretations of Catholic doctrine, promoting traditional devotional practices and his most important reform was to order the codification of the first Code of Canon Law, which collected the laws of the Church into one volume for the first time. He was also considered a pastoral pope, in the sense of encouraging personal holiness, piety and he was born in the town of Riese, which would later append Pio X to the towns name. Pius X believed that there was no surer or more direct road than by the Virgin Mary to achieve this goal. His immediate predecessor, Pope Leo XIII, had promoted a synthesis between the Catholic Church and secular culture, faith and science, and divine revelation and reason. Pius X defended the Catholic faith against popular 19th-century attitudes and views such as indifferentism and relativism which his predecessors had warned against as well and he followed the example of Leo XIII by promoting Thomas Aquinas and Thomism as the principal philosophical method to be taught in Catholic institutions. Pius X vehemently opposed modernism, which claimed that Roman Catholic dogma should be modernized and blended with nineteenth-century philosophies and he viewed modernism as an import of secular errors affecting three areas of Roman Catholic belief, theology, philosophy, and dogma. Personally, Pius X combined within himself a strong sense of compassion, benevolence and poverty, but also stubbornness and he wanted to be pastoral in the sense that he was the only pope in the 20th century who gave Sunday homily sermons in the pulpit every week. After the 1908 Messina earthquake he filled the Apostolic Palace with refugees and he rejected any kind of favours for his family, his brother remained a postal clerk, his favourite nephew stayed on as village priest, and his three sisters lived together close to poverty in Rome. He often referred to his own origins, taking up the causes of poor people. I was born poor, I have lived poor, and I wish to die poor, considered a holy person by many, public veneration of Pope Pius X began soon after his death. Numerous petitions resulted in a process of beatification which started in the 1920s. The Society of Saint Pius X, a Traditionalist Catholic group, is named in his honor, a gigantic statue of him is enshrined within Saint Peters Basilica, while the town of his birthplace was also renamed after his canonization. Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto was born in Riese, Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia and he was the second born of ten children of Giovanni Battista Sarto and Margarita Sanson. He was baptised 3 June 1835, giuseppes childhood was one of poverty, being the son of the village postman. Though poor, his parents valued education, and Giuseppe walked 3.75 miles to each day. At a young age, Giuseppe studied Latin with his village priest, on 18 September 1858, Sarto was ordained a priest, and became chaplain at Tombolo. While there, Father Sarto expanded his knowledge of theology, studying both Saint Thomas Aquinas and canon law, while carrying out most of the functions of the parish pastor, in 1867, he was named archpriest of Salzano
31.
Monsignor
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Monsignor is an honorific form of address for those members of the clergy of the Catholic Church including bishops, honorary prelates and canons. In some cases, these ecclesiastical honorific titles derive from the pope and these are granted to individuals who have rendered valuable service to the Church, or who provide some special function in Church governance, or who are members of bodies such as certain chapters. The title is never bestowed on those classified as religious in Catholicism, although in some languages the word is used as a form of address for bishops, which is indeed its primary use in those languages, this is not customary in English. Monsignor is the form of the Italian monsignore, from the French mon seigneur. It is abbreviated Mgr, Msgr, or Mons, Monsignor is a form of address, not an appointment, properly speaking, one cannot be made a monsignor or be the monsignor of a parish. The title or form of address is associated with certain papal awards, apart from those working in the Roman Curia and the diplomatic service of the Holy See, it is usually on the proposal of the local bishop that the Pope grants this title to Catholic diocesan clergy. The grant is subject to criteria of the Holy See that include a minimum age, soon after his election in March 2013, Pope Francis suspended the granting of the honorific title of Monsignor except to members of the Holy Sees diplomatic service. He himself, during his 15 years as archbishop of Buenos Aires, never asked any of his priests receive the title. Grants already made were not revoked, also unaffected is the association of the style with the office of vicar general, an appointment made by the bishop of the diocese, not by the Pope. Without necessarily being a protonotary apostolic, a diocesan priest has that titular rank as long as he remains in office, the written form of address for such a priest is Monsignor or The Reverend Monsignor. The spoken form of address is Monsignor, the 1969 Instruction of the Secretariat of State indicated that the title of Monsignor may be used for bishops. This is normal practice in Italian, French, Catalan, and Spanish, the predicate His Lordship or Your Lordship is, in English, used as a clerical title only for bishops. Until 1968 there were at least 14 different grades, including domestic prelates, four kinds of protonotaries apostolic, four kinds of papal chamberlains, Pope Paul VI in his motu proprio Pontificalis Domus of 28 March 1968 reduced the grades to three. Since then, apostolic protonotaries have been classified either de numero or supernumerary, most of the former classes of chamberlains and chaplains were abolished, leaving only a single class of Chaplains of His Holiness, a specifically priestly-sounding category. In 2014, Pope Francis abolished the practice of granting priests the title of monsignor, however, existing members of all three ranks established by Pope Paul VI retain their membership. The 1969 Instruction of the Secretariat of State also simplified the dress of monsignori, Chaplains of His Holiness use a purple-trimmed black cassock with purple sash for all occasions. Honorary Prelates use a black cassock with purple sash for all occasions. The red is the shade as that used by bishops
32.
O.F.M. Cap.
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The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin is an Order of friars in the Catholic Church, among the chief offshoots of the Franciscans. The worldwide head of the Order, called the Minister General, is currently Mauro Jöhri and he sought to return to the primitive way of life of solitude and penance as practiced by the founder of their Order. The popular name of their Order originates from this feature of their religious habit, in 1528, Friar Matteo obtained the approval of Pope Clement VII and was given permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere preaching to the poor. These permissions were not only for himself, but for all such as might join him in the attempt to restore the most literal observance possible of the Rule of St. Francis, Matteo and the original band were soon joined by others. The Observants, the branch of the Franciscan Order at that time. In 1529, they had four houses and held their first General Chapter, the eremitical idea was abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity, simplicity and poverty — in all things as near an approach to St Francis ideals as was practicable. Neither the monasteries nor the Province should possess anything, nor were any loopholes to be resorted to for evading this law, no large provision against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days. Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were not allowed even to touch money, the communities were to be small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined and the friars were discalced, required to go bare-footed — without even sandals, like the Observants, the Capuchins wore a brown habit. By visual analogy, the Capuchin monkey and the style of coffee are both named after the shade of brown used for their habit. Besides the canonical choral celebration of the Divine Office, a portion of which was recited at midnight, the fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great external work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among the poor, in theology the Capuchins abandoned the later Franciscan School of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school of St. Bonaventure. The movement at the outset of its history underwent a series of severe blows. Years later, claims that he had written in favor of polygamy and Unitarianism caused him to be exiled from that city and he fled again, first to Poland and then to Slovakia, where he died. As a result, the province came under the suspicion of heretical tendencies. He was dissuaded with difficulty, but the Capuchins were forbidden to preach, despite earlier setbacks, the authorities were eventually satisfied as to the soundness of the general body of Capuchin friars and the permission to preach was restored. They are said to have had at that time 1500 houses divided into fifty provinces, the activities of the Capuchins were not confined to Europe. From an early date they undertook missions to non-Catholics in America, Asia and Africa, due to this strong missionary thrust, a large number of Capuchins have suffered martyrdom over the centuries
33.
Order of Friars Minor Capuchin
–
The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin is an Order of friars in the Catholic Church, among the chief offshoots of the Franciscans. The worldwide head of the Order, called the Minister General, is currently Mauro Jöhri and he sought to return to the primitive way of life of solitude and penance as practiced by the founder of their Order. The popular name of their Order originates from this feature of their religious habit, in 1528, Friar Matteo obtained the approval of Pope Clement VII and was given permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere preaching to the poor. These permissions were not only for himself, but for all such as might join him in the attempt to restore the most literal observance possible of the Rule of St. Francis, Matteo and the original band were soon joined by others. The Observants, the branch of the Franciscan Order at that time. In 1529, they had four houses and held their first General Chapter, the eremitical idea was abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity, simplicity and poverty — in all things as near an approach to St Francis ideals as was practicable. Neither the monasteries nor the Province should possess anything, nor were any loopholes to be resorted to for evading this law, no large provision against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days. Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were not allowed even to touch money, the communities were to be small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined and the friars were discalced, required to go bare-footed — without even sandals, like the Observants, the Capuchins wore a brown habit. By visual analogy, the Capuchin monkey and the style of coffee are both named after the shade of brown used for their habit. Besides the canonical choral celebration of the Divine Office, a portion of which was recited at midnight, the fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great external work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among the poor, in theology the Capuchins abandoned the later Franciscan School of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school of St. Bonaventure. The movement at the outset of its history underwent a series of severe blows. Years later, claims that he had written in favor of polygamy and Unitarianism caused him to be exiled from that city and he fled again, first to Poland and then to Slovakia, where he died. As a result, the province came under the suspicion of heretical tendencies. He was dissuaded with difficulty, but the Capuchins were forbidden to preach, despite earlier setbacks, the authorities were eventually satisfied as to the soundness of the general body of Capuchin friars and the permission to preach was restored. They are said to have had at that time 1500 houses divided into fifty provinces, the activities of the Capuchins were not confined to Europe. From an early date they undertook missions to non-Catholics in America, Asia and Africa, due to this strong missionary thrust, a large number of Capuchins have suffered martyrdom over the centuries
34.
Wayuu language
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The Wayuu language, or Goajiro, is spoken by 305,000 indigenous Wayuu people in northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia on the Guajira Peninsula. Wayuu is one of the major Arawakan languages, there are minimal differences depending on the region of La Guajira in which speakers live. Most of the younger generations speak Spanish fluently, the extinct Guanebucan language may actually have been a dialect of Wayuu. Less than 1% of Wayuu speakers are literate in Wayuu while 5 to 15% are literate in Spanish, there are 200,000 speakers in Venezuela and 120,000 in Colombia. Smith reports that a mixed Guajiro-Spanish language is replacing Wayuu in both countries, however, Campbell could find no information on this. Vowels Note, e and o are more open than in English, a is slightly front of central, and ü is slightly back of central. Consonants l is a lateral flap pronounced with the tongue just behind the position for the Spanish r, and with a more lateral airflow
35.
Papillon (book)
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Papillon is an autobiography written by Henri Charrière, first published in France on 30 April 1969. Papillon is Charrières nickname, deriving from a tattoo inscribed on his chest. The novel details Papillons incarceration and subsequent escape from the French penal colony of French Guiana, the book was an immediate sensation, and instant bestseller, achieving widespread fame and critical acclaim, and is considered a modern-day classic. Upon publication it spent 21 weeks as number 1 bestseller in France,239 editions of the book have since been published worldwide, in 21 different languages. First published in France by Robert Laffont in 1969, it was first published in Great Britain by Rupert Hart-Davis in 1970, the book was adapted for a Hollywood film of the same name in 1973, starring Steve McQueen and Dustin Hoffman. Charrière also published a sequel to Papillon, called Banco, in 1973, Papillon has been described as The greatest adventure story of all time and A modern classic of courage and excitement. As of August 2016, Goodread average book ratings gave Papillon an average rating of 4. Charrière reportedly had a reputation as a storyteller, and critics have suggested that Papillon is more about a fictional character than the author. Charrière always said his account was true, and that he told the story to a professional writer, the publisher, Robert Laffont, in a late interview before his death, said that the work had been submitted to him as a novel. Laffont specialised in publishing true adventures, and he persuaded Charrière to release the book as an autobiography. Dry Guillotine, written by René Belbenoît, was published in 1938, and was also an account of Belbenoîts incarceration on, and escape from. The most notable similarities between these books were, Both authors described similar encounters with Goajira Indians, Belbenoît and Charrière both stated that they had, whilst escaping the French penal colony, met and lived with tribes of Goajira Indians who lived on the Guajira Peninsula. Both also stated they had taken Indian wives during these periods, Both authors also related a story about a group of escapees who had turned to cannibalism to survive. Belbenoît and Charrière also related their experiences within solitary confinement slightly differently, having questioned the accuracy of Papillon as an autobiography, there are a number of facts which are not in question, which do validate Charrières novel. These include, That French Guiana operated as a colony from 1852 until 1946. Those transported there ranged from political detainees to convicts of crimes like murder, rape, robbery, anyone receiving a sentence of more than eight years was exiled from France for life. That conditions at the colony were extremely severe - Forty per cent of new arrivals to the colony perished within the first year. Of the 80,000 or so who were transported during the colonys 94-year existence, Most were killed by the merciless nature of the forced labour, the poor diet and lack of protection from the myriad diseases rampant in the unfamiliar tropical environment
36.
Pearl
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A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as a conulariid. Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate. in minute crystalline form, the ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes, known as baroque pearls, can occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been valued as gemstones. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare, fine, the most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild, but are extremely rare. These wild pearls are referred to as natural pearls, cultured or farmed pearls from pearl oysters and freshwater mussels make up the majority of those currently sold. Imitation pearls are widely sold in inexpensive jewelry, but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor and is easily distinguished from that of genuine pearls. Pearls have been harvested and cultivated primarily for use in jewelry and they have also been crushed and used in cosmetics, medicines and paint formulations. Whether wild or cultured, gem-quality pearls are almost always nacreous and iridescent, however, almost all species of shelled mollusks are capable of producing pearls of lesser shine or less spherical shape. The English word pearl comes from the French perle, originally from the Latin perna meaning leg, nacreous pearls, the best-known and most commercially significant, are primarily produced by two groups of molluskan bivalves or clams. A nacreous pearl is made from layers of nacre, by the same living process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell, natural pearls, formed without human intervention, are very rare. Cultured pearls are formed in pearl farms, using human intervention as well as natural processes, saltwater pearls can grow in several species of marine pearl oysters in the family Pteriidae. Freshwater pearls grow within certain species of mussels in the order Unionida. The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction, the thinner and more numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, in addition, pearls can be dyed yellow, green, blue, brown, pink, purple, or black. The very best pearls have a metallic mirror-like luster, because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate, they can be dissolved in vinegar. Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acid in the vinegar to form calcium acetate. Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar, but they come from different sources, Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels, family Unionidae, which live in lakes, rivers, ponds and other bodies of fresh water. These freshwater pearl mussels occur not only in hotter climates, most freshwater cultured pearls sold today come from China
37.
Turtle
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Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs and acting as a shield. Turtle may refer to the order as a whole or to fresh-water, the order Testudines includes both extant and extinct species. The earliest known members of this date from 157 million years ago, making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups. Of the 327 known species alive today, some are highly endangered, turtles are ectotherms—animals commonly called cold-blooded—meaning that their internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment. However, because of their metabolic rate, leatherback sea turtles have a body temperature that is noticeably higher than that of the surrounding water. Turtles are classified as amniotes, along with reptiles, birds. Like other amniotes, turtles breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, Chelonia is based on the Greek word χελώνη chelone tortoise, turtle, also denoting armor or interlocking shields, testudines, on the other hand, is based on the Latin word testudo tortoise. Turtle may either refer to the order as a whole, or to particular turtles that make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic, the meaning of the word turtle differs from region to region. In North America, all chelonians are commonly called turtles, including terrapins, in Great Britain, the word turtle is used for sea-dwelling species, but not for tortoises. The term tortoise usually refers to any land-dwelling, non-swimming chelonian, most land-dwelling chelonians are in the Testudinidae family, only one of the 14 extant turtle families. Terrapin is used to describe several species of small, edible, hard-shell turtles, typically found in brackish waters. Some languages do not have this distinction, as all of these are referred to by the same name, for example, in Spanish, the word tortuga is used for turtles, tortoises, and terrapins. A sea-dwelling turtle is tortuga marina, a freshwater species tortuga de río, the largest living chelonian is the leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm and can reach a weight of over 900 kg. Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported up to 200 cm. This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America and they became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galápagos Islands and can grow to over 130 cm in length, the largest ever chelonian was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have been up to 4.6 m long. The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa and it measures no more than 8 cm in length and weighs about 140 g. Two other species of turtles are the American mud turtles
38.
Iguana
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Iguana is a genus of omnivorous lizards native to tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The genus was first described in 1768 by Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in his book Specimen Medicum, the word iguana is derived from the original Taino name for the species, iwana. In addition to the two species in the genus Iguana, several related genera in the same family have common names of the species including the word iguana. Iguanas can range from 1.5 to 1.8 metres in length, the two species of lizard within the genus Iguana possess a dewlap, a row of spines running down their backs to their tails, and a tiny third eye on their heads. This light-sensing organ is known as the eye, visible as a pale scale on the top of the head. Behind their necks are small scales which resemble spokes, known as tuberculate scales and these scales may be a variety of colors and are not always visible from close distances. They have a large scale on their cheeks known as a subtympanic shield. Iguanas have keen vision and can see shapes, shadows, colors and their visual acuity enables them to navigate through crowded forests and to locate food. They employ visual signals to communicate with members of the same species. The tympanum, the eardrum, is located above the subtympanic shield behind each eye. Iguanas are often hard to spot, as they tend to blend into their surroundings, male iguanas, like other male examples of Squamata, have two hemipenes. Etheridge A Phylogenetic Analysis and Taxonomy of Iguanian Lizards, R. Etheridge, D. Janies and T. A. Titus Total evidence, sequence alignment, evolution of Polychrotid lizards, and a reclassification of the Iguania. American Museum Novitates 3343,38 pp
39.
Loincloth
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A loincloth is a one-piece garment, sometimes kept in place by a belt. It covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks, the loincloth, or breechcloth, is a basic form of dress, often worn as the only garment. Men have worn a loincloth as a piece of clothing which covers their genitals, not the buttocks. The loincloth is in essence a piece of material, bark-bast, leather, or cloth, despite its functional simplicity, the loincloth comes in many different forms. A breechcloth, or breechclout, consists of a strip of material passed between the thighs and secured by a belt, a loincloth is a long piece of cloth, passed between the thighs and wound around the waist. Breechcloths and loincloths are garments of dignity among those who wear them. The styles in which breechcloths and loincloths can be arranged are myriad, both the Bornean sirat and the Indian dhoti have fabric pass between the legs to support a mans genitals. A similar style of loincloth was also characteristic of ancient Meso-America, the male inhabitants of the area of modern Mexico wore a wound loincloth of woven fabric. One end of the loincloth was held up, the remainder passed between the thighs, wound about the waist, and secured in back by tucking. In Pre-Columbian South America, ancient Inca men wore a strip of cloth between their legs held up by strings or tape as a belt, the cloth was secured to the tapes at the back and the front portion hung in front as an apron, always well ornamented. The same garment, mostly in plain cotton but whose aprons are now, like T-shirts, some of the culturally diverse Amazonian Indians still wear an ancestral type of loincloth. Japanese men wore until recently a loincloth known as a fundoshi, the fundoshi is a 35 cm wide piece of fabric passed between the thighs and secured to cover the genitals. A breechcloth, or breechclout, is a form of loincloth consisting in a strip of material – usually a narrow rectangle – passed between the thighs and held up in front and behind by a belt or string, often, the flaps hang down in front and back. In most Native American tribes, men used to some form of breechcloth. The style differed from tribe to tribe, in many tribes, the flaps hung down in front and back, in others, the breechcloth looped outside the belt and was tucked into the inside, for a more fitted look. Sometimes, the breechcloth was much shorter and a decorated apron panel was attached in front, a Native American woman or teenage girl might also wear a fitted breechcloth underneath her skirt, but not as outerwear. However, in many young girls did wear breechcloths like the boys until they became old enough for skirts. Among the Mohave people of the American Southwest, a given to a young female symbolically recognizes her status as hwame
40.
Bolivarian Navy of Venezuela
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The Navy of Venezuela is officially called the Bolivarian Navy of Venezuela. The Navy was born as a defense force during the beginning of the Venezuelan War of Independence. Col. Antonio Mendoza from the Venezuelan Army was its first commanding general, for long time their vessels, even if obsolete, were maintained properly by its sailors. In 1937 the Navy acquired from Italy two gunboats of the Azio class and rechristened them General Soublette and General Urdaneta, these ships retained in service until 1951. This action represented the first major Russian power projection in that region since the end of the Cold War, the fleet of ships, headed by the nuclear-powered Pyotr Velikiy, set off from its base at Severomorsk in the Arctic on Monday, September 22. The other ships included a tug boat and supply ships, as of 2016, Admiral Orlando Miguel Maneiro Gaspar is the Commanding General of the National Navy. The Naval Operations Command is commanded by the Chief of Naval Operations and this command is aimed towards the defense of the territorial maritime and inland waters and the coastline of the nation, and by extension into its ground and air territories. The command serves as the air arm of the Venezuelan Navy, with responsibity for air operations, headquartered in La Guaira, Vargas, it is responsible for the surveillance of Venezuelas jurisdictional waters. The following was the roster of active duty vessels and ships of the Venezuelan Navy as of October 2001. PC-21 Guaiquerí, in service PC-22 Warao, to be repaired after grounding off Fortaleza, Brazil in August 2012 PC-23 Yekuana, in service PC-24 Kariña, t-61 Capana, into service 1983, as of 2001. T-64 Los Llanos, into service 1983, as of 2001, Four Los Frailes-class LST One Ciudad Bolívar-class supply ship. T-81 Ciudad Bolívar, in service since 09-23-2001 One Bricbarc type/Simón Bolívar training sailboat, gC-21 Guaicamacuto, in service GC-22 Yavire, in service GC-23 Naiguata, in service GC-24 Tamanaco, completed in Venezuela 2014 Four USCG Point-class patrol boats, as of 2006. Damen Stan 2600 vessels, built in Venezuela, similar to the United States Coast Guards Marine Protector class, One already in service,1 completed,5 more to be built Note, The Navy has others two or three light aircraft. Sitio oficial del Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Defensa de Venezuela Sitio oficial de la Armada Bolivariana de Venezuela
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "article name needed". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton. [1]
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